Chapter 2

Real-valued Functions of a Single

Variable

2.1 Introduction to Elementary Functions

Real-valued functions form the foundation of mathematical analysis and its applications. A
real-valued function f of a single real variable is a rule that assigns to each element x in a
set D ⊆ R exactly one element f (x) in R.
Definition 2.1.1 (Function). A function f : D → R consists of:
• A domain D ⊆ R

• A codomain R

• A rule that assigns to each x ∈ D a unique y = f (x) ∈ R

The elementary functions are the basic building blocks of mathematical analysis. They
include:
• Polynomial functions

• Rational functions

• Exponential and logarithmic functions

• Trigonometric functions

• Hyperbolic functions
Example 2.1.2 (Polynomial Functions). The function f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + x − 5 is a cubic
polynomial. Its domain is all real numbers R.
x2 −1
Example 2.1.3 (Rational Functions). The function g(x) = x−1 has domain R \ {1} since
division by zero is undefined.

2.2 Polynomial and Rational Functions

2.2.1 Polynomial Functions
Definition 2.2.1 (Polynomial Function). A polynomial function of degree n has the form:

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where an ̸= 0 and ai ∈ R for i = 0, 1, . . . , n.

1
2 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2 y
f (x) = x
g(x) = x2
1
h(x) = x3
x
−2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

−1

−2

Figure 2.1: Graphs of basic polynomial functions

Properties of Polynomial Functions:

• Domain: R

• Continuous everywhere

• Differentiable everywhere

• Smooth curves (no sharp corners)

2.2.2 Rational Functions

Definition 2.2.2 (Rational Function). A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials:

P (x)
R(x) =
Q(x)

where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials.

x2 −4
Example 2.2.3 (Rational Function Analysis). Consider f (x) = x−2 .

• Domain: R \ {2}
(x−2)(x+2)
• For x ̸= 2, we can simplify: f (x) = x−2 =x+2

• The point x = 2 is a removable discontinuity

y x2 −4
6 f (x) = x−2 (hole at x = 2)

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Figure 2.2: Rational function with removable discontinuity

2.3. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 3

2.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

2.3.1 Exponential Functions
Definition 2.3.1 (Exponential Function). For a > 0 and a ̸= 1, the exponential function with
base a is:
f (x) = ax

Key Properties:

• Domain: R

• Range: (0, ∞)

• a0 = 1 for all a > 0

• ax+y = ax ay

• (ax )y = axy

• If a > 1: strictly increasing

• If 0 < a < 1: strictly decreasing

The most important exponential function uses base e ≈ 2.71828 (Euler’s number).

8 y
f (x) = ex
g(x) = e−x
6

x
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure 2.3: Exponential growth and decay functions

2.3.2 Logarithmic Functions

Definition 2.3.2 (Logarithmic Function). For a > 0 and a ̸= 1, the logarithmic function with
base a is the inverse of the exponential function:

y = loga (x) ⇐⇒ ay = x

Key Properties:

• Domain: (0, ∞)

• Range: R

• loga (1) = 0

• loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y)

• loga (xy ) = y loga (x)

4 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

• If a > 1: strictly increasing

• If 0 < a < 1: strictly decreasing

The natural logarithm uses base e: ln(x) = loge (x).

y
f (x) = ln(x)
2 g(x) = log10 (x)

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

−2

Figure 2.4: Logarithmic functions with different bases

2.4 Trigonometric Functions

2.4.1 Basic Trigonometric Functions
The six basic trigonometric functions are defined using the unit circle or right triangles:

Definition 2.4.1 (Trigonometric Functions). For an angle θ in standard position with point
(x, y) on the unit circle:
y
sin θ = y cos θ = x tan θ =
x
1 1 x
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
y x y

Fundamental Properties:

• Periodicity: sin(x + 2π) = sin x, cos(x + 2π) = cos x

• Parity: sin(−x) = − sin x (odd), cos(−x) = cos x (even)

• Boundedness: −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1

y
sin x
1 cos x

x
−2π − 3π −π − π2 π π 3π 2π
2 2 2

−1

Figure 2.5: Sine and cosine functions showing periodicity and phase difference
2.5. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 5

