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A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or 11. Upper Triangular Matrix A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑛×𝑛 is
complex) which may be represented
called a upper triangular matrix,
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … … … 𝑎1𝑛 If [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = 0, ∀𝑖 > 𝑗.
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 … … … 𝑎2𝑛 12. Lower Triangular Matrix A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑛×𝑛 is
𝐴 = ….. ….. …..………….. called a lower triangular matrix,
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … … … 𝑎𝑚𝑛
If [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = 0, ∀𝑖 < 𝑗.
[ ]
as 13. Sub matrix A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by
deleting any number of rows or columns or both is called a sub
Matrix is enclosed by [ ]𝒐𝒓( )𝒐𝒓||
matrix of the given matrix.
Compact form the above matrix is represented by
14. Equal Matrices Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if
[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ].
both having same order and corresponding elements of the
Element of a Matrix
matrices are equal.
The numbers 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 … etc., in the above matrix are known as
15. Principal Diagonal of a Matrix In a square matrix, the diagonal
the element of the matrix, generally represented as 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , which
denotes element in ith row and jth column. from the first element of the first row to the last element of the
last row is called the principal diagonal of a matrix.
Order of a Matrix
In above matrix has m rows and n columns, then A is of order 𝑚 × 𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑖𝑓
𝑛. 1 2 3
𝐴 = [7 6 5] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 1, 6, 2.
TYPES OF MATRICES 1 1 2

1. Row Matrix A matrix having only one row and any number of 16. Singular Matrix A square matrix A is said to be singular matrix,
columns is called a row matrix. if determinant of A denoted by
2. Column Matrix A matrix having only one column and any 𝑑𝑒𝑡 (𝐴)𝑜𝑟 |𝐴|𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, 𝑖. 𝑒. , |𝐴| = 0, otherwise it is a non-
number of rows is called column matrix. singular matrix.
3. Rectangular Matrix A matrix of order × 𝑛 , such that 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛 ,
is called rectangular matrix.
4. Horizontal Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is less ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
than the number of columns, is called a horizontal matrix.
5. Vertical Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is greater
1. Addition of Matrices:
than the number of columns, is called a vertical matrix. Let A and B be two matrices each of order m x n. Then, the sum of
6. Null/Zero Matrix A matrix of any order, having all its elements matrices A + B is defined only if matrices A and B are of same order.
are zero, is called a null/zero matrix. 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, ∀ 𝑖, 𝑗 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛
7. Square Matrix A matrix of order m x n, such that m = n , is called Then, 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛
square matrix.`
Properties of Addition of Matrices If A, B and C are three matrices
8. Diagonal Matrix A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , is called a
of order × 𝑛 , then
diagonal matrix, if all the elements except those in the leading
1. Commutative Law 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
diagonals are zero, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 . It can be
represented as 2. Associative Law (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
𝐴 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔[𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ] 3. Existence of Additive Identity A zero matrix (0) of order m x n
9. Scalar Matrix A square matrix in which every non-diagonal (same as of A) is additive identity, if
element is zero and all diagonal elements are equal, is called 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 = 0 + 𝐴
scalar matrix. i.e., in scalar matrix 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 4. Existence of Additive Inverse If A is a square matrix, then the
𝑘, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑗 matrix (- A) is called additive inverse, if
10. Unit/Identity Matrix A square matrix, in which every non-
𝐴 + (− 𝐴) = 0 = (− 𝐴) + 𝐴
diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is 1, is
5. Cancellation Law:
called, unit matrix or an identity matrix.
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶 (left cancellation law)
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = { 𝐵 + 𝐴 = 𝐶 + 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶 (right cancellation law)
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

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2. Subtraction of Matrices Matrix Polynomial:

