Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh city Faculty of Applied Science

Ho Chi Minh University of Technology

PROJECT
(PHYSICS 2)
FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR
APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS
Instructor: Dr. Gary Wetson
Student’s name ID SCORE
Trần Tấn Tài 2252728
Đào Hà Minh Duy 2551515
Nguyễn Minh Khang 2551360
Nguyễn Hồng Phúc 2551392
Nguyễn Trinh Bao Trung 2252857
Class: CC05 - Group: - HK252

Ho Chi Minh City, 25th May, 2026

 FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................................................... ii
COMMITMENT ........................................................................................................................................................iii
I. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................ 1
II. History of Laser Development .............................................................................................................................. 1
[Link] of Laser .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Basic principle of laser emission ........................................................................................................................ 3
a. Absorption Process ........................................................................................................................................... 3
b. Spontaneous Emission ...................................................................................................................................... 3
c. Stimulated Emission ......................................................................................................................................... 4
d. Mechanism of Laser Generation ....................................................................................................................... 4
2. Population inversion – optical pumping ............................................................................................................. 5
3. Types of laser ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
a. Classification according to the active medium ................................................................................................. 7
b. Classification by operating mode...................................................................................................................... 8
IV. Structure of laser ................................................................................................................................................... 9
a. Pump source .................................................................................................................................................... 10
b. Gain medium .................................................................................................................................................. 10
c. Optical resonator ............................................................................................................................................. 10
V. Laser operation modes ........................................................................................................................................ 11
1. Continuos wave mode ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2. Pulsed mode ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
VI. The application of laser in lidar .......................................................................................................................... 12
1. Overview of LiDAR Technology and the Role of Laser .................................................................................... 12
2. Physical Principles of Laser Operation in LiDAR .............................................................................................. 14
3. Technical Characteristics of Lasers in LiDAR Systems ..................................................................................... 15
a. Multi-Wavelength Operation .......................................................................................................................... 15
b. Deviance angle................................................................................................................................................ 16
c. Sensitivity to Atmospheric Conditions ........................................................................................................... 17
d. Emission Modes: Pulsed vs. Continuous Wave .............................................................................................. 18
4. Some specific method of LiDar .......................................................................................................................... 18
a. Time of Flight (ToF) Method .......................................................................................................................... 18
b. Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) Method .......................................................................... 20
5. Advantages and Technological Challenges ......................................................................................................... 22

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express sincere gratitude to Dr. Gary Wetson for his valuable
guidance, support, and encouragement throughout the completion of this assignment on
Fundamentals of laser physics and their application in lidar systems. His lectures and
professional advice provided essential knowledge and helped the author better understand the
principles and applications of laser and LiDAR technology. His comments and suggestions also
contributed significantly to improving the quality of this report.

Our team would also like to thank the lecturers and all staff members of the faculty for creating
a positive academic environment and providing useful learning resources during the course. In
addition, appreciation is extended to friends and classmates for their discussions and support
throughout the preparation of this assignment.

Finally, sincere thanks are given to the author’s family for their continuous encouragement,
understanding, and motivation during the study process. Their support has been an important source
of strength in completing this work successfully.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

COMMITMENT
The author hereby declares that this assignment entitled “Fundamentals of laser physics and
their application in lidar systems” is the result of independent study and research conducted under
the guidance of Dr. Gary Wetson. All references, figures, and materials used in this report have been
properly acknowledged and cited according to academic regulations.
Our team take full responsibility for the originality and accuracy of the content presented in
this assignment. Any violation related to academic integrity or plagiarism is entirely the responsibility
of the author.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

I. Introduction
Since its invention in 1960, the laser has become one of the most significant
technological developments of modern science. Initially regarded as “a solution
searching for applications,” laser technology rapidly evolved and found widespread
use in numerous fields, including medicine, telecommunications, industry, military
systems, and scientific research. Today, lasers are considered one of the most
influential inventions of the twentieth century.
The importance of lasers in science and engineering originates from their
unique optical properties, such as high coherence, high intensity, monochromaticity,
and excellent beam directionality. These characteristics enable lasers to focus energy
into extremely small areas with very high power density. As a result, lasers are
widely applied in material processing operations such as cutting, drilling, welding,
and engraving.
In addition, the coherent nature of laser light allows information to be stored
and transmitted efficiently in optical devices such as DVDs and fiber-optic
communication systems. High-power solid-state lasers, such as Nd:YAG lasers, are
also capable of generating extremely intense optical beams through nonlinear optical
processes like frequency doubling.
Due to these advantages, laser technology has become an essential component
in many modern applications, particularly in LiDAR systems, where highly
directional and coherent laser beams are used for precise distance measurement and
environmental mapping.

