Module 5 : Special Motors

Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) Drives for EV / HEVs

SRM is a doubly salient and singly excited motor which is a suitable for variable-speed motor
drives due to its low cost, rugged structure, reliable converter topology, high efficiency over a
wide speed range, and simplicity in control. The SRM is capable of high-speed operation
without any mechanical failures which result from high-level centrifugal force.
SRM Drive (SRD) System for consists of the SRM, power inverter, sensors such as
voltage, current, and position sensors, and control circuitry such as the DSP controller and its
peripherals, as shown below:

Construction of SRM: The SRM has salient poles on both the stator and the rotor. It has concentrated
windings on stator and no winding or PM on the rotor. The configuration of SRM depends on the
number and size of rotor and stator poles and a 6/4 SRM is shown below.

Number of Phases in a SRM is defined as ratio of Ps and (Ps - Pr) as follows:

Ps 6
m  3
Ps  Pr 6  4
where
Ps = Number of Stator Poles
Pr = Number of Rotor Poles
The number of stator poles and rotor poles can be expressed as
Ps = 2 k m
Pr = k (2m ± 2) = Ps ± 2 k
In this analysis, let k = multiple of the basic combination of stator and rotor poles = 1

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Working Principle : 6/4 SRM and its supply arrangement is shown below:

The switching pulses applied to switches S1 to S6 is shown below:

When a stator phase is magnetized, a closed magnetic field is generated between the stator, the air gap
and the rotor. This magnetic field tends to minimize the reluctance by reducing the air gap which
creates a rotor movement. When a stator pole is aligned with a rotor pole, it is said that they are in the
position of minimum reluctance, and when they are completely unaligned, it is said they are in the
position of maximum reluctance. This characteristic of the motor makes it possible to create a
rotational movement of the rotor by magnetizing and demagnetizing each phase in the right position of
the rotor.
Performance Characteristics of SRM : Some of the characteristics of SRM motor are listed below,
a) Synchronous operation.
b) Low-cost motor due to simple and magnet-free construction.
c) Rugged structure, reliable converter topology, high efficiency
d) More suitable for high-speed/power density applications.
The SRM with full-pitched winding (FCSRM) produces torque based on the rate of change of the self-
inductance is expressed as

where

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 Mab, Mbc and Mca are the mutual-inductance between two phases
Ia, ib and ic are current through the phases a, b and c respectively
The output torque of an SRM is the summation of the torque in all phases

The relation between the motor torque and the mechanical load is usually given by

where
J, B, and TL are the moment of inertia, viscous friction, and load torque, respectively.
The relation between position and speed is given by

Applications of SRM : Some of the applications of switched reluctance motor are as follows :
a) Used as adjustable-speed drives and general-purpose industrial drives
b) Application-specific drives like Compressors, Fans, Pumps, Centrifuges;
c) Domestic drives like Food Processors, Washing Machines, Vacuum Cleaners;
d) Electric vehicles application;
e) Aircraft applications;
f) Servo-drives.
Advantages of SRM : Several advantages of reluctance motor are listed below,
a) It does not require an external ventilation system as the stator and rotor slots projected. The
airflow maintained between the slots.
b) The rotor does not have winding since therefore no need to keep the carbon brush and slip ring
assembly.
c) Since the absence of a permanent magnet, such motors are available at a cheaper price.
d) A simple three or two-phase pulse generator is enough to drive the motor.
e) The direction of the motor can be reversed by changing the phase sequence.
f) Self-starting and does not require external arrangements.
g) Starting torque can be very high without excessive inrush currents.
h) High Fault Tolerance.
i) Phase losses do not affect motor operations.
j) High torque/inertia ratio.
k) High starting torque can be achieved.
Disadvantages of Switched reluctance motor : Several disadvantages of switched reluctance
motor are listed below,
a) Creates Torque ripple at high-speed operation.
b) The external rotor position sensor is required.
c) Noise level is high.

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 d) At a higher speed, the motor generates harmonics, to reduce this, we need to install larger size
capacitors.
e) Since the absence of a Permanent Magnet, the motor has to designed to carry a high input
current. It increases the converter KVA requirement.

Comparison between BLDC Motor and PMSM Motor: The following are the
differences between BLDC Motor and PMSM Motor
Contents BLDC Motor PMSM Motor
Full form Brushless DC Motor Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motor
Definition It is an electronically It is an AC Synchronous Motor which
commutated DC Motor uses permanent magnets for field
which does not have excitation
commutator and Brushes
Type of Motor It’s a type of DC Motor It’s a type of AC Motor
Shape of the back EMF Trapezoidal Sinusoidal
Torque produced Comparatively Lower Comparatively Higher
Efficiency Lower around 85 to 90 % Higher around 90 to 95 %
Switching Losses Less High
Core losses due to High Less
harmonics
Torque ripple It is present during No such problem
commutation
Control algorithm Simple Complex
Cost Low High
Applications Used in Hard Drives, Used in Servo Drives, Traction
CD/VCD Drives, Washing Control, Robotics, Aero Space, p.f
Machines, Fans, Pumps, improvement, machine tools etc.,
Robotics etc.,

Brushless DC (BLDC)Motor
A Brush Less DC (BLDC) Motor is a highly efficient and powerful motor used in various industries and
domestic applications due to its accurate control and high efficiency. It is powered by DC supply and
does not have brushes or a commutator. The block diagram of BLDC Motor with its speed control
arrangement is shown below.