2.4.2 Solving Trigonometric Equations

Example 2.4.2 (Solving sin x = 12 ). We solve sin x = 21 :

• Principal solution: x = π
6

• General solution: x = π
6 + 2kπ or x = 5π
6 + 2kπ for k ∈ Z
1
Example 2.4.3 (Solving Trigonometric Inequalities). Solve sin x > 2 for x ∈ [0, 2π]:

• sin x = 1
2 at x = π
6 and x = 5π
6

• sin x > 1 π 5π


2 for x ∈ 6, 6

2.5 Hyperbolic Functions

2.5.1 Definitions and Basic Properties
Hyperbolic functions are analogs of trigonometric functions but for hyperbolas rather than
circles.

Definition 2.5.1 (Hyperbolic Functions). The hyperbolic sine and cosine are defined as:

ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x

Key Properties:

• Parity: sinh(−x) = − sinh x (odd), cosh(−x) = cosh x (even)

• Monotonicity: sinh x is strictly increasing, cosh x is decreasing on (−∞, 0] and increasing

on [0, ∞)

• Range: sinh x ∈ R, cosh x ∈ [1, ∞), tanh x ∈ (−1, 1)

4 y
sinh x
cosh x
2 tanh x

x
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−2

−4

Figure 2.6: Graphs of hyperbolic functions

6 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.5.2 Hyperbolic Identities

Hyperbolic functions satisfy identities similar to trigonometric identities:

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
sinh(2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh(2x) = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

2.6 Continuity of Functions

2.6.1 Definition and Basic Concepts
Definition 2.6.1 (Continuity at a Point). A function f is continuous at x = c if:
1. f (c) is defined
2. limx→c f (x) exists
3. limx→c f (x) = f (c)
Definition 2.6.2 (Continuity on an Interval). A function is continuous on an interval I if it
is continuous at every point in I.
Example 2.6.3 (Continuous Function). The polynomial f (x) = x2 + 3x − 2 is continuous on
R since polynomials are continuous everywhere.
Example 2.6.4 (Discontinuous Function). The function g(x) = x1 is discontinuous at x = 0
because it is not defined there, but continuous on (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).

2.6.2 Types of Discontinuities

1. Removable Discontinuity: The limit exists but f (c) is either undefined or not equal
to the limit.
2. Jump Discontinuity: The left-hand and right-hand limits exist but are not equal.
3. Infinite Discontinuity: The function approaches ±∞ as x approaches c.
4. Essential Discontinuity: The limit does not exist in any meaningful sense.

4 y
Jump discontinuity at x = 0

x
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−2

Figure 2.7: Function with jump discontinuity

2.7. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY 7

2.7 Fundamental Theorems on Continuity

2.7.1 Basic Theorems
Theorem 2.7.1 (Algebra of Continuous Functions). If f and g are continuous at x = c, then:

• f + g is continuous at c

• f − g is continuous at c

• f · g is continuous at c
f
• g is continuous at c (provided g(c) ̸= 0)

Theorem 2.7.2 (Composition of Continuous Functions). If g is continuous at c and f is

continuous at g(c), then f ◦ g is continuous at c.

Theorem 2.7.3 (Continuity of Elementary Functions). All elementary functions (polynomials,

rational functions, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, hyperbolic) are continuous on their
domains.

2.7.2 Intermediate Value Theorem

Theorem 2.7.4 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). If f is continuous on [a, b] and K is
any number between f (a) and f (b), then there exists at least one number c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (c) = K.

Proof. The proof relies on the completeness of real numbers and is beyond the scope of this
chapter. The intuitive idea is that a continuous function cannot jump from one value to another
without taking all intermediate values.

Example 2.7.5 (Application of IVT). Show that the equation x3 − x − 1 = 0 has a solution in
[1, 2].
Let f (x) = x3 − x − 1. Then:

• f (1) = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1 < 0

• f (2) = 8 − 2 − 1 = 5 > 0

• Since f is continuous on [1, 2] and 0 is between f (1) and f (2), by IVT there exists c ∈ (1, 2)
such that f (c) = 0.

