STPM MALAYSIA

MATHEMATICS T (954/1)
TERM 1 • ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

CHAPTER 1: FUNCTIONS
A Comprehensive, Rigorous Compilation of Essential Concepts, Theorems,
Core Graphs, Composite & Inverse Structures, and Exam-Level Proof
Techniques.

Subject Code: 954/1 (Mathematics T Term 1)

Topic: Chapter 1: Functions
Target Level: Form 6 / STPM Candidates
Document Version: 2026.1

STPM Mathematics T • Chapter 1: Functions Page 1

1.1 Definition of a Function

A function is a fundamental mathematical object that formalizes a precise relation between two sets. Formally,
given two non-empty sets X and Y, a function f from X to Y (denoted as f : X → Y) is a rule or relation that assigns
to every element x ∈ X exactly one element y ∈ Y.

Key Terminology & Notations

• Domain (Df): The set X containing all permissible input values for which the function is defined.

• Codomain: The set Y containing all potential output values.

• Range (Rf): The actual set of all images, defined as Rf = {y ∈ Y : y = f(x) ext{ for some } x ∈ X}.
Crucially, Rf ⊆ Y.

• Argument: The independent variable x.

• Image: The dependent value y = f(x) corresponding to a specific input x.

Types of Relations
Relations can be classified into four primary categories based on how elements of the domain map to the codomain:

1. One-to-One (Injection): Each element in the domain maps to a unique element in the codomain. No two
distinct inputs share the same output.

2. Many-to-One: Multiple distinct elements in the domain map to the exact same element in the codomain.

3. One-to-Many: A single element in the domain maps to more than one element in the codomain. (This type of
relation is NOT a function).

4. Many-to-Many: Multiple elements in the domain map to multiple elements in the codomain. (This type of
relation is NOT a function).

The Operational Condition for a Function

For a relation to qualify as a function, it must exclusively satisfy either a One-to-One or a Many-to-One
mapping condition. Every element in the domain must map to an element, and it cannot map to multiple
distinct elements.

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 The Vertical Line Test
Geometrically, a curve in the Cartesian coordinate plane represents a function if and only if every vertical line
drawn across the plane intersects the curve at at most one point. If any vertical line intersects the curve more than
once, the relation assigns multiple outputs to a single input, failing the definition of a function.

Example: Verifying Function Status

Consider the relation x² + y² = 25 (a circle centered at the origin with radius 5).

If we solve for y, we get:

y = ±√(25 - x²)

For a single input, say x = 3, we obtain two output images: y = 4 and y = -4. A vertical line drawn at x = 3
cuts the graph at both (3, 4) and (3, -4). Therefore, this relation is not a function.

1.2 Analytical Determination of Domain and Range

In STPM examinations, finding the largest possible real domain and the corresponding range of algebraic, rational,
and radical functions is a core skill.

1.2.1 Algebraic Constraints for Determining Domain

When a function is defined on the set of real numbers ℝ without an explicitly stated domain, we must find the
natural domain. This is the set of all real numbers for which the functional expression yields a real value. The
three most common algebraic constraints are:

Function Type Expression Form Domain Constraint Rule

Rational Functions f(x) = rac{P(x)}{Q(x)} The denominator cannot equal zero: Q(x) ≠ 0.

Even Radical Functions f(x) = \sqrt{g(x)} The radicand must be non-negative: g(x) ≥ 0.

Logarithmic Functions f(x) = \ln[g(x)] The argument must be strictly positive: g(x) > 0.

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 Example: Finding the Domain

Find the natural domain of the function f(x) = rac{1}{\sqrt{x² - 4}}.

Solution: Here, we have two overlapping constraints: a radical and a denominator. The expression inside the
radical must be non-negative, and the denominator cannot be zero. Combining these yields:

x² - 4 > 0

(x - 2)(x + 2) > 0

Solving the quadratic inequality gives the solution set: x < -2 or x > 2.

Thus, the domain is Df = (-∞, -2) ∪ (2, ∞).