II. History of Laser Development

LASER is an acronym for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation,” which means the amplification of light by stimulated emission of
radiation.
The theoretical foundation of the laser was established in 1917 when Albert
Einstein introduced the concept of stimulated emission in his quantum theory of
radiation. Einstein explained that an excited atom could be induced by an incoming

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

photon to emit another photon with identical frequency, phase, and direction. This
phenomenon later became the fundamental principle of laser operation.
In 1954, Charles H. Townes successfully demonstrated the first MASER
(Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), which amplified
electromagnetic waves in the microwave region. The success of the maser proved
the practicality of stimulated emission and inspired researchers to extend the concept
to visible light frequencies.
In 1958, Charles H. Townes and Arthur L. Schawlow proposed the concept of
the “optical maser,” later renamed the laser. Their theoretical work described the use
of an optical resonator with reflecting mirrors to amplify coherent light through
stimulated emission.
The first successful laser was demonstrated in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at
Hughes Research Laboratories. Maiman used a synthetic ruby crystal as the active
medium and a flash lamp as the optical pumping source. The device generated pulsed
red laser radiation with a wavelength of approximately 694.3 nm, becoming the
world’s first operational ruby laser.
Following the invention of the ruby laser, laser technology developed rapidly.
In the early 1960s, some important laser systems were introduced, including the
helium–neon laser, semiconductor laser, and carbon dioxide laser. These
advancements significantly improved laser efficiency, power output, and practical
applications in science, medicine, telecommunications, manufacturing, and LiDAR
technology.

Figure 1: Chales Towners - The 1st one invented Laser ray

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

III. Fundamentals of Laser

1. Basic principle of laser emission
a. Absorption Process
Absorption of radiation is the process in which electrons in the ground state
absorb energy from incoming photons and transition to higher energy levels. Under
normal conditions, atoms tend to remain in their lowest energy state, known as the
ground state. When external energy is supplied, such as through electron collisions
or incident electromagnetic radiation, the electrons can gain sufficient energy to
move into an excited state. This transition only occurs when the energy of the
absorbed photon matches the energy difference between the two atomic energy
levels.
b. Spontaneous Emission
Spontaneous emission is the process in which atoms or molecules in an excited
energy state naturally transition to a lower energy state without any external
stimulation. During this transition, the excess energy is released in the form of a
photon. The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the difference between the two
energy levels involved in the transition.

Figure 2: Spontaneous Emission state

Excited atoms or molecules remain in the higher energy state for a characteristic
period known as the spontaneous emission lifetime. Typically, after a very short time
on the order of 10−7 to 10−8 seconds, the excited particles return to a lower energy
state, which may be the ground state or another intermediate excited state, while
emitting radiation.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Since these transitions occur randomly and independently for different atoms,
the emitted photons have no fixed phase relationship with one another. As a result,
spontaneous emission produces incoherent radiation with random phase and
direction.
c. Stimulated Emission
Stimulated emission is the key physical mechanism responsible for laser
generation. In this process, an incoming photon interacts with an excited atom and
induces the electron to transition to a lower energy state. As the electron returns to
the lower level, a second photon is emitted. The newly generated photon has the
same frequency, phase, direction, and polarization as the incident photon.

