Al-Mustansiriyah University Fourth Grade

College of Science Nuclear Physics

Physics Department Dr. Ali A. Ridha

Chapter Six
(Nuclear Reactions)

A large fraction of our knowledge on the properties of nuclei is derived from

nuclear reactions. When an incoming particle is scattered off a target nucleus, the
outcome depends on a combination of three factors: the reaction mechanism,
interaction between the projectile and the target, and the internal structure of the
nuclei involved. There are two main categories of nuclear reactions. In the first
category, the initial reactant X is a single atom or nucleus that spontaneously changes
by emitting one or more particles, i.e.
X→b+Y
Such a reaction is called radioactive decay. As we have seen from the Chart of
the Nuclides, the vast majority of known nuclides are radioactive.
In the second broad category of nuclear reactions are binary reactions in which
two nuclear particles (nucleons, nuclei or photons) interact to form different nuclear
particles.
For bombarding energies below 100 MeV, nuclear reactions usually produce
two products, i.e. they are of the type
a+X→b+Y
Where a = bombarding particle
X = target (at rest in the lab. system)
b = light reaction product
Y = heavy reaction product

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To shorten the notation a reaction of the type above is designated by:
X(a,b)Y
Commonly, one reaction product is light and the other heavy because of the
binding energies of the nuclei involved. In some cases b and Y have comparable
masses (spallation reaction or fission), or are identical. If b is a gamma ray, we speak
of a capture reaction in which Y is the compound nucleus.
In most cases in which more than two products appear, it is possible to
describe the process as a rapid sequence of two-product reactions
a+X→b1+Y1
Y1→b2+Y2
Y2→b3+Y3
For example, see the reaction: 4He + 14N → 1H + 17O
Note that the number of neutrons and protons is conserved. Presently the
number of known reactions is in the thousands.
There are two frames to classify the nuclear reactions, consider an elastic
collision with a nucleus of mass M. In the lab frame, the nucleus is initially at rest
and the particle has energy Eo and momentum mvo. After the scattering, energy of the
particle is E1, speed v1 at an angle ϕ with vo, while the nucleus recoil gives a
momentum MV at an angle ψ.
The collision is better analyzed in the center of mass frame, where the
condition of elastic scattering implies that the relative velocities only change their
direction but not their magnitude. The center of mass velocity is defined as
⃑⃑𝑜
𝑚𝑣⃑𝑜 + 𝑀𝑉 𝑚
𝑣⃑𝐶.𝑀. = = 𝑣⃑
𝑚+𝑀 𝑚+𝑀 𝑜
Relative velocities in the center of mass frame are defined as
𝑢
⃑⃑ = 𝑣⃑ − 𝑣⃑𝐶.𝑀.
where we defined ϑ as the scattering angle in the center of mass frame, see the figures
below:

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 Figure (6-1): Neutron scattering from a nucleus. In left, laboratory frame, in right,
center of mass frame.

Types of Nuclear Reactions:

Depending on the circumstances, it is convenient to classify nuclear reactions
by the type of bombarding particle, bombarding energy, target, or reaction product. In
the first case we distinguish:
Charged-particle reactions, produced by p, d, α, 12C, 16O ...
(p = proton, d = deuteron, α = alpha particle; the last two reactions are called
heavy-ion reactions)
Neutron reactions
Photonuclear reactions, produced by gamma rays
Electron-induced reactions
If the bombarding energy is specified we speak informally of
Thermal energies ≈ 1/40 eV
Epithermal energies ≈ 1 eV
Slow-neutron energies ≈ 1 KeV
Fast-neutron energies ≈ 0.1 → 10 MeV
Low-energy charged particles ≈ 0.1 → 10 MeV
High energies ≈ 10 → 100 MeV
Targets are often called
Light nuclei, if A ≤ 40
Medium-weight nuclei, if 40 < A < 150
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 Heavy nuclei, if A ≥ 150
If the light reaction product is identical to the incident particle and has identical
energy (in the c.m. system), the reaction is called elastic scattering. If only the energy
is different, inelastic scattering occurs. If only gamma rays are emitted, we speak of a
capture reaction. If the product nuclei have comparable masses, the reaction is called
spallation or fission.
As an illustration, we give the following examples in the shorthand notation
14
N(p,p)14N proton elastic scattering
14
N(p,p)14N* proton inelastic scattering
14
N(p,α)11C or 11C* (p,α) reaction
14
N(p,γ)15O or 15O* proton-capture reaction
14
N(γ,p)13C or 13C* photonuclear reaction
14
N(n,6Li)9Be or 9Be* spallation reaction
9
Be(6Li,n)14N or 14N* heavy-ion reaction