Let A and B be two matrices of the same order, then subtraction of Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑋 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑋 𝑛−1 − 1 + 𝑎2 𝑋 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .
matrices, A - B , is defined as Then 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑎0 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐴𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑛 is called the matrix
𝐴 − 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛, polynomial.
where 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛, 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 Transpose of a Matrix
1. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , be a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛. Then, the 𝑛 × 𝑚
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be a matrix and k be any scalar. Then, the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is
matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called called the transpose of A and is denoted by A' or 𝐴𝑇 .
the scalar multiple of A by k and is denoted by KA, given as 𝐴′ = 𝐴𝑇 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑚
𝑘𝐴 = [𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛
Properties of Transpose:
2. Properties of Scalar Multiplication If A and B are matrices of
1. (𝐴′)′ = 𝐴
order 𝒎 × 𝒏, then
2.(𝐴 + 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ + 𝐵′
1. (k1 + k 2 )A = k1 A + k 2 A
2. k1 k 2 A = k1 (k 2 A) = k 2 (k1 A) 3. (𝐴𝐵)′ = 𝐵′𝐴′
3. k1 k 2 A = k1 (k 2 A) = k 2 (k1 A) 4. (𝐾𝐴)′ = 𝐾𝐴′
4. (−k)A = −(kA) = k(−A) 5.(𝐴𝑁 )′ = (𝐴′ )𝑁
3. Multiplication of Matrices 6.(𝐴𝐵𝐶)′ = 𝐶′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑝 are two matrices such that Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of 1. A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛 is said to be symmetric,
B, then multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by if 𝐴′ = 𝐴.
𝑐𝑖𝑗 = ∑𝑛ℎ=1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 , where 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is the element of matrix C and 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , ∀𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 2. A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric matrices,
Properties of Multiplication of Matrices if 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖, ∀𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗
1. Commutative Law Generally 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
Properties of Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
2. Associative Law (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) 1. Elements of principal diagonals of a skew-symmetric matrix are
3. Existence of multiplicative Identity 𝐴. 𝐼 = 𝐴 = 1. 𝐴 , all zero. 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖 2𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0, for all values of 𝑖
I is called multiplicative Identity. 2. If A is a square matrix, then
4. Distributive Law 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 (a) 𝐴 + 𝐴′ is symmetric.
5. Cancellation Law If A is non-singular matrix, then 𝐴𝐵 = (b) 𝐴 − 𝐴′is skew-symmetric matrix.
𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶 (left cancellation law) 3. If A and B are two symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrices of
𝐵𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐶 (right cancellation law) same order, then 𝐴 + 𝐵 is also symmetric (or skew-
6. 𝐴𝐵 = 0, does not necessarily imply that 𝐴 = 0 or 𝐵 = 0 or symmetric).
both A and 𝐵 = 0 4. If A is symmetric (or skew-symmetric), then kA (k is a scalar) is
Important Points to be Remembered also symmetric for skew-symmetric matrix.
(i) If A and B are square matrices of the same order, say n, then 5. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then the
both the product AB and BA are defined and each is a square product AB is symmetric, iff 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵.
matrix of order n. 6. Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a
(ii) In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called premultiplier symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
(prefactor) and B is called postmultiplier (postfactor). 7. The matrix B' AB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according as
(iii) The rule of multiplication of matrices is row column wise (𝑜𝑟 → A is symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix.
↓ 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒) the first row of AB is obtained by multiplying the first 8. All positive integral powers of a symmetric matrix are
row of A with first, second, third,... columns of B respectively; symmetric.
similarly second row of A with first, second, third, ... columns 9. All positive odd integral powers of a skew-symmetric matrix
of B, respectively and so on. are skew-symmetric and positive even integral powers of a
Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix skew-symmetric are symmetric matrix.
Let A be a square matrix. Then, we can define 10. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then
1. An+1 = An . A, where n ∈ N. (a) AB - BA is a skew-symmetric and
2. Am . An = Am+n (b) AB + BA is symmetric.

3. (Am )n = Amn , ∀m, n ∈ N 11. For a square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴𝐴′and 𝐴′ A are symmetric matrix.

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Elementary Transformation: Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix:

Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called an
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transpose
elementary transformation.
conjugate of A and is denoted by 𝐴𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝐴∗
1. Interchanging any two rows (or columns), denoted by
𝑖. 𝑒. , (𝐴′ ) = 𝐴′ = 𝐴𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝐴∗
𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 or 𝐶𝑖 ↔ 𝐶𝑗
2. Multiplication of the element of any row (or column) by a Properties of Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix:
non-zero quantity and denoted by (i) (𝐴∗ )∗ = 𝐴
By 𝑅𝑖 → 𝐾𝑅𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑖 → 𝐾𝐶𝑗 (ii) (𝐴 + 𝐵)∗ = 𝐴∗ + 𝐵 ∗
3. Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any row to (iii) (𝑘𝐴)∗ = 𝑘𝐴∗

the corresponding element of any other row, denoted by] (iv) (𝐴𝐵)∗ = 𝐵 ∗ 𝐴∗
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗 𝑜𝑟𝐶𝑖 → 𝐶𝑖 + 𝑘𝐶𝑗 (V) (𝐴𝑛 )∗ = (𝐴∗ )n