Figure 3: Stimulated Emission state

Consequently, the two photons become coherent and travel together through
the medium. When a large number of excited atoms undergo stimulated emission
simultaneously, significant optical amplification occurs, leading to the formation of
an intense laser beam.
d. Mechanism of Laser Generation
The generation of laser radiation is based on three essential processes: energy
pumping, population inversion, and stimulated emission. First, external energy is
supplied to the active medium through a pumping mechanism such as optical
pumping or electrical pumping. This energy excites electrons from the ground state
to higher energy levels. The electrons then rapidly decay to a metastable state, where
they remain for a relatively long lifetime. As more electrons accumulate in this
metastable level, a population inversion is established, meaning that the number of
electrons in the excited state exceeds that in the lower energy state.
When an incident photon with the appropriate energy passes through the
medium, it stimulates excited electrons to emit coherent photons through stimulated

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

emission. These photons are repeatedly reflected between mirrors inside the optical
resonator, producing continuous amplification of light. One mirror is partially
transparent, allowing part of the amplified radiation to exit the cavity as a highly
directional, monochromatic, and coherent laser beam.

Figure 4: Energy Level Diagram

2. Population inversion – optical pumping

In 1939, a Soviet physicist pointed out that it is possible to obtain a medium
in which the light intensity can be amplified due to stimulated emission radiation.
Stimulated emission occurs when external radiation interacts with a system,
causing particles to transition from a lower energy level to a higher energy level
rather than from a higher level to a lower one.
Consider a simple system consisting of two energy levels, where the energy
distribution follows the Boltzmann distribution:
𝐸
− 𝑖𝑇
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒 𝐾𝐵 , 𝑖= 1,2 (1)
(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
𝑛2 −
= 𝑒 𝐾𝐵
𝑇
(2)
𝑛1
where:
𝐾𝐵 = 1.38 × 10 − 23 J/K = 8.617 × 10 − 5 eV
From equations (1) and (2), the higher energy level contains fewer particles.
Since E2 > E1 , then n1 > n2.
To make stimulated emission dominant, it is necessary to break the equilibrium
and disrupt the Boltzmann distribution so that the number of particles in the upper
energy level becomes greater than that in the lower level. At that moment, the atoms
are said to have a population inversion.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

In the case of population inversion:

𝑛2 (𝑇) > 𝑛1 (𝑇) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸1 (𝑇) < 𝐸2 (𝑇)
Using the Boltzmann distribution equation (1), this condition corresponds to a
negative temperature TTT. Therefore, the population inversion state is also called
the negative absolute temperature state.
It is known that when light passes through a normal medium, part of the light
is absorbed, causing its intensity to decrease depending on the distance traveled in
the medium according to the following equation:
𝐼(𝑥) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 (3)
where I0 is the light intensity at x=0 when it first enters the medium, and k is
the absorption coefficient of the medium.

Figure 5: Beer–Lambert Law Diagram

When light with intensity I(z) travels in the z direction through a material with
densities of atoms N1 and N2 in two energy levels satisfying a certain requirement
and numbered so that level 2 lies higher than level 1, the light intensity decreases
because of absorption by the atoms in level 1. The decrease is given by
𝐼(𝑧) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 (4)
where α > 0 is the absorption coefficient
For laser operation, the number of particles in the excited energy state 𝑁2 must
exceed the number in the lower energy state 𝑁1 . This condition, known as population
inversion, is essential because stimulated emission can only dominate over
absorption when 𝑁2 > 𝑁1 . Under this circumstance, the optical gain becomes
positive, causing the intensity of light to increase as it propagates through the laser

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

medium. In contrast, if 𝑁1 > 𝑁2 , absorption dominates and the light intensity

decreases. Population inversion is achieved by exciting more electrons into a higher
energy level than those remaining in the lower energy level involved in the laser
transition. As a result, instead of net absorption, the medium produces amplification
of light through stimulated emission, which is the fundamental principle behind laser
generation.
3. Types of laser
a. Classification according to the active medium
Solid-State Laser

A laser uses a solid as the amplifying medium, such as a crystal or glass

doped with rare metal ions

Figure 6: Solid-State Laser structure

Applications: Precision mechanical processing (cutting, metal welding), medicine (skin

aesthetics, tattoo removal)
Gas Laser
Electric current is discharged through a gas-filled tube (such as Helium-Neon (He-
Ne), CO₂) to produce monochromatic light.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 7: Energy level diagram of the Helium–Neon gas laser operation

Applications: measuring devices, CO₂ cutters, projectors, and research optics

Semiconductor Laser (Laser Diode)
This is the most compact and energy-efficient type of laser, using semiconductors
(such as Gallium Arsenide – GaAs) as the gain medium.
Applications: CD/DVD readers, laser pointers, fiber optic communications
(Internet) and computer mice.
Dye Laser
Use organic dye solutions as active ingredients.