Conservation laws:
These may be listed as follows.
(i) Conservation of linear momentum, ∑𝑃⃑⃑𝑖 = ∑𝑃⃑⃑𝑓
(ii) Conservation of total angular momentum i.e.

∑ 𝐽⃑𝑖 + 𝐽⃑𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝑖 = ∑ 𝐽⃑𝑓 + 𝐽⃑𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝑓

Where 𝐽⃑𝑖 , 𝐽⃑𝑓 denote the angular momenta in the initial and final nuclei and 𝐽⃑𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝑖 , 𝐽⃑𝑟𝑒𝑙.𝑓
denote the relative angular momenta in the entrance (X,a) and final (Y,b) channels.
(iii) Conservation of proton (charge) and neutron number is not a strict conservation
law. Under general conditions, one has conservation of charge and conservation of
nucleon or baryon (strongly interacting particles) number.
(iv) Conservation of parity, π, such that
𝜋𝑋 . 𝜋𝑎 . 𝜋(𝑋,𝑎) = 𝜋𝑌 . 𝜋𝑏 . 𝜋(𝑌,𝑏)

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Where the parities of the initial and final nuclei and projectiles (incoming, outgoing)
are considered.

(v) Conservation of total energy, which becomes

𝑇𝑋 + 𝑚𝑋 . 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑚𝑎 . 𝑐 2 = 𝑇𝑌 + 𝑚𝑌 . 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑚𝑏 . 𝑐 2
With T the kinetic energy and m.c2 the mass energy, in the non-relativistic situation,
1
the kinetic energy T = m𝑣 2 . One defines the Q-value of a given reaction as
2

𝑄 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑐 2 − ∑ 𝑚𝑓 𝑐 2 = (𝑚𝑋 + 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚𝑌 − 𝑚𝑏 )𝑐 2

which can be rewritten using the kinetic energies as:

𝑄 = ∑ 𝑇𝑓 − ∑ 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑌 + 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑋 − 𝑇𝑎

Examples of Binary Nuclear Reactions:

For every nuclear reaction, we can write a reaction equation. These reaction
equations must be balanced, just as chemical reactions must be. Charge (the number
of protons) and mass number (the number of nucleons) must be conserved. The
number of protons and the number of neutrons must be the same before and after the
reaction. We shall illustrate this with some examples of typical nuclear reactions.
1- (α,p) reaction: The first nuclear reaction was reported by Rutherford. He
bombarded nitrogen in air with alpha particles (helium nuclei) and observed
the production of protons (hydrogen nuclei),
14
N + 4He → 17O + 1H or 14N(α,p)17O
The product of this reaction is 17O and there are nine protons and nine neutrons
on both sides of the equation, so the equation is balanced.
2- (α,n) reaction: In 1932, Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding
beryllium with alpha particles to produce neutrons from the reaction
4
He + 5Be → 8C + n or 5Be(α,n)8C.