6 y
f (x) = x3 − x − 1
y=0
4

x
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4

−2

Figure 2.8: Intermediate Value Theorem application

8 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.7.3 Extreme Value Theorem

Theorem 2.7.6 (Extreme Value Theorem). If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then:
1. f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) for some c ∈ [a, b]
2. f attains an absolute minimum value f (d) for some d ∈ [a, b]
Remark 2.7.7. The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees the existence of global extrema for
continuous functions on closed intervals, which is crucial for optimization problems.

2.8 Inverse Functions and Monotonic Bijections

2.8.1 One-to-One Functions and Invertibility
Definition 2.8.1 (One-to-One Function). A function f is one-to-one (injective) if f (x1 ) =
f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 for all x1 , x2 in the domain.
Definition 2.8.2 (Inverse Function). If f is one-to-one with domain A and range B, then its
inverse f −1 has domain B and range A, and satisfies:
f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y
Properties of Inverse Functions:
• (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x for all x in the domain of f
• (f ◦ f −1 )(y) = y for all y in the domain of f −1
• The graph of f −1 is the reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x

4 y
f (x) = ex
f −1 (x)= ln x
y=x
2

x
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Figure 2.9: A function and its inverse are symmetric about y = x

2.8.2 Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Theorem 2.8.3 (Monotonic Bijection Theorem). If f is strictly monotonic (either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing) on an interval I, then:
1. f is one-to-one on I
2. f has an inverse function f −1 defined on f (I)
3. f −1 is strictly monotonic (increasing if f is increasing, decreasing if f is decreasing)
4. If f is continuous on I, then f −1 is continuous on f (I)
Example 2.8.4 (Monotonic Function). The function f (x) = x3 is strictly increasing on R
√
because if x1 < x2 , then x31 < x32 . Therefore, it has an inverse function f −1 (x) = 3 x defined
on R.
2.9. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 9

2.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

2.9.1 Definitions and Principal Values
Since trigonometric functions are periodic and not one-to-one on their entire domains, we restrict
their domains to obtain inverse functions.
Definition 2.9.1 (Inverse Sine Function). The inverse sine function arcsin x (or sin−1 x) is
defined as the inverse of sin x restricted to [− π2 , π2 ]:

y = arcsin x ⇐⇒ sin y = x with y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ], x ∈ [−1, 1]

Definition 2.9.2 (Inverse Cosine Function). The inverse cosine function arccos x (or cos−1 x)
is defined as the inverse of cos x restricted to [0, π]:

y = arccos x ⇐⇒ cos y = x with y ∈ [0, π], x ∈ [−1, 1]

Definition 2.9.3 (Inverse Tangent Function). The inverse tangent function arctan x (or tan−1 x)
is defined as the inverse of tan x restricted to (− π2 , π2 ):

y = arctan x ⇐⇒ tan y = x with y ∈ (− π2 , π2 ), x∈R

2 y
arcsin x
arctan x
1

x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

−1

−2

Figure 2.10: Inverse trigonometric functions

2.9.2 Properties and Identities

π
arcsin x + arccos x = for x ∈ [−1, 1]
  2
1 π
arctan x + arctan = for x > 0
x 2
Theorem 2.9.4 (Composition of Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions). For
x ∈ [−1, 1], we have:
p
sin(arccos x) = 1 − x2
p
cos(arcsin x) = 1 − x2
√
Proof of sin(arccos x) = 1 − x2 . Let θ = arccos x. By definition, this means cos θ = x with
θ ∈ [0, π].
Using the Pythagorean identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, we have:

sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ = 1 − x2
10 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Taking square roots: p

sin θ = ± 1 − x2
We need to determine the correct sign. Since θ = arccos x ∈ [0, π], we know that sin θ ≥ 0
on this interval (sine is non-negative in the first and second quadrants). Therefore:
p
sin(arccos x) = sin θ = 1 − x2

This completes the proof.

√
Proof of cos(arcsin x) = 1 − x2 . Let θ = arcsin x. By definition, this means sin θ = x with
θ ∈ [− π2 , π2 ].
Using the Pythagorean identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, we have:

cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ = 1 − x2

Taking square roots: p

cos θ = ± 1 − x2
We need to determine the correct sign. Since θ = arcsin x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ], we know that cos θ ≥ 0
on this interval (cosine is non-negative in the first and fourth quadrants). Therefore:
p
cos(arcsin x) = cos θ = 1 − x2

This completes the proof.