Figure 8: Schematic Diagram of a Dye Laser

Application: Used in scientific research, medicine, and spectral analysis.

b. Classification by operating mode
Besides the active medium, lasers are also classified according to the way they emit
energy:
Continuous Wave Laser (CW): Emits a stable and continuous beam over time.
Suitable for precise cutting or communication.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Pulsed Laser: Emits light in the form of extremely short pulses but with extremely
high peak power. This type is often used in tasks requiring high concentrated energy
without heating the surrounding area (such as tattoo removal or micro-processing).
c. Classification by safety level (Hazard level)
Based on international standards, lasers are divided into levels from 1 to 4 for users
to protect themselves:
+ Class 1: Absolutely safe under normal use conditions
+ Class 2: Low-power visible light laser (below 1mW). ReflexTypes of organic
dyes soluble in the solution serving as the active medium.
+ Class 3: Can cause eye damage if viewed directly.
+ Class 4: High-power lasers (over 500mW). Can cause skin burns, fire, and
blindness even when only seeing diffuse reflection beams.

IV. Structure of laser

The structure of a laser system mainly consists of three basic components: (1) gain
medium, (2) pump source, and (3–4) optical resonator.

Figure 9: The structure of a laser system

The gain medium (1) is the most important part because it is responsible for
amplifying light through stimulated emission. When energy from the pump source (2) is
supplied to the gain medium, atoms inside the medium become excited and release photons.
These photons stimulate other excited atoms to emit additional photons with the same
direction, frequency, and phase, resulting in light amplification.
The optical resonator is formed by two mirrors placed at both ends of the gain
medium, including the fully reflective mirror (3) and the partially reflective mirror (4).
The photons continuously reflect back and forth between these mirrors, causing repeated

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

stimulated emission and increasing the intensity of the light beam. Finally, a portion of the
amplified light passes through the partially reflective mirror to form the laser beam (5).
The characteristics of the laser depend strongly on the type of gain medium used; therefore,
lasers are commonly classified according to their active medium.
a. Pump source
This is an external energy source provided to the system to activate the atoms in the
active medium.
- Function: To move electrons from a low energy level to a high energy level
(excited state) to create the phenomenon of population inversion.
- Types of pump sources:
+ Light: Using a flash lamp or another laser (common in liquid and solid lasers).
+ Electricity: Using a current discharged through gas (gas laser) or a current flowing
through a semiconductor junction (diode laser).
b. Gain medium
Determining the wavelength (color) and properties of the emitted laser beam.
+ Characteristics: It can be solid , gas , liquid , or semiconductor.
+ Mechanism: When receiving energy from a pump source, the atoms in this
medium will emit photons (light particles) that have the same phase, same direction, and
same energy.
c. Optical resonator
This component helps maintain and amplify the photon stream into a narrow and
strong beam. It usually consists of two mirrors placed parallel at both ends of the active
medium:
+ Total reflection mirror: Reflects 100% of the light back into the active medium to
continue stimulating other atoms.
+ Partial reflection mirror (Output mirror): Allows a small portion of light (about
1% - 5%) to escape. The escaping light is the laser beam that we see.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

V. Laser operation modes

1. Continuous wave mode
Continuous mode is the mode in which the laser generates a beam with a stable output
power that does not change over time.
+ Mechanism: The electron density inversion necessary for laser operation is
continuously maintained by a steady energy pumping source.
+ Characteristic:
- Stable average output power, constant wave amplitude.
- High monochromaticity and high frequency stability.
- Generates a large amount of heat on the active medium, requiring a cooling system
(water or fan) to operate continuously to prevent component damage.
+ Application: Commonly found in gas lasers (CO2, He-Ne) or fiber lasers (Fiber
laser) with low to medium power. Common applications include optical fiber
telecommunications, barcode scanners, presentation pens, and material processing steps
for cutting or welding that require smooth, continuous surfaces.
2. Pulsed mode
In this mode, laser energy is not released continuously but is concentrated to emit in
intermittent light pulses over extremely short periods of time.
+ Mechanism: Energy from the pump source is continuously accumulated inside the
active medium or resonant cavity but does not immediately escape. When it reaches a
threshold limit, all this energy is released outside in an extremely short moment thanks to
pulse modulation techniques such as:
- Q-switching: Sudden change of the quality factor Q of the resonant cavity to
generate nanosecond (ns) pulses with maximum peak power.
- Mode-locking: Synchronizing the wave modes in a resonant cavity to create ultra-
short pulses on the order of picoseconds (ps) or femtoseconds (fs).
+ Characteristic:
- Extremely high peak power (can reach megawatts or gigawatts), even though the
overall average power of the system may be very small.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