1.2.2 Methodologies for Finding the Range

Determining the range analytically is often more challenging than finding the domain. Three primary strategies are
used in Form 6:

1. Making x the Subject (Algebraic Inversion): Set y = f(x), rearrange the equation to express x in terms of y,
and then evaluate the domain conditions on y.

2. Using the Discriminant (Δ = b² - 4ac): For rational functions of the form y = rac{ax+b}{cx+d} or quadratic
quotients, cross-multiply to form a quadratic equation in x. Since x must be real, enforce Δ ≥ 0 to find the valid
intervals for y.

3. Graphical Projection: Sketch the function using transformations or calculus methods and determine the
boundaries along the vertical axis (y-axis).

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 Example: Range via the Discriminant Method

Find the range of f(x) = rac{x}{x² + 1} for x ∈ ℝ.

Solution: Let y = rac{x}{x² + 1}. Cross-multiplying gives:

y(x² + 1) = x \implies yx² - x + y = 0

For x to be a real number, the discriminant of this quadratic equation must be non-negative:

Δ = b² - 4ac = (-1)² - 4(y)(y) ≥ 0

1 - 4y² ≥ 0 \implies 4y² ≤ 1 \implies y² ≤ rac{1}{4}

- rac{1}{2} ≤ y ≤ rac{1}{2}

Therefore, the range of the function is Rf = [- rac{1}{2}, rac{1}{2}].

1.3 Special Classifications of Functions

To analyze advanced functional equations and systems, we classify functions based on their structural properties:
injectivity, surjectivity, parity (even/odd), and periodicity.

1.3.1 Injectivity (One-to-One Functions)

A function f : X → Y is one-to-one (injective) if distinct elements in the domain map to distinct elements in the
codomain. Formally:

ext{If } f(x₁) = f(x₂), ext{ then } x₁ = x₂ \quad orall x₁, x₂ ∈ Df

The Horizontal Line Test: Geometrically, a function is injective if and only if every horizontal line intersects its
graph at at most one point. If a horizontal line cuts the graph multiple times, the function is many-to-one.

1.3.2 Surjectivity (Onto Functions)

A function f : X → Y is onto (surjective) if its range is exactly equal to its codomain. In other words, every
element in the target set Y is mapped to by at least one element from the domain X.

orall y ∈ Y, \exists x ∈ X ext{ such that } f(x) = y

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 1.3.3 Bijectivity
A function is bijective if it is simultaneously injective (one-to-one) and surjective (onto). Bijectivity is a critical
requirement for a function to have an inverse.

1.3.4 Even and Odd Functions

Functions can exhibit symmetric behavior across axes or the origin based on their algebraic parity:

• Even Functions: Satisfy f(-x) = f(x) for all x in the domain. The graph of an even function is perfectly
symmetrical about the y-axis (e.g., f(x) = x², f(x) = \cos x).

• Odd Functions: Satisfy f(-x) = -f(x) for all x in the domain. The graph of an odd function exhibits rotational
symmetry of 180° about the origin (e.g., f(x) = x³, f(x) = \sin x).

Example: Algebraic Proof of Parity

Determine whether f(x) = rac{e^x - e^{-x}}{2} is even, odd, or neither.

Solution: Substitute -x into the function expression:

f(-x) = rac{e^{-x} - e^{-(-x)}}{2} = rac{e^{-x} - e^x}{2}

Factor out a negative sign from the numerator:

f(-x) = -\left( rac{e^x - e^{-x}}{2} ight) = -f(x)

Since f(-x) = -f(x), the function is rigorously proven to be an odd function (this specific function is known as
the hyperbolic sine, \sinh x).

1.4 Composite Functions

Composition is an operation where the output of one function becomes the input of another. Given two functions, f
and g, the composite function fg (or f \circ g) is defined by:

(fg)(x) = f(g(x))

1.4.1 The Fundamental Condition for Existence

A composite function fg does not automatically exist for any two arbitrary functions. For fg to be well-defined,
the output values from the inner function g must fit inside the allowed input space of the outer function f.