2.10 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

2.10.1 Definitions and Formulas
Definition 2.10.1 (Inverse Hyperbolic Sine).
 p 
arsinh x = ln x + x2 + 1 , x∈R

Definition 2.10.2 (Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine).

 p 
arcosh x = ln x + x2 − 1 , x≥1

Definition 2.10.3 (Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent).

 
1 1+x
artanh x = ln , x ∈ (−1, 1)
2 1−x

y
arsinh x
2 artanh x

x
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−2

Figure 2.11: Inverse hyperbolic functions

2.10. INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 11

2.10.2 Derivation of Formulas

ey −e−y
Derivation of arsinh x formula. Let y = arsinh x, then by definition x = sinh y = 2 .
Multiply both sides by 2ey :
2xey = e2y − 1
e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in ey . Let u = ey , then:
u2 − 2xu − 1 = 0
Solving using the quadratic formula:
√
2x ± 4x2 + 4 p
u= = x ± x2 + 1
2
√
Since u = ey > 0 and x2 + 1 > |x|, we must take the positive sign:
p
e y = x + x2 + 1
Taking natural logarithms of both sides:
 p 
y = ln x + x2 + 1

Therefore:  p 
arsinh x = ln x + x2 + 1

ey +e−y
Derivation of arcosh x formula. Let y = arcosh x, then by definition x = cosh y = 2 with
y ≥ 0.
Multiply both sides by 2ey :
2xey = e2y + 1
e2y − 2xey + 1 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in ey . Let u = ey , then:
u2 − 2xu + 1 = 0
Solving using the quadratic formula:
√
2x ± 4x2 − 4 p
u= = x ± x2 − 1
2
Since u√= ey ≥ 1 (because
√ y ≥ 0) and x ≥ 1, we need to choose the sign that gives u ≥ 1.
Both x + x − 1 and x − x2 − 1 are positive, but:
2
p p
(x + x2 − 1)(x − x2 − 1) = x2 − (x2 − 1) = 1
√ √ √
So x − x2 − 1 = x+√1x2 −1 . Since x + x2 − 1 ≥ 1, we have x − x2 − 1 ≤ 1. To ensure
ey ≥ 1, we take: p
e y = x + x2 − 1
Taking natural logarithms of both sides:
 p 
y = ln x + x2 − 1

Therefore:  p 
arcosh x = ln x + x2 − 1
12 CHAPTER 2. REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

ey −e−y
Derivation of artanh x formula. Let y = artanh x, then by definition x = tanh y = ey +e−y
with
x ∈ (−1, 1).
Multiply numerator and denominator by ey :
e2y − 1
x=
e2y + 1
Solving for e2y :
x(e2y + 1) = e2y − 1
xe2y + x = e2y − 1
xe2y − e2y = −1 − x
e2y (x − 1) = −(1 + x)
1+x
e2y =
1−x
Taking natural logarithms of both sides:
 
1+x
2y = ln
1−x
 
1 1+x
y = ln
2 1−x
Therefore:  
1 1+x
artanh x = ln
2 1−x

2.11 Applications and Connections

2.11.1 Connections Between Functions
There are deep connections between exponential, trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions through
Euler’s formula:

eix = cos x + i sin x

eix − e−ix
sin x =
2i
eix + e−ix
cos x =
2
sinh(ix) = i sin x
cosh(ix) = cos x

2.11.2 Real-World Applications

1. Exponential functions model population growth, radioactive decay, and compound
interest.

2. Trigonometric functions describe periodic phenomena like sound waves, alternating

current, and seasonal patterns.

3. Hyperbolic functions appear in special relativity, cable suspension problems, and heat
transfer.
2.11. APPLICATIONS AND CONNECTIONS 13

4. Inverse trigonometric functions are used in navigation, engineering, and computer

graphics for angle calculations.

Remark 2.11.1. The concepts covered in this chapter—elementary functions, continuity, in-
verse functions—form the foundation for calculus. In subsequent chapters, we will build upon
these ideas to develop differentiation and integration techniques.