- The time of thermal impact on the material is very short, helping to minimize the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) around the interaction site.
+ Application: Commonly applied to solid-state laser lines. Widely used in precision
medicine (LASIK eye surgery, tattoo removal, skin aesthetics without burning surrounding
tissue), micro-mechanical processing (laser engraving on semiconductor chips, drilling
ultra-small holes), and in advanced atomic physics research.

VI. The application of laser in lidar

1. Overview of LiDAR Technology and the Role of Laser
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is an advanced remote sensing technology
used to measure distances and map three-dimensional environments with extreme
precision. At its core, a LiDAR system functions by actively emitting light toward a target
area and capturing the backscattered signals that reflect off objects. A LiDAR system
measures the time it takes for emitted light to travel to the ground and back, called the two-
way travel time. That time is used to calculate distance traveled. Distance traveled is then
converted to elevation. These measurements are made using the key components of a lidar
system including a GPS that identifies the X,Y,Z location of the light energy and an Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU) that provides the orientation of the plane in the sky (roll, pitch,
and yaw). While any intense light source could theoretically be used for ranging, the unique
properties of lasers make them absolutely irreplaceable in modern LiDAR systems. In basic
physics, standard light sources like light bulbs or LEDs emit incoherent light that spreads
out in all directions, quickly losing energy. Lasers, however, possess three fundamental
properties that make them ideal for this technology:

Figure 10: The laser scanning the 2D and 3d map

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

It is a common misconception to assume that any sufficiently bright light source could
be used to measure distance. Their photons scatter wildly in all directions, mixing multiple
wavelengths, and their energy dissipates rapidly over short distances. In a real-world
environment, an LED signal would be instantly drowned out by ambient sunlight or lost in
the atmosphere. This is precisely why the laser is the undisputed core of modern LiDAR
systems, possessing three fundamental physical properties that no other light source can
replicate.
The most visually defining characteristic of a laser is its high directionality, or spatial
coherence. Unlike a flashlight beam that widens and diffuses as it moves away from the
source, laser photons travel in almost perfect parallel alignment. This translates to an
incredibly low beam divergence angle. Even after traveling through kilometers of open air,
a laser beam remains intensely focused. This pin-point accuracy allows a LiDAR system
to differentiate and map incredibly small, distinct objects at extreme distances—such as
isolating a single overhead power line, mapping the structural integrity of a bridge cable,
or detecting a small rock on the road ahead of an autonomous car.
Equally critical to the system's success is the laser's high monochromaticity, or
spectral purity. While ambient sunlight is a chaotic mixture of countless wavelengths, a
laser emits light at one single, hyper-specific wavelength, commonly in the infrared
spectrum. The Earth is constantly bombarded by background solar radiation, which acts as
optical noise that can easily blind standard optical sensors. Because the laser operates on a
single wavelength, engineers can equip the LiDAR's receiver with ultra-narrow bandpass
optical filters. These filters completely block out the chaotic background sunlight and only
allow the precise wavelength of the returning laser photons to pass through, ensuring the
system registers a clean signal regardless of whether it is operating at midnight or high
noon.
Equally critical to the system's success is the laser's high monochromaticity, or
spectral purity. While ambient sunlight is a chaotic mixture of countless wavelengths, a
laser emits light at one single, hyper-specific wavelength, commonly in the infrared
spectrum. The Earth is constantly bombarded by background solar radiation, which acts as
optical noise that can easily blind standard optical sensors. Because the laser operates on a
single wavelength, engineers can equip the LiDAR's receiver with ultra-narrow bandpass
optical filters. These filters completely block out the chaotic background sunlight and only
allow the precise wavelength of the returning laser photons to pass through, ensuring the
system registers a clean signal regardless of whether it is operating at midnight or high
noon.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 11: The comparision between normal light source and lazer

2. Physical Principles of Laser Operation in LiDAR

The operation of LiDAR systems begins with the generation and emission of laser
beams. Unlike ordinary light sources, lasers produce highly coherent, monochromatic, and
directional electromagnetic radiation, making them particularly suitable for precise
distance measurement applications. In LiDAR technology, semiconductor lasers or solid-
state lasers are commonly used due to their high stability, compact size, and ability to
generate extremely short pulses with high peak power.

