Al-Mustansiriyah University Fourth Grade

College of Science Nuclear Physics

Physics Department Dr. Ali A. Ridha

Chapter Five
(Radioactivity)

Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable nucleus spontaneously

loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation. This decay, or loss of
energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parent nuclide, transforming to an
atom of a different type, named the daughter nuclide. The three principal modes of
decay are called the alpha, beta and gamma decays.
The radioactive decay is statistical in nature, and we can only describe the
evolution of the expectation values of quantities of interest, for example the number
of atoms that decay per unit time. If we observe a single unstable nucleus, we cannot
know when it will decay to its daughter nuclide. The time at which the decay happens
is random, thus at each instant we can have the parent nuclide with some probability
p and the daughter with probability 1-p. This process can only be described in terms
of the quantum mechanical evolution of the nucleus. However, if we look at an
ensemble of nuclei, we can predict at each instant the average number of parent and
daughter nuclides. If we call the number of radioactive nuclei N, the number of
decaying atoms per unit time is dN/dt. It is found that this rate is constant in time and
it is proportional to the number of nuclei themselves:
dN
N
dt
dN
 N ( t )
dt
The constant of proportionality λ is called the decay constant = probability of a
nucleus decaying per second. We can also rewrite the above equation as:
dN / dt

N
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 The fact that this probability is a constant is a characteristic of all radioactive
decay. It also leads to the exponential law of radioactive decay:
N(t)= N(0)e−λt
N(0)=N(t=0)≡No , which is the number of nuclei at t=0 (the time of manufacture)
We can also define the mean lifetime:
τ =1/λ
and the half-lifetime:
t1/2 = ln (2)/λ = 0.693/λ
Which is the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay. And the activity is:
A(t)= |dN/dt|=λNoe−λt =λN(t)
A(t)=Aoe-λt
Where Ao is the activity at t=0 (the time of manufacture)
Units of activity: 1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1decay/second
1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 decays/sec (Bq) = Activity (1g of radium)
A common situation occurs when the daughter nuclide is also radioactive.
Then we have a chain of radioactive decays, each governed by their decay laws. For
example, in a chain N1→N2→N3, the decay of N1 and N2 is given by:
dN1 = −λ1N1dt, dN2 =+λ1N1dt − λ2N2dt
Another common characteristic of radioactive decays is that they are a way for
unstable nuclei to reach a more energetically favorable (hence stable) configuration.
In α and β decays, a nucleus emits a α or β particle, trying to approach the most stable
nuclide, while in the γ decay an excited state decays toward the ground state without
changing nuclear species.
For nuclei which decompose by two types, i.e. the emission of alpha particles
and gamma rays together, the activity of source are:
-dN=dNα+dNγ , A(t) = 𝐴𝑜 𝑒 −(𝜆𝛼 +𝜆𝛾 )𝑡 or N(t) = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡
Where λtot=λα+λγ , Atot=Aα+Aγ
𝐴𝛼 𝜆𝛼
And the ratio = is called Branching Ratio.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝜆𝑡𝑜𝑡
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(5-1) Alpha decay
The decrease in binding energy at high mass number (A) is due to Coulomb
repulsion. Coulomb repulsion grows in fact as Z2, much faster than the other nuclear
force which is ∝A. This could be thought as a similar process to what happens in the
fission process: from a parent nuclide, two daughter nuclides are created. In the α-
decay we have specifically:
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑃𝑁 → 𝑍−2𝐷𝑁−2 + 𝛼 + 𝑄𝛼
where α is the nucleus of He-4 ( 42He2 ) as shown in figure below.

Figure (5-1): Alpha decay schematic.