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Construction of BLDC Motors: A brushless DC Motor is a type of synchronous motor in which
the magnetic field generated by the stator and the rotor revolves at the same frequency as that of stator.
It has the following main parts:
a) Stator
b) Rotor
c) Position Sensors
a) Stator: The stator of a BLDC motor is similar to that of induction motor. The stator is built of steel
laminations that are stacked together with slots for winding, which are axially cut. Most BLDC
motors consist of three stator windings that are connected in a star or ‘Y’ arrangement. The Number
of poles on stator ‘Ps’ is expressed as follows:
Ps = 3 ×Number of Coil Groups
b) Rotor: The rotor of a BLDC motor consists of permanent magnets (Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) or
Neodymium (Nd) or alloy of Neodymium or Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB) etc.,). The selection of
number of poles depends on the applications of the motor. The Number of poles on rotor Pr is
expressed as follows:
Pr = 3 ×Number of Pole Pairs, Pole Pairs = 1,2,3,…, One Pole Pair = 2 Poles,
c) Position Sensors (Hall Sensors) : A Position Sensor or a Hall Sensor is a sensor that works on the
principle of the Hall Effect. Its function is to detect the position of the rotor and transform it into an
electrical signal. These sensors are embedded into the stator to detect the rotor’s position. Usually,
three Hall sensors are required in a BLDC motor.
The BLDC motors are commutated electronically, the windings of the stator must be energised
in a sequence, and the position of the rotor must be known to precisely energise a particular set of
stator windings to rotate the motor.
Working Principle of operation: The BLDC motor controller consists of a BLDC Motor, digital
signal processor (DSP)-based controller, and a power-electronics-based power converter, as shown
below.

When stator windings are energised in a specific sequence, it creates a rotating magnetic field.
This rotating magnetic field interacts with a permanent magnet in the rotor and causes the rotor to

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rotate and enabling the BLDC motor to produce mechanical power. This interaction, where the rotor
aligns with the stator's rotating magnetic field, is the basis of torque generation in BLDC motors.

The speed and torque of the brushless DC motor can be controlled by adjusting the time and
duration of the power supply with the help of a controller. After detecting the position of the rotor by
Hall Effect sensor, it energises the stator winding in a particular sequence. This feedback system
ensures precise commutation and smooth operation. As the motor spins, it generates back EMF
(Electromotive Force), which is used in a sensorless control system to determine rotor position and
enhance efficiency. The voltage induces in three phases are shown in the figure below. The controller
also adjusts the current and voltage of the BLDC motor to ensure the motor rotates at a constant speed
and torque even under varying load conditions.

Permanent Magnet Materials used in BLDC Motors: There are three classes of PMs currently
used for electric motors:
1. Alnicos (Al, Ni, Co, Fe).
2. Ceramics (ferrites), for example, barium ferrite (BaO × 6Fe2O3) and strontium ferrite (SrO ×
6Fe2O3).
3. Rare-earth materials, that is, samarium–cobalt (SmCo) and neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB).

Performance Characteristics of BLDC Motors: Several performance characteristics of

BLDC Motors are as follows.
a) Efficiency & Power Density: Higher efficiency around 85% to 90% due to use of permanent
magnets, lesser heat generation and provide a high torque-to-weight ratio.
b) Torque-Speed Relationship is highly linear
c) Dynamic Control of speed, acceleration, and position
d) Lifespan & Maintenance is less due to absence of brushes and commutator
e) Noise Levels are very less compared to brushed motors
f) Permits Regenerative Braking which helps to recover kinetic energy during braking in EVs

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Applications of BLDC Motors: Brushless DC (BLDC) motors are used where high efficiency, precise
speed and torque control, low maintenance, and long lifespans are required. Some of its applications are
as follows:
1 Home Appliances: Ceiling fans, washing machines, air conditioners, and vacuum cleaners.
2 Electric Vehicles: E-bikes, electric scooters, and propulsion systems in electric vehicles (EVs).
3 Drones & Radio Controlled (RC) Vehicles: RC planes, helicopters, and quadcopters.
4 Industrial Automation: Robotic arms, Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools, and
conveyor belt drives.
5 Consumer Electronics: Personal Computer (PC) cooling fans and Computer Hard Disk Drives
(HDDs).
6 Medical Equipments: Pumps, Ventilators, and Surgical tools.
7 Power Tools: Cordless Drilling Machines, Saws, and Screw-Drivers
Advantages of a BLDC Motor : Several advantages of BLDC motor are as follows:
a) High efficiency due to the use of PMs for excitation, which consume no power, absence of
commutators and brushes and its losses.
b) Compactness due to small size and light in weight
c) Ease of control as control variables are easily accessible and constant throughout the operation
of the motor.
d) Ease of cooling due to absence of current circulation in the rotor and hence BLDC motor does
not heat up.
e) Low maintenance, great longevity, and reliability
f) Low noise emissions due to electronic control
Disadvantages of a BLDC Motor: BLDC motor drives also suffer from some disadvantages as
follows:
a) Cost of PM is more
b) Limited constant power range
c) Safety as Large rare-earth PMs are dangerous which may attract metallic objects.
d) Magnet demagnetization due to large opposing mmf’s and high temperatures
e) High-speed capability is limited due to less mechanical strength of the assembly between the
rotor yoke and the PMs.
f) Inverter failures in BLDC motor drives due to short circuits in control.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)