Figure 12: Main struture of LiDar system

The fundamental ranging principle of LiDAR is based on the speed of light. Since
electromagnetic waves travel at an approximately constant speed in air, the target distance
can be calculated using the time required for the laser pulse to travel to the object and return
to the detector.
𝒄 × ∆𝒕
𝑹 =
𝟐

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Where R represents the distance to the target object (meters), c represents the constant
speed of light in the medium (3 × 10^8 m/s in air), and t represents the total round-trip time
recorded by the high-speed electronic clock (seconds).

Figure 13: Transmitter configuration

Many LiDAR systems employ either biaxial or coaxial optical configurations for
transmitting and receiving laser signals. In a biaxial arrangement, the laser transmitter axis
and the receiver optical axis are separated. As a result, the reflected laser beam only enters
the receiver’s field of view beyond a certain distance. This configuration is advantageous
because it reduces near-field backscattered radiation, which could otherwise saturate the
photodetector and decrease measurement accuracy.
In contrast, a coaxial arrangement aligns the laser beam axis directly with the receiver
optical axis. This allows the receiver to detect backscattered signals from very short
distances, including near the zero-range region. However, coaxial systems are more
susceptible to strong near-field scattering effects, which may overload the detector. To
overcome this limitation, techniques such as photodetector gating, fast optical shutters, or
mechanical choppers are commonly used to block excessive near-field backscattered
radiation.
3. Technical Characteristics of Lasers in LiDAR Systems
a. Multi-Wavelength Operation
To meet specific environmental conditions and safety requirements, LiDAR systems
are engineered around specific laser wavelengths and emission modes. The choice of these
characteristics changes how the system interacts physically with the environment.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 14: Laser wavelengthe suitable for LiDar

b. Deviance angle
One of the most important physical characteristics of laser radiation is its low beam
divergence. As the laser beam propagates through space, it remains highly concentrated
over long distances, allowing LiDAR systems to achieve accurate spatial resolution and
target detection. The divergence angle of a laser beam can be approximated by:
𝜆
𝜃=
𝐷
where:

• θ is the beam divergence angle,

• λ is the laser wavelength,

• D is the aperture diameter of the optical system.

As the laser beam propagates through the atmosphere, its intensity may be affected
by absorption and scattering caused by particles such as fog, dust, smoke, rain, and water
vapor. These atmospheric effects can significantly reduce signal strength and decrease the
overall performance of the LiDAR system.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 15: the deviance angle of transmitter

Atmospheric absorption occurs when molecules such as water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and ozone absorb part of the laser energy, converting it into heat. In addition, atmospheric
scattering takes place when laser radiation interacts with suspended particles in the air.
Depending on the particle size, scattering can be classified into Rayleigh scattering and
Mie scattering. Rayleigh scattering is caused by particles much smaller than the laser
wavelength, while Mie scattering is produced by larger particles such as fog droplets, dust,
and smoke particles. In practical LiDAR applications, Mie scattering is particularly
important because fog and rain can severely weaken reflected laser signals.