Energetics:
In analyzing a radioactive decay (or any nuclear reaction) an important
quantity is Q, the net energy released in the decay:
Qα=(mP−mD−mα)c2=931.5[m(A,Z)-m(A-4,Z-2)-mα]=-Sα
This is also equal to the total kinetic energy of the fragments, here Q=TD+Tα
(here assuming that the parent nuclide is at rest). When Q>0 energy is release in the
nuclear reaction, while for Q<0 we need to provide energy to make the reaction
happen. As in chemistry, we expect the first reaction to be a spontaneous reaction,
while the second one does not happen in nature without intervention. (The first
reaction is exo-energetic the second endo-energetic). Q give the quality of the
reaction, i.e. how energetically favorable, hence probable, it is. For example in the
1
alpha-decay,log(t1/2 ) ∝ , which is the Geiger-Nuttall rule (1928).
√𝑄𝛼

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 The alpha particle carries away most of the kinetic energy (since it is much
lighter) and by measuring this kinetic energy experimentally it is possible to know the
masses of unstable nuclides. We can calculate Q using the SEMF, Then:
𝑄𝛼 = 𝐵( 𝐴−4 4 𝐴 4
𝑍−2𝑌) + 𝐵( 2𝐻𝑒 ) − 𝐵( 𝑍𝑋 ) = 𝐵(𝐴 − 4, 𝑍 − 2) − 𝐵(𝐴, 𝑍) + 𝐵( 2𝐻𝑒 )

Since we are looking at heavy nuclei, we know that Z≈0.41A (instead of

Z≈A/2) and we obtain:
𝑄𝛼 ≈ −36.68 + 44.9𝐴−1/3 + 1.02𝐴2/3
Where the second term comes from the surface contribution and the last term is
the Coulomb term.
Then, the Coulomb term, although small, makes Q increase at large A. We find
that Q ≥ 0 for A≥150, and it is Q ≈ 6MeV for A=200. Although Q>0, we find
experimentally that α-decay only arise for A≥200. Further, take for example
Francium-200( 200
87𝐹𝑟113 ). If we calculate Qα from the experimentally found mass

differences we obtain Qα≈7.6MeV (the product is 196At).

Example:
238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ +𝛼
mU=238.050784u, mTh=234.043593u, mα=4.002602u
Qα=(mP-mD-mα)c2=(mU-mTh-mα)931.5=0.004589x931.5=4.275MeV
Note that:
1. Most of the energy (Q) is KE of α
2. Decay occurs if Q > 0 (energy released)
3. Spontaneous decay does not occur if Q < 0
4. Conservation of momentum (daughter + alpha) and Energy gives:
Q = KE(α)+ KE(daughter)
A−4
5. KE(α)=Q( )
A

For 238U KE(α)=4.275x(234/238)=4.2MeV

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Energy spectrum of Alpha particle:
Alpha particles have a linear spectrum of energy as shown in figure below:

Nα

experimental

theoretical

Eαo Eα
Figure (5-2): spectrum of alpha particles.
We assumed that the parent nuclide is at rest i.e. PP=0
From the conservation law of linear momentum:
Pα=PD →mαvα=mDvD
T=1/2 mv2 = m2v2/2m=P2/2m
TD = PD2 /2m D , T = P2 /2m
TD m 
Pα=PD → =
T m D
This equation means that the two particles share of energy available to them by
the inverse proportional with its masses.
Rewrite the last equation:
TD m T  T m   m D
1 =  1  D 
T mD T mD
 Q  T  TD
Q m D
 T 
m  mD
 Q , m , m D are constant values, therefore Tα is a constant quantity, i.e. the alpha
particles have the same energy and linear spectrum. By approximation the masses:
m  m D  A
A4
 T  Q
A

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H.W.: Calculate Qα , Tα and TD for emission of alpha particle from Radium, Radon
224 220 216
and Polonium, where the masses of Ra, Rn and Po are 224.020217u,
220.01140u and 216.001927u respectively, note that mα=4.002603u and
m(212Pb)=211.991903u, then give your comment on the result.

Range of alpha particle in materials:

It is the distance which alpha particle moving in the material until loses all of
its energy.
R   0.318 T3 / 2 (exp erimentaly equation )
Where Tα in MeV, Rα in cm which is the range of alpha particle in air under pressure
76 [Link] at room temperature.

(5-2) Beta decay

The beta decay is a radioactive decay in which a proton in a nucleus is
converted into a neutron (or vice-versa). Thus A is constant, but Z and N change by
one. In the process the nucleus emits a beta particle (either an electron or a positron)
and quasi-massless particle, the neutrino.

Figure (5-3): beta decay schematics.