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 Condition for Existence of Composite Functions

The composite function fg exists if and only if the Range of the inner function g is a subset of the Domain
of the outer function f:

R_g ⊆ D_f

Similarly, the composite function gf exists if and only if R_f ⊆ D_g.

1.4.2 Domain of a Composite Function

If the existence condition is satisfied, the domain of fg is a subset of the domain of g, specifically:

D_{fg} = \{x ∈ D_g : g(x) ∈ D_f\}

Example: Testing Existence and Evaluating Composition

Let f(x) = \sqrt{x} for D_f = [0, ∞) and g(x) = x - 5 for D_g = ℝ.

1. Determine if the composite function fg exists.

Analysis: The range of g is R_g = ℝ. The domain of f is D_f = [0, ∞). Checking the condition: R_g ⊆ D_f
\implies ℝ ⊆ [0, ∞), which is false. Elements like x = 1 give g(1) = -4, and f(-4) is undefined for real
numbers.

Therefore, the composite fg does not exist on the unrestricted domain D_g = ℝ.

2. Restrict D_g so that fg can exist.

Solution: We require g(x) ∈ D_f \implies x - 5 ≥ 0 \implies x ≥ 5. By restricting the domain of g to [5, ∞),
the range becomes R_g = [0, ∞), satisfying R_g ⊆ D_f. The composite function is then validly defined as
fg(x) = \sqrt{x - 5}.

1.4.3 Key Properties of Composition

• Non-commutative: In general, composition is order-dependent: fg ≠ gf.

• Associative: Composition preserves grouping: f(gh) = (fg)h.

1.5 Inverse Functions

An inverse function reverses the operation of the original function. If a function maps x to y, its inverse maps y
back to x. The inverse of f is denoted as f⁻¹.

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 1.5.1 The Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Existence

An inverse function f⁻¹ exists if and only if the function f is bijective (both one-to-one and onto).

If a function is many-to-one, trying to reverse it would map a single input to multiple distinct outputs, which
violates the core definition of a function. If a function is not onto, some elements in the codomain will have no
matching inputs when reversed.

Fundamental Identity Relationships

If f has an inverse f⁻¹, then:

f(f⁻¹(x)) = x \quad orall x ∈ D_{f⁻¹} \quad ext{and} \quad f⁻¹(f(x)) = x \quad orall x ∈ D_f

Crucially, the domains and ranges swap roles perfectly:

D_{f⁻¹} = R_f \quad ext{and} \quad R_{f⁻¹} = D_f

1.5.2 Analytical Method to Find the Inverse

To find the explicit algebraic formula for an inverse function:

1. Set the functional equation to a new variable: y = f(x).

2. Use algebraic manipulation to solve for x completely in terms of y. This yields x = f⁻¹(y).

3. Replace the variable y with x to express the final formula as f⁻¹(x).

Example: Analytical Inverse Extraction

Find the inverse function of f(x) = rac{2x + 3}{x - 1} for x ≠ 1.

Solution: Let y = rac{2x + 3}{x - 1}. Cross-multiply and isolate x:

y(x - 1) = 2x + 3 \implies yx - y = 2x + 3

yx - 2x = y + 3 \implies x(y - 2) = y + 3

x = rac{y + 3}{y - 2}

Substituting the variable gives our inverse function: f⁻¹(x) = rac{x + 3}{x - 2}.

The domain of the inverse is all real numbers except the value that causes division by zero: D_{f⁻¹} = ℝ
\setminus \{2\}.

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 1.5.3 Geometric Relationship

The graph of an inverse function y = f⁻¹(x) is a reflection of the original graph y = f(x) across the line y = x. If
the point (a, b) lies on the graph of f, then the point (b, a) must lie on the graph of f⁻¹.

1.6 Graphs of Standard Elementary Functions

Recognizing and sketching standard functions quickly is a vital skill for solving calculus and algebra problems
efficiently in STPM.