c. Sensitivity to Atmospheric Conditions

The attenuation of laser intensity during atmospheric propagation can be described
using the Beer–Lambert law:
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥

where:
• I0 is the initial laser intensity,
• I is the received laser intensity,
• α is the atmospheric attenuation coefficient,
• x is the propagation distance.
This equation shows that the intensity of laser radiation decreases exponentially as
the propagation distance increases. Under adverse weather conditions such as heavy rain
or dense fog, the attenuation coefficient becomes larger, leading to weaker reflected signals
and reduced ranging accuracy.
Despite these environmental challenges, the highly directional and coherent nature of
laser radiation still enables LiDAR systems to maintain reliable operation in many complex
sensing environments. Understanding the physical principles of laser propagation and
atmospheric interaction is therefore essential for improving LiDAR performance in
applications such as autonomous vehicles, remote sensing, and environmental monitoring.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 16: Laser under the amotspheric conditions

d. Emission Modes: Pulsed vs. Continuous Wave

Lasers operate in two main modes depending on energy distribution. Pulsed lasers
pack energy into short, its intense flashes lasting only nanoseconds. This produces an
extremely high peak power, allowing the pulse to travel through rain or dust and bounce
back from far distances. On the other hand, Continuous Wave (CW) lasers emit a constant
stream of light at much lower peak powers, relying on continuous modulation (as seen in
Phase Shift and FMCW) to extract distance through sophisticated mathematical
processing.
4. Some specific method of LiDar
a. Time of Flight (ToF) Method
The Time of Flight (ToF) technique is the most common and intuitive physical
mechanism used in LiDAR ranging. The system emits a discrete, high-power laser pulse
at a known time. This pulse travels through space at the speed of light, strikes an object,
and scatters. A tiny fraction of the light bounces directly backward along the same path
and strikes a highly sensitive photodetector.
𝒄 × ∆𝒕
𝑹 =
𝟐
The study “Lidar plots — a new large-area data collection option: context, concepts,
and case study” primarily utilizes airborne pulsed LiDAR technology based on the Time-
of-Flight (ToF) principle for large-scale forest data acquisition. In this method, the LiDAR
system emits short laser pulses toward the forest canopy and measures the time required
for the reflected signals to return to the receiver

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

By combining millions of measured points, the LiDAR system reconstructs detailed

three-dimensional models of the forest environment. These point clouds are then analyzed
to estimate important forest parameters such
as:
• tree height,
• canopy density,
• forest biomass,
• vegetation distribution,
• and terrain elevation.
The study demonstrates that ToF
LiDAR technology provides several major
advantages over traditional ground-based
forest surveying methods. Conventional field
measurements require extensive manpower,
long acquisition times, and difficult physical
access to remote forest regions. In contrast,
airborne ToF LiDAR allows rapid large-scale
data collection with high spatial resolution
and consistent measurement quality.
Another important result presented in
the paper is the effectiveness of LiDAR-
derived “LiDAR plots” as an alternative to
conventional field plots. Instead of relying
entirely on manual forest measurements, the Figure 17: Some possible large-area sampling scenarios
authors propose using LiDAR-generated using the existing NFI sampling grid (A) include:
systematic sampling of north/south oriented NFI grid
sampling plots to characterize forest structure
lines (B), random sampling of NFI grid lines (C), or a
over extensive geographic regions. This hybrid approach combining both systematic and rand
significantly improves operational efficiency
and reduces survey costs.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

b. Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) Method

Unlike ToF systems that fire individual bursts, FMCW systems use a continuous
wave (CW) laser. The intensity of this continuous beam is modulated sinusoidally at a radio
frequency. When the modulated wave hits a surface and returns, its wave phase shifts
relative to the original reference wave being emitted at that exact same moment.
FMCW is a highly sophisticated, cutting-edge approach in LiDAR technology.
Instead of modulating wave amplitude, the system continuously changes the actual
frequency of the continuous laser beam over time (creating a 'chirp'). When the reflected
beam returns, its frequency is compared to the frequency currently being emitted.
In the paper “Frequency–angular resolving LiDAR using chip-scale acousto-optic
beam steering”, the authors develop a compact LiDAR architecture that combines FMCW
ranging with chip-scale acousto-optic beam steering. Unlike conventional pulsed ToF
LiDAR, this system uses a continuous laser whose frequency is swept over time. The
reflected optical signal from the target is mixed with a reference signal, producing a beat
frequency that contains distance information.
The FMCW ranging principle can be described by:
𝑐𝑓𝑏
𝑅=
2𝑆
where R is target distance, c is the light speed, fb is beat frequency, and S is chirp slope.
An important characteristic of this architecture is that different beam steering angles
correspond to different frequency shifts. Consequently, the angular information of the
target can also be encoded in the frequency domain. This concept is referred to as
Frequency–Angular Resolving (FAR) LiDAR. By analyzing the received optical spectrum,
the system can simultaneously determine both:
• target distance,