There are 3 types of beta decay:
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝑍+1𝑌𝑁−1 + 𝑒 − + 𝜐̅
This is the β− decay (or negative beta decay). The underlying reaction is:

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n → p + e- + 𝜐̅
That corresponds to the conversion of a neutron to proton with the emission of
an electron and an anti-neutrino. There are two other types of reactions, the β +
reaction is:
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝑍−1𝑌𝑁+1 + 𝑒+ + 𝜐 ⟺ 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜐

Which sees the emission of a positron (the electron anti-particle) and a neutrino,
while the electron capture:
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋𝑁 + 𝑒− → 𝑍−1𝑌𝑁+1 + 𝜐 ⟺ 𝑝 + 𝑒− ⟶ 𝑛 + 𝜐
As the neutrino is hard to detect, initially the beta decay seemed to violate
energy conservation. Introducing an extra particle in the process allows one to respect
conservation of energy. The Q value of a beta-decay is given by the usual formula:
𝑄𝛽− = [𝑚𝑁 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚𝑁 ( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌) − 𝑚𝑒 ]𝑐 2
Using the atomic masses and neglecting the electron’s binding energies as usual we
have:
𝑄𝛽− = {[𝑚𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑍𝑚𝑒 ] − [𝑚𝐴 ( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌) − (𝑍 + 1)𝑚𝑒 ] − 𝑚𝑒 }𝑐 2
= [𝑚𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑍𝑋) − 𝑚𝐴 ( 𝑍+1𝐴𝑌)]𝑐 2
i.e. 𝑄𝛽− = [𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍) − 𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍 + 1)]931.5 = 𝑇𝛽− + 𝑇𝜐̅
since TD ≈ 0
As the same method, we get the equations for β+ and electron capture as follows:
𝑄𝛽+ = [𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍) − 𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍 − 1) − 2𝑚𝑒 ]931.5 = 𝑇𝛽+ + 𝑇𝜐
𝑄𝐸.𝐶 = [𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍) − 𝑚𝐴 (𝐴, 𝑍 − 1)]931.5 = 𝑇𝐷 + 𝑇𝜐 = 𝑇𝜐 , (𝑇𝐷 ≈ 0)
The kinetic energy (equal to the Q) is shared by the neutrino and the electron
(we neglect any recoil of the massive nucleus). Then, the emerging electron
(remember, the only particle that we can really observe) does not have a fixed energy,
as it was for example for the alpha particle or gamma photon. But it will exhibit a
spectrum of energy (or the number of electron at a given energy) as well as a
distribution of momenta, for examples:
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 The neutrino and beta particle (β±) share the energy. Since the neutrinos are
very difficult to detect (as we will see they are almost massless and interact very
weakly with matter), the electrons/positrons are the particles detected in beta-decay
and they present a characteristic continuous energy spectrum (see Fig. 5-4)
The difference between the spectrums of the β ± particles is due to the Coulomb
repulsion or attraction from the nucleus and the continuous spectrum of β decay is
due to the random distribution of energy to β particle and neutrino as shown in figure
below.

Figure (5-4): The β− and β+ spectra of 64Cu. The suppression of the β+ spectrum and
enhancement of the β− at low energy due to the Coulomb effect is seen.

Notice that the neutrinos also carry away angular momentum. They are spin-
1/2 particles, with no charge (hence the name) and very small mass. For many years it
was actually believed to have zero mass. However it has been confirmed that it does
have a mass in 1998. Other conserved quantities are:
1-Momentum and Energy: The momentum and energy is also shared between the
electron and the neutrino. Thus the observed electron momentum or energy ranges
from zero to a maximum possible transfer.

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2- Angular momentum: both the electron and the neutrino have spin 1/2.
3- Parity: It turns out that parity is not conserved in this decay. This hints to the fact
that the interaction responsible violates parity conservation (so it cannot be the
same interactions we already studies, electromagnetic and strong interactions).
Thus the neutrino hypothesis is required to satisfy the energy, linear and angular
momentum conservation laws.
Consider for example 22Na and 36Cl. They both decay by β decay:

Classification of beta decay:

1- Charge: there is two type of beta particle; β- and β+
⃑⃑⃑⃑𝛽 ): there is two type as follow:
2- Spin momentum (𝑆
a- Fermi decay (F)
In this type of decay, the direction of spin momentum for beta particle is
opposite to that for neutrino i.e.
⃑⃑⃑⃑𝛽 = ⃑⃑⃑
𝑆 𝑠𝛽 + ⃑⃑⃑
𝑠𝜐 = 0
b- Gammow-Teller decay (G.T.)
In this type of decay, the direction of spin momentum for beta particle is the
same to that for neutrino i.e.
⃑⃑⃑⃑𝛽 = ⃑⃑⃑
𝑆 𝑠𝛽 + ⃑⃑⃑
𝑠𝜐 = 1

3- Orbital angular momentum ⃑⃑⃑⃑

𝐿𝛽 :

a- If ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐿𝛽 = 0 , the decay is called (allowed decay)

b- If ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐿𝛽 = 1 , the decay is called (1st forbidden decay)

c- If ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐿𝛽 = 2 , the decay is called (2nd forbidden decay)
d- For Ii=If=0, i.e. the transition 0→0, the decay is called (forbidden decay)

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 Note that the 1st and 2nd forbidden decays, not means there are not happened,
but the probability of their decay are very small due to the large values of ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐿𝛽
which lead to increasing in half life time (t1/2) for the exited state, which
making the decay in small probability.
Selection rules for beta decay:
1- momentum conservation:
       
IP  ID  S  L  I  IP  ID  S  L
  
Where I  S  L
       
And IP  ID  I  IP  ID or Ii  If  I  Ii  If

2- parity conservation:
L L
P .D  (1) or i .f  (1)
Example: classify the following beta decays:
1+ 1+
1. the transition 2-→1+ , 2. the transition → , 3. the transition 0+→0+
2 2

Solution:
L
1. for 2-→1+ : i .f  .  (1)  L  1,3,5,...
1+ 1+ L
2. for → : i .f  .  (1)  L  0,2,4,...
2 2

1. 1  I  3  I  1,2,3
2. 0  I  1  I  0,1
For the higher probability of decay, we must take the lowest value of Lβ to
correspond to I value.
   
1. I  S  L  1  0  1  S  0 and L  1

Therefore the beta decay for 2-→1+ transition is 1st forbidden in Fermi decay
   
2. I  S  L  0  0  0  S  0 and L  0
1+ 1+
Therefore the beta decay for → transition is allowed in Fermi decay
2 2

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3. If we have 0+→0+ transition, this decay is forbidden to beta decay.
(5-3) Gamma decay
In the gamma decay the nuclide is unchanged, but it goes from an excited to
a lower energy state. These states are called isomeric states. Usually the reaction is
written as:
𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑋𝑁 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋𝑁 + 𝛾
Where the star indicates an excited state, we will study that the gamma energy
depends on the energy difference between these two states, but which decays can
happen depend, once again, on the details of the nuclear structure and on quantum-
mechanical selection rules associated with the nuclear angular momentum.
Gamma ray spectroscopy is a basic tool of nuclear physics, for its ease of
observation (since it’s not absorbed in air), accurate energy determination and
information on the spin and parity of the excited states.
Qγ=[M*(A,Z) - M(A,Z)]931.5= Ei –Ef=Eγ
Where TD=0
Since the gamma decay produces two types of particles, gamma ray
(electromagnetic radiation or photons) and daughter nuclide, therefore the energy
spectrum for gamma ray is linear spectrum as shown in the figure below.

Nγ
Nmax theoretical
experimental

Nmax/2 Γ

Eαo Eγ

Figure (5-5): spectrum of gamma ray.

The percentage ratio between the full width at half maximum (FWHM=Γ) and
the gamma energy Eγ is called Energy Resolution (R).

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R=Γ/Eγ (%)

Ei , Ii , πi

Eγ=ħω=Ei –Ef
πγ=πiπf
Lγ

Ef , If , πf
Figure (5-6): Schematics of gamma decay.