1. Linear, Quadratic, and Cubic Functions

• Linear (y = mx + c): A straight line where m is the constant slope and c is the vertical y-intercept.

• Quadratic (y = ax² + bx + c): A parabola. If a > 0, it opens upward, creating a local minimum vertex. If a < 0,
it opens downward, creating a local maximum vertex. The vertex coordinates can be found by completing the
square or using x = - rac{b}{2a}.

• Cubic (y = ax³): An S-shaped curve passing through the origin with an inflection point at (0,0).

2. Rational and Reciprocal Functions

• Reciprocal (y = rac{1}{x}): A rectangular hyperbola located in the first and third quadrants. It has a vertical
asymptote at x = 0 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

• Squared Reciprocal (y = rac{1}{x²}): Symmetric about the y-axis, located entirely in the first and second
quadrants. Both axes serve as asymptotes.

3. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• Exponential (y = e^x): Always positive (e^x > 0), passes through the point (0, 1), and approaches the
horizontal asymptote y = 0 as x → -∞.

• Natural Logarithm (y = \ln x): Defined only for positive inputs (x > 0), passes through (1, 0), and has a
vertical asymptote along the y-axis (x = 0). It is the reflection of e^x across the line y = x.

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 Summary of Essential Graphs

Function Class Standard Form Domain (D) Range (R) Asymptotes / Key Points

Exponential f(x) = e^x (-∞, ∞) (0, ∞) H.A. y = 0, intercept (0,1)

Logarithmic f(x) = \ln x (0, ∞) (-∞, ∞) V.A. x = 0, intercept (1,0)

Reciprocal f(x) = rac{1}{x} ℝ \setminus \{0\} ℝ \setminus \{0\} V.A. x = 0, H.A. y = 0

1.7 Graphical Transformations

Complex functions can often be sketched by applying a sequence of geometric transformations to the graph of a
known base function y = f(x).

1.7.1 Translation Principles

• Vertical Shifts: Changing the function to y = f(x) + k shifts the entire graph upward by k units if k > 0, and
downward if k < 0.

• Horizontal Shifts: Changing the function to y = f(x - c) shifts the graph to the right by c units if c > 0, and to
the left if c < 0. Note that the direction is opposite to the sign of c.

1.7.2 Scaling and Stretching Principles

• Vertical Stretching/Compression: Changing the function to y = a \cdot f(x) stretches the graph vertically by a
factor of a if a > 1. If 0 < a < 1, the graph is compressed vertically.

• Horizontal Stretching/Compression: Changing the function to y = f(b \cdot x) compresses the graph
horizontally by a factor of rac{1}{b} if b > 1. If 0 < b < 1, the graph is stretched horizontally.

1.7.3 Reflection Principles

• Reflection across the x-axis: The transformation y = -f(x) flips the graph vertically across the horizontal axis.

• Reflection across the y-axis: The transformation y = f(-x) flips the graph horizontally across the vertical axis.

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 Example: Multi-Stage Graph Transformation Sequence

Describe how to obtain the graph of g(x) = 3 - e^{-x+2} from the base function f(x) = e^x.

Step-by-Step Transformation Sequence:

1. Base: Start with the standard curve y = e^x.

2. Reflection: Apply f(-x) = e^{-x}. This reflects the base curve across the y-axis.

3. Horizontal Translation: Shift the curve to the right by 2 units to obtain y = e^{-(x-2)} = e^{-x+2}.

4. Vertical Reflection: Multiply by -1 to get y = -e^{-x+2}, reflecting the curve across the x-axis.

5. Vertical Translation: Shift the entire graph upward by 3 units to get the final function: g(x) = -e^{-x+2}
+ 3.

The original horizontal asymptote y = 0 shifts upward to become y = 3.