• Angular position.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Figure 18: vision of a monolithic, multi-element AOBS system for 2D scanning, which, with a coherent receiver
array (not shown), can realize 2D LiDAR imaging

The experimental results presented in the paper demonstrate that the proposed system
achieves an 18° field of view, 0.12° angular resolution, and a ranging distance up to 115
m. These results confirm that chip-scale FMCW LiDAR can provide accurate long-range
sensing while significantly reducing system size and mechanical complexity. Compared
with conventional mechanical LiDAR systems, the proposed architecture offers several
advantages, including compact size, non-mechanical beam steering, high angular
precision, coherent detection capability, and improved scalability for integrated photonic
implementation. Another important advantage of FMCW LiDAR is its ability to measure
both target distance and velocity through Doppler frequency analysis. Because coherent
detection is employed, FMCW systems generally exhibit stronger noise immunity and
higher sensitivity compared with conventional pulsed ToF LiDAR systems. These
characteristics make FMCW LiDAR highly suitable for future applications such as
autonomous vehicles, robotics, navigation, environmental sensing, and compact three-
dimensional imaging [Link] compact three-dimensional imaging systems.

Figure 19: The measured frequency–angle relation when the beam is

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

Overall, the paper demonstrates a new generation of coherent FMCW LiDAR

systems that combine integrated photonics, acousto-optic beam steering, and frequency-
domain signal processing to achieve compact and efficient three-dimensional sensing. The
study highlights the potential of chip-scale FMCW LiDAR as an alternative to traditional
mechanically scanned LiDAR architectures for future high-performance sensing
applications.
5. Advantages and Technological Challenges
Key Engineering Strengths: LiDAR provides unparalleled spatial resolution down
to the centimeter level. Unlike cameras, it is completely immune to changes in ambient
lighting and works flawlessly in pitch-black environments because it provides its own
active illumination source.
Despite these powerful benefits, several major challenges remain for widespread
adoption. First, manufacturing precise optical components and high-grade laser diodes is
expensive, making high-end automotive LiDAR units cost thousands of dollars.
Second, physical weather conditions pose a major obstacle. Heavy rain, dense fog, or
thick snowstorms fill the air with water droplets that reflect, scatter, and refract the laser
beams before they can reach the target, significantly reducing the scanning range. Finally,
traditional mechanical LiDAR systems rely on rapidly spinning mirrors, which are prone
to physical wear and tear over extended use.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LASER PHYSICS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN LIDAR SYSTEMS

REFERENCES
[1] Wulder, M. A., White, J. C., Bater, C. W., Coops, N. C., Hopkinson, C., & Chen, G. (2012). Lidar
plots — a new large-area data collection option: context, concepts, and case study. Canadian Journal
of Remote Sensing, 38(5), 600–618. DOI: 10.5589/m12-049.
DOI Article Page
[2] Chu, X. (2016). LiDAR Design and Architecture Lecture Notes. University of Colorado Boulder.
CU Boulder LiDAR Design Architecture PDF
[3] Li, B., Lin, Q., & Li, M. (2023). Frequency–angular resolving LiDAR using chip-scale acousto-optic
beam steering. Nature, 620(7973), 316–322. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06201-6.
Nature Article
[4] Păunescu, L., & collaborators. (2019). Theoretical and applicative considerations regarding LIDAR.
LIDAR Theoretical and Applicative Considerations PDF
[5] Outsight AI. How does LiDAR work?
How LiDAR Works
[6] NEON Science. LiDAR Basics.
NEON LiDAR Basics
[7] Behroozpour, B., Sandborn, P. A. M., Wu, M. C., & Boser, B. E. (2017). Lidar System Architectures
and Circuits. IEEE Communications Magazine, 55(10), 135–142.
IEEE LiDAR Architectures PDF
[8] Li, Y., & Ibanez-Guzman, J. (2020). Lidar for Autonomous Driving: The principles, challenges, and
trends for automotive lidar and perception systems. arXiv:2004.08467.
Automotive LiDAR Review
[9] [Link]
radiation?utm_source=[Link]
[10] [Link]

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