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 3- (γ,n) reaction: Energetic photons (gamma rays) can also interact with a
nucleus. For example neutrons can be produced by irradiating deuterium with
sufficiently energetic photons according to the reaction
2
H + γ → 1H + n or 2H(γ,n)1H
4- (p,γ) reaction: Protons can cause nuclear reactions such as the radiative capture
of a proton by 7Li, namely
7
Li + 1H → 8Be + γ or 7Li(p,γ)8Be*
The product nucleus 8Be is not bound and breaks up (radioactively decays)
almost immediately into two alpha particles.
5- (γ,αn) reaction: As an example of a reaction in which more than two products
are produced, a high-energy photon can cause 17O to split into 12C, an α particle
and a neutron through the reaction
17
O + γ → 12C + α + n
6- (n,p) reaction: Fast neutrons can cause a variety of nuclear reactions. For
16
example, in a reactor core, fast neutrons can interact with O to produce 16N,
which radioactively decays (half-life of 7.12s) with the emission of a 6.13MeV
16
(69%) or a 7.11MeV (5%) photon. The radionuclide N is produced by the
reaction
16
O + n → 16N + 1H or 16O(n,p)16N*.
7- Proton-Proton Cycle
𝑝 + 𝑝 → 𝑑 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈 ⟹ 𝑝 + 𝑑 ⟶ 32𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾 ⟹ 32𝐻𝑒 + 32𝐻𝑒 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝑝 + 𝑝
i.e. the result of three interactions: 4𝑝 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 2𝑒 + + 2𝜈 + 𝛾 , Q=24.7MeV
8- Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle
13 13 13
𝑝 + 126𝐶 → 7𝑁 +𝛾 ⟹ 7𝑁 ⟶ 6𝐶 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈 ⟹ 𝑝 + 136𝐶 ⟶ 14
7𝑁 +𝛾
15 15 15
⟹ 𝑝 + 147𝑁 ⟶ 6𝐶 +𝛾 ⟹ 6𝐶 ⟶ 7𝑁 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈 ⟹ 𝑝 + 157𝑁 ⟶ 12
6𝐶 + 42𝐻𝑒
By reduce the Carbon and Nitrogen, Which worked as catalysts we get:
4𝑝 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 2𝑒 + + 2𝜈 + 𝛾, Q=26.7MeV
9- Deuterium-Deuterium and Deuterium-Tritium interactions:

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 2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 ⟶ 31𝐻 + 11𝐻 + 4.03𝑀𝑒𝑉
2
1𝐻 + 31𝐻 ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝑛 + 17.6𝑀𝑒𝑉

Definitions:
1- Stopping power: A more important quantity is the average energy loss of the
particle per unit path length, which is called the stopping power.
2- Range: The range is more precisely defined as the distance a particle travels
before coming to rest.

Figure (6-2): Bragg curve for protons (distance in mm)

3- Cross Section:
Classically, the cross section is the area on which a colliding projectile can
impact. Thus for example the cross section of a spherical target of radius r is just
given by πr2. The cross section has then units of an area. Let’s consider for example
a nucleus with mass number A. The radius of the nucleus is then
R=RoA1/3=1.2A1/3fm and the classical cross section would be σ = πRo2A2/3 ≈
5A2/3fm2. For a typical heavy nucleus, such as gold, A = 197, we have σ ≈
100fm2=1barn (symbol b, 1b = 10−28m2= 10−24cm2= 100fm2. When scattering a
particle off a target however, what becomes important is not the head-on collision
(as between balls) but the interaction between the particle and the target (e.g.
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 Coulomb, nuclear interaction, weak interaction etc.). For macroscopic objects the
details of these interactions are lumped together and hidden. For single particles this
is not the case, and for example we can as well have a collision even if the distance
between projectile and target is larger than the target radius. Thus the cross section
takes on a different meaning and it is now defined as the effective area or more
precisely as a measure of the probability of a collision. Even in the classical
analogy, it is easy to see why the cross section has this statistical meaning, since in a
collision there is a certain (probabilistic) distribution of the impact distance. The
cross section also describes the probability of a given (nuclear) reaction to occur, are
action that can be generally written as:
a+X→Y+b or X(a,b)Y
where X is an heavy target and (a) a small projectile (such as a neutron, proton,
alpha...) while Y and b are the reaction products (again with b being nucleons or
light nucleus, or in some cases a gamma ray). Then let Ia be the current of incoming
particles, hitting on an heavy (hence stationary) target. The heavy product Y will
also be almost stationary and only (b) will escape the material and be measured.
Thus we will observe the (b) products arriving at a detector at a rate Rb. If there are
(n) target nuclei per unit area, the cross section can then be written as:
Rb
σ=
Ia n
This quantity does not always agree with the estimated cross section based on
the nucleus radius. For example, proton scattering x-section can be higher than
neutrons, because of the Coulomb interaction. Neutrinos x-section then will be even
smaller, because they only interact via the weak interaction.

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