PMSM is a type of AC synchronous motors, where the field is excited by permanent magnets that
generate sinusoidal back EMF. It is also known as a 3-phase brushless permanent sine wave motor.

Construction of PMSM : It consists of a rotor and stator same as that of an induction motor, but
a permanent magnet is used as a rotor to create a magnetic field. The most widely used permanent
magnet is neodymium-boron-iron because of its effective cost and ease of availability.
Based on the mounting of the permanent magnet on the rotor, the construction of a permanent
magnet synchronous motor is classified into two types as follows,

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a) Surface Mounted PMSM : In this type of construction, the magnet is mounted on the surface of the
rotor. It provides a uniform air gap because the permeability of the permanent magnet and the air
gap is the same. It is not suitable for high-speed applications and used in low speed drives, machine
tools, material handling and conveyors etc.,
b) Interior PMSM or Buried PMSM: In this type of construction, the permanent magnet is embedded
into the rotor. It has salient rotor poles and provides a non-uniform air gap. It is suitable for high-
speed applications like EVs and HEVs, Industrial Robotics and CNC Machines, Renewable Energy
Systems etc,.

Working Principle of PMSM: The working of PMSM depends on the rotating magnetic field of
the stator and the constant magnetic field of the rotor. The basic structure of PMSM is shown below.

The permanent magnets are used as the rotor to create constant magnetic flux, operates and locks at
synchronous speed. These types of motors are similar to brushless DC motors.
The phasor groups are Star or Delta connected by joining the windings of the stator with one
another. When the 3-phase AC supply is given to the stator, it creates a rotating magnetic field and the
constant magnetic field is induced due to the permanent magnet of the rotor. This rotor operates in
synchronism with the synchronous speed.
The permanent magnet synchronous motors are not self-starting motors. So, it is necessary to
control the variable frequency of the stator electronically.

Performance Characteristics of PMSM : The various characteristics of PMSMs are as

follows :
a) High efficiency: With no rotor copper losses, PMSMs can exceed 95% efficiency, especially under
partial-load conditions.
b) High power density: Strong permanent magnets allow high torque per unit volume, enabling
compact and lightweight designs.

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 c) Precise speed and torque control: Advanced control algorithms deliver smooth torque and
stable low-speed performance.
d) Low noise and vibration: Absence of rotor currents reduces mechanical vibration and
electromagnetic noise.

Advantages of PMSM: Some of the advantages of PMSM are as follows.

a) High Efficiency & Power Density due to absence of rotor windings and zero rotor copper losses
b) Precise Control as rotor locks perfectly in sync with the stator's magnetic field which permit
PMSMs for accurate speed and torque control
c) Low Maintenance due to absence of brushes and slip rings. This results in reduced mechanical
wear, lesser maintenance requirements which provides a longer operational lifespan.
d) Excellent Low-Speed Performance due to high starting torque and steady with quiet operation
and no vibration issues

Disadvantages of PMSM: Several disadvantages of PMSM are as follows.

a) Higher Initial Cost due to use of permanent magnets
b) Demagnetization Risks of rotor magnets leading to performance degradation. [1, 2]
c) Complex Drive Requirements due to need of sophisticated electronic inverters and advanced
control algorithms to operate optimally
d) Difficulty Flux Control due to fixed magnetic field of a permanent magnets

Applications of PMSMs: Several applications of PMSMs are as follows :

1 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles due to high torque at low speeds, efficient regenerative braking,
and wide-speed operations
2 Industrial Automation and Motion Control like Positioning Systems, Servo Drives, CNC
Machines, Robotic Arms, and positioning systems due to fast response, smooth torque, and
precise speed control.
3 HVAC and Refrigeration systems like Compressors, Fans, Pumps due to variable-speed control,
reduced energy consumption and noise.
4 Renewable Energy Systems like a wind turbines drive due to high efficiency and low
maintenance. The PMSMs eliminates need of gearbox which maximizes energy capture from
variable wind conditions.
5 Consumer Appliances like Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Refrigerators due to high
efficiency, smooth operation, and compactness.
6 Medical and Laboratory Equipment’s like Surgical Robots, Blood Pumps, Medical Scanners,
Imaging Systems, Respiratory and ventilator devices etc.

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