1.8 Modulus Functions

The modulus or absolute value operator outputs the non-negative magnitude of a real number or expression. It is
defined pieces-wise as:

|x| = egin{cases} x, & ext{if } x ≥ 0 \ -x, & ext{if } x < 0 \end{cases}

1.8.1 Transformations Involving Modulus

When working with general graphs, there are two distinct ways to apply the modulus operator:

Case A: y = |f(x)|
This operation ensures the output is never negative. Geometrically, any portion of the original graph y = f(x) that
lies below the x-axis (y < 0) is reflected upward across the x-axis into the positive half-plane. Any portion of the
graph already on or above the x-axis remains completely unchanged.

Case B: y = f(|x|)
This operation makes the function symmetric with respect to the input's sign. The negative input values yield the
exact same outputs as their positive counterparts. To sketch this transformation, completely delete the left side of
the graph (where x < 0), then take the remaining right side (where x ≥ 0) and reflect it across the y-axis onto the
left side. The resulting graph is always symmetric about the y-axis (an even function).

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 Example: Solving a Modulus Equation Analytically

Solve the equation |2x - 1| = x + 4.

Solution: By splitting the modulus into its two possible algebraic states, we get:

2x - 1 = +(x + 4) \quad ext{or} \quad 2x - 1 = -(x + 4)

Case 1:

2x - 1 = x + 4 \implies x = 5

Case 2:

2x - 1 = -x - 4 \implies 3x = -3 \implies x = -1

Verification check: Substitute both values back into the original equation to ensure they do not produce an
invalid statement (such as equating a modulus to a negative number):

• For x = 5: |2(5)-1| = |9| = 9 and 5+4 = 9. (Valid)

• For x = -1: |2(-1)-1| = |-3| = 3 and -1+4 = 3. (Valid)

Both values, x = 5 and x = -1, are valid solutions.

1.9 Advanced Examination Analysis & Proofs

STPM Mathematics T often includes multi-part questions that require proving functional relationships or evaluating
complex compositions.

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 High-Yield Exam Question: Composite Cycles and Induction

Given the rational function f(x) = rac{x - 1}{x + 1} for x ≠ -1.

1. Find explicit expressions for f²(x) and f³(x).

Solution for f²(x):

f²(x) = f(f(x)) = rac{ rac{x - 1}{x + 1} - 1}{ rac{x - 1}{x + 1} + 1}

Multiply the numerator and the denominator by the common term (x + 1) to simplify the complex fraction:

f²(x) = rac{(x - 1) - (x + 1)}{(x - 1) + (x + 1)} = rac{-2}{2x} = - rac{1}{x}

Solution for f³(x):

f³(x) = f(f²(x)) = f\left(- rac{1}{x} ight) = rac{\left(- rac{1}{x} ight) - 1}{\left(- rac{1}{x} ight)
+ 1}

Multiply the numerator and the denominator by x:

f³(x) = rac{-1 - x}{-1 + x} = rac{-(x + 1)}{x - 1} = rac{x + 1}{1 - x}

2. Find f⁴(x) to identify the full repeating cycle of the composition.

f⁴(x) = f(f³(x)) = f²(f²(x)) = - rac{1}{f²(x)} = - rac{1}{-1/x} = x

Since f⁴(x) = x (the identity function), the composition loops with a periodicity of 4.

3. Evaluate the value of the large composition f^{2026}(2).

Solution: We divide the exponent 2026 by our cycle period of 4:

2026 = 4 imes 506 + 2

This means the composition completes 506 full cycles, leaving a remainder of 2. Therefore, the expression
simplifies to:

f^{2026}(2) = f²(2)

Using our derived formula for f²(x) = - rac{1}{x}, we find:

f²(2) = - rac{1}{2}

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 Final Answer: f^{2026}(2) = - rac{1}{2}.

Strategic Exam Checklist for STPM Chapter 1

• Always explicitly state restrictions on the domain when defining or modifying functions.

• To prove a function has no inverse, show it is not one-to-one by finding a single horizontal counter-
example (f(a) = f(b) for a ≠ b).

• When sketching transformations, always follow the standard order of operations: horizontal shifts first,
then scaling/stretching, reflections, and finally vertical shifts.

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