(5-3-1) nuclear multipole moments

The nuclide has electric multipole moments due to its positive charge, non-
spherical shape and the energy levels arrangement. The ranking of the electric
moment is determined based on the orbital angular momentum value and is equal to:
P=2L (number of poles)
if L=1 → P=2 → 2 poles → electric dipole moments≡E1
if L=2 → P=4 → 4 poles → electric quadrupole moments≡E2
if L=3 → P=8 → 8 poles → electric octapole moments≡E3
And due to the vibration of the charges, there is an electromagnetic radiation
emitting which called electric multipole radiation.
It also may happen that; rotation of the charges in closed paths (Loops) to
make magnetic multipole moments and emitting an electromagnetic radiation which
called magnetic multipole radiation.
if L=1 → P=2 → 2 poles → magnetic dipole moments≡M1
if L=2 → P=4 → 4 poles → magnetic quadrupole moments≡M2
if L=3 → P=8 → 8 poles → magnetic octapole moments≡M3
We must know that the probability of emitting the multipole radiation is as follow:
E1>M1>E2>M2>E3>M3…

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(5-3-2) Selection Rules
1- conservation of energy
Eγ =Ei –Ef
2- conservation of angular momentum
The angular momentum must be conserved during the decay. Thus the
difference in angular momentum between the initial (excited) state and the
final state is carried away by the photon emitted.
      
Ii  If  L   S  I  Ii  If  L   1

Where Sγ =1 for bosons (gamma ray)

   
Ii  If  I  Ii  If
    
L   Ii  If  Ii  If

Since Lγ ≠0 , because of, if Lγ=0 the number of polarities which is P=2L was
equal 1 , i.e. there is a one or a single pole and that is impossible, then there is
no multipol momentum and no energy emitting.
ΔI=0,±1 and Ii=0→If=0 is forbidden to gamma decay
3- conservation of parity
The parity of the gamma photon is determined by its character, either magnetic
or electric multipole, we have:
πi. πf=(−1)L for Electric multipole
πi. πf=(−1)L+1 for Magnetic multipole
This of course limits the type of multipole transitions that are allowed given an
initial and final state, the character (magnetic or electric) of the multipole is found by
looking at the parity. In general then, the most important transition will be the one
with the lowest allowed L. Higher multipole are also possible, but they are going to
lead to much slower processes.
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 Table (5-1): Angular momentum and parity of the gamma multipole.
Angular Parity Angular Parity
Multipolarity Multipolarity
Momentum L π Momentum L π
M1 1 + E1 1 -
M2 2 - E2 2 +
M3 3 + E3 3 -
M4 4 - E4 4 +
M5 5 + E5 5 -

(5-3-3) Dominant Decay Modes

In general we have the following predictions of which transitions will happen:
1. The lowest permitted multipole dominates
2. Electric multipole is more probable than the same magnetic multipole by a factor
≈102 (however, which one is going to happen depends on the parity)
𝜆(𝐸𝐿)
≈ 102
𝜆(𝑀𝐿)
3. Emission from the multipole L+1 is 10-5 times less probable than the L multipole
emission.
𝜆(𝐸, 𝐿 + 1) 𝜆(𝑀, 𝐿 + 1)
≈ 10−5 , ≈ 10−5
𝜆(𝐸𝐿) 𝜆(𝑀𝐿)
4. Combining 2 and 3, we have:
𝜆(𝐸, 𝐿 + 1) 𝜆(𝑀, 𝐿 + 1)
≈ 10−3 , ≈ 10−7
𝜆(𝑀𝐿) 𝜆(𝐸𝐿)
Thus E2 competes with M1 while that’s not the case for M2 vs. E1

Attenuation or absorption of gamma ray

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 When the gamma rays fall on a substance and transmitted, the intensity will be
reduced according to the equation:
I=Ioe-μx
Where x is a thickness and μ is a linear absorption coefficient of the substance.
Note that the thickness of any substance which reduces the intensity to the half
of its value was called a half thickness x1/2.
x1/2=0.693/λ

(5-4) Spontaneous fission

Some nuclei can spontaneously undergo fission, even outside the particular
conditions found in a nuclear reactor. In the process a heavy nuclide splits into two
lighter nuclei, of roughly the same mass.

(5-5) Branching Ratios

Some nuclei only decay via a single process, but sometimes they can undergo
many different radioactive processes, that compete one with the other. The relative
intensities of the competing decays are called branching ratios. Branching ratios are
expressed as percentage or sometimes as partial half-lives. For example, if a nucleus
can decay by beta decay (and other modes) with a branching ration b β, the partial
half-life for the beta decay is λβ = bβλ.

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