Elementary Matrix: Some Special Types of Matrices

A matrix obtained from an identity matrix by a single elementary
operation is called an elementary matrix. 1. Orthogonal Matrix:
A square matrix of order n is said to be orthogonal, if 𝐴𝐴′ =
Equivalent Matrix: 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐴′𝐴 Properties of Orthogonal Matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one can be
obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary (i) If A is orthogonal matrix, then 𝐴′ is also orthogonal
transformation. matrix.
(ii) For any two orthogonal matrices A and B. AB and BA is
Trace of a Matrix: also an orthogonal matrix.
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the (iii) If A is an orthogonal matrix, 𝐴−1 is also orthogonal
trace of A, denoted by trace (𝐴)𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟 (𝐴). matrix.
2. Idempotent Matrix:
Properties of Trace of a Matrix : A square matrix A is said to be idempotent, if 𝐴2 = 𝐴
1. Trace (𝐴 ± 𝐵) = Trace (𝐴) ± Trace (𝐵) Properties of Idempotent Matrix:
2. Trace (𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘 Trace (𝐴) (i) If A and B are two idempotent matrices, then
3. Trace (𝐴′ ) =Trace (𝐴)  AB is idempotent, if 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 .
4. Trace (𝐼𝑛 ) = 𝑛  𝐴 + 𝐵 is an idempotent matrix, iff
5. Trace (0) = 0  𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 0
6. Trace (𝐴𝐵) ≠Trace (𝐴)𝑥 Trace (𝐵)  𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 and 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵, then 𝐴2 = 𝐴, 𝐵2 = 𝐵
7. Trace (𝐴𝐴′) ≥ 0 (ii)
 If A is an idempotent matrix and A + B = I , then B is an
Conjugate of a Matrix:
idempotent and AB = BA = 0 .
The matrix obtained from a matrix A containing complex number as  Diagonal (1, 1, 1, ...,1) is an idempotent matrix.
its elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding  If 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 are direction cosines, then
conjugate complex number is called conjugate of A and is denoted 𝐼12 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼3
by A.  [𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼2 𝐼3 ]
𝐼3 𝐼4 𝐼3 𝐼2 𝐼32
Properties of Conjugate of a Matrix:

If A is a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛, then is an idempotent as |∆|2 = 1.

̿) = A
(i) (A A square matrix A is said to be involutory, if 𝐴2 = 𝐼
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅+B
̅ 4. Nilpotent Matrix:
(ii) For matrix B of order m × n, (A + B) = A
̅̅̅̅) = AB
̅̅̅̅ A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix, if there exists a
(iii) For matrix B of order n × p, (AB
positive integer m such that 𝐴2 = 0 If m is the least positive integer
(iv) If it is a scalar, then (kA̅̅̅̅) = kA̅
such that Am= 0, then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix
̅̅̅̅) = (A
(A n ̅) n
A.

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5. Unitary Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be unitary, if A*𝐴 = 𝐼
Rank of a Matrix:
A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non-zero matrix
A, if
(i) There exists at least one minor in A of order r which is
not zero.
(ii) Every minor in A of order greater than r is zero, rank of
a matrix A is denoted by r(𝐴) = 𝑟.

Properties of Rank of a Matrix:

(i) The rank of a null matrix is zero i.e. r(0)=0
(ii) If 𝐼𝑛 is an identity matrix of order n, then r(𝐼𝑛 ) n.
(iii) (a) If a matrix A does't possess any minor of orderr,
then r(A)≥ r.
(b) If atleast one minor of order r of the matrix is not
equal to zero, then r(A)≤r.
(iv) If every (r+1)th order minor of A is zero, then any higher
order minor will also be zero.
(v) If A is of order n, then for a non-singular matrix A,
r(A)= n
(vi) r(A')=p(A)
(vii) r(𝐴∗ ) = p(A)
(viii) r(A+B) ≤r(A) + P(B)
(ix) If A and B are two matrices such that the product AB is
defined, then rank (AB) cannot exceed the rank of the
either matrix.
(x) If A and B are square matrix of same order and r(A) =
r(B) = n, then r(AB)= n
(xii) Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order has rank
less than its order.
(xiii) Elementary operations do not change the rank of a
matrix.

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