Introduction to Programming with Python

Programming Language
by FLBoateng

What you'll learn

· Functions, Variables
· Conditionals
· Loops
· Exceptions
· Libraries/Modules
· File I/O
· Regular Expressions
· Et Cetera

Python Introduction
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum,
and released in 1991.

It is used for:

· web development (server-side),

· software development,
· mathematics,
· system scripting.

What can Python do?

· Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
· Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
· Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
· Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
· Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.

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Why Python?
· Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi,
etc).
· Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
· Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
· Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed
as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
· Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.

Good to know
· The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated with
anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
· In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to write
Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when managing
larger collections of Python files.

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

· Python was designed for readability and has some similarities to the English
language with influence from mathematics.
· Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
· Python relies on indentation, using white space, to define scope, such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly brackets for this purpose.

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Python Syntax
Execute Python Syntax
As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing
directly in the Command Line:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:

C:\Users\Your Name>python [Link]

Python Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability

only, the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, the most common use is

four, but it has to be at least one.

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Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

You must use the same number of spaces in the same block of code, otherwise
Python will give you an error:

Example
Syntax Error:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Variables
In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:

Example
Variables in Python:

x=5
y = "Hello, World!"

Python has no command for declaring a variable.

Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.

Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:

Example
Comments in Python:

#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")

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Python Comments
Comments can be used to explain Python code.

Comments can be used to make the code more readable.

Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.

Creating a Comment
Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example
#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the rest of
the line:

Example
print("Hello, World!") #This is a comment

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used
to prevent Python from executing code:

Example
#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Multiline Comments
Python does not really have a syntax for multiline comments.

To add a multi-line comment, you could insert a # for each line:

Example

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#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you can
add a multi-line string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment inside
it:

Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
If the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code, but then
ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.

Python Variables
Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

Creating Variables
Python has no command for declaring a variable.

A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)

Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even
change type after they have been set.
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Example
x=4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.

Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0

Get the Type

You can get the data type of a variable with the type() function.

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:

Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'

Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.

Example
This will create two variables:

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a=4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a

Python - Variable Names

Variable Names
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age,
carname, total_volume). Rules for Python variables:

· A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

· A variable name cannot start with a number
· A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _)
· Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
· A variable name cannot be any of the Python keywords.

Example
Legal variable names:

myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"

Example
Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Multi Words Variable Names

Variable names with more than one word can be difficult to read.

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There are several techniques you can use to make them more readable:

Camel Case
Each word, except the first, starts with a capital letter:

myVariableName = "John"

Pascal Case
Each word starts with a capital letter:

MyVariableName = "John"

Snake Case
Each word is separated by an underscore character:

my_variable_name = "John"

Python Variables - Assign Multiple Values

Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Note: Make sure the number of variables matches the number of values, or else
you will get an error.

One Value to Multiple Variables

And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)

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print(y)
print(z)

Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to extract
the values into variables. This is called unpacking.

Example
Unpack a list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)

Python - Output Variables

Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.

Example
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)

In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:

Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)

You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:

Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)

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Notice the space character after "Python " and "is ", without them the result would

be "Python is awesome".

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)

In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with

the + operator, Python will give you an error:

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

The best way to output multiple variables in the print() function is to separate

them with commas, which even support different data types:

Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x, y)

Python - Global Variables

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples in the
previous pages) are known as global variables.

Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.

Example

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Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.

Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

The global Keyword

Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local, and
can only be used inside that function.

To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.

Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

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Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a

function.

Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable by
using the global keyword:

x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)

Python - Variable Exercises

Test Yourself with Exercises
Now you have learned a lot about variables, and how to use them in Python.

Are you ready for a test?

Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types
In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.

Python has the following data types of built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

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 Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:

Example
Print the data type of the variable x:

x=5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

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 x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

x = None NoneType

Setting the Specific Data Type

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If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

Example Data Type

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

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 x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

Python Numbers
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:

· int
· float
· complex

Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:

Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int
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Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.

Example
Integers:

x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.

Example
Floats:

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.

Example
Floats:

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex
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Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Example
Complex:

x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:

Example
Convert from one type to another:

x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

print(a)
print(b)
print(c)

print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

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Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:

Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:

import random

print([Link](1, 10))

Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

· int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal

(by removing all decimals), or a string literal (providing the string
represents a whole number)
· float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or
a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
· str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals

Example
Integers:

x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3

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Example
Floats:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2

Example
Strings:

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'

Python Strings
Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double
quotation marks.

'hello' is the same as "hello".

You can display a string literal with the print() function:

Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Quotes Inside Quotes

You can use quotes inside a string, if they don't match the quotes surrounding
the string:

Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')

Assign String to a Variable

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Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an
equal sign and the string:

Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)

Multiline Strings
You can assign a multi-line string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example
You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

Or three single quotes:

Example
a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

Note: in the result, the line breaks are inserted at the same position as in the
code.

Strings are Arrays

Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of
bytes representing Unicode characters.

However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply
a string with a length of 1.

Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.

Example
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Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the
position 0):

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Looping Through a String

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with
a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the
keyword in.

Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Use it in an if statement:

Example
Print only if "free" is present:

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txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")

Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use
the keyword not in.

Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

Use it in an if statement:

Example
print only if "expensive" is NOT present:

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

if "expensive" not in txt:
print("No, 'expensive' is NOT present.")

Python - Slicing Strings

Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.

Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part
of the string.

Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])
Note: The first character has index 0.

Slice From the Start

By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:

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Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[:5])

Slice To the End

By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:

Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:])

Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters:

From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)

To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2):

b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])

Python - Modify Strings

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print([Link]())

Lower Case

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Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:

a = "Hello, World!"
print([Link]())

Remove White-space
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you
want to remove this space.

Example
The strip() method removes any white-space from the beginning or the end:

a = " Hello, World! "

print([Link]()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print([Link]("H", "J"))

Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator
becomes the list items.

Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:

a = "Hello, World!"
print([Link](",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']

String Methods
Python - String Concatenation
String Concatenation
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To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.

Example
Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+b
print(c)

Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":

a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+""+b
print(c)

Python - Format - Strings

String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and
numbers like this:

Example
age = 36
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)

But we can combine strings and numbers by using f-strings or

the format() method!

F-Strings
F-String was introduced in Python 3.6 and is now the preferred way of
formatting strings.

To specify a string as an f-string, simply put an f in front of the string literal and
add curly brackets {} as placeholders for variables and other operations.

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Example
Create an f-string:

age = 36
txt = f"My name is John, I am {age}"
print(txt)

Placeholders and Modifiers

A placeholder can contain variables, operations, functions, and modifiers to
format the value.

Example
Add a placeholder for the price variable:

price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price} dollars"
print(txt)

A placeholder can include a modifier to format the value.

A modifier is included by adding a colon: followed by a legal formatting type,

like .2f which means fixed point number with 2 decimals:

Example
Display the price with 2 decimals:

price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price:.2f} dollars"
print(txt)

A placeholder can contain Python code, like math operations:

Example
Perform a math operation in the placeholder, and return the result:

txt = f"The price is {20 * 59} dollars"

print(txt)

Python - Escape Characters

Escape Character
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To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.

An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to

insert.

An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is

surrounded by double quotes:

Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded
by double quotes:

txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would
not be allowed:

txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

Escape Characters
Other escape characters used in Python:

Code Result

\' Single Quote

\\ Backslash

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

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 \t Tab

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

Python - String Methods

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.

Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a

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 string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
position of where it was found

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
position of where it was found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet

isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii

characters

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

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isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

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partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a

specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last
position of where it was found

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last
position of where it was found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

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 swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the

beginning

Python Booleans
Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.

You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated, and Python returns
the Boolean answer:

Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)

When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:

Example
Page 34 of 95
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:

a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,

Example
Evaluate a string and a number:

print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Example
Evaluate two variables:

x = "Hello"
y = 15

print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.

Any string is True, except empty strings.

Any number is True, except 0.

Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.

Example
The following will return True:

Page 35 of 95
bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values,

such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the

value False evaluates to False.

Example
The following will return False:

bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})

One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you have

an object that is made from a class with a __len__ function that returns 0 or False:

Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:

Example
Print the answer of a function:

def myFunction() :
return True

Page 36 of 95
print(myFunction())

You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:

Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":

def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")

Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a

certain data type:

Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:

x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))

Python Operators
Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example
print(10 + 5)

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

· Arithmetic operators
· Assignment operators
· Comparison operators

Page 37 of 95
 · Logical operators
· Identity operators
· Membership operators
· Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Page 38 of 95
Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

Page 39 of 95
 <<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

:= print(x := 3) x=3
print(x)

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Page 40 of 95
 Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both x < 5 and x < 10

statements are true

or Returns True if one of the x < 5 or x < 4

statements is true

not Reverse the result, returns not(x < 5 and x <

False if the result is true 10)

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns True if both variables x is y

are the same object

is not Returns True if both variables x is not y

are not the same object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

Page 41 of 95
 in Returns True if a sequence with the x in y
specified value is present in the
object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the x not in y

specified value is not present in the
object

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description Example

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are x&y

1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two x|y

bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of x^y

two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits ~x

<< Zero Shift left by pushing zeros in from x << 2

fill left the right and let the leftmost bits
shift fall off

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 >> Signed Shift right by pushing copies of x >> 2
right the leftmost bit in from the left,
shift and let the rightmost bits fall off

Operator Precedence
Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.

Example
Parentheses has the highest precedence, meaning that expressions inside
parentheses must be evaluated first:

print((6 + 3) - (6 + 3))

Example
Multiplication * has higher precedence than addition +, and therefor
multiplications are evaluated before additions:

print(100 + 5 * 3)

The precedence order is described in the table below, starting with the highest
precedence at the top:

Operator Description

() Parentheses

** Exponentiation

+x -x ~x Unary plus, unary minus, and bitwise

NOT

Page 43 of 95
 * / // % Multiplication, division, floor division,
and modulus

+ - Addition and subtraction

<< >> Bitwise left and right shifts

& Bitwise AND

^ Bitwise XOR

| Bitwise OR

== != > >= < <= is is Comparisons, identity, and

not in not in membership operators

not Logical NOT

and AND

or OR

If two operators have the same precedence, the expression is evaluated from left
to right.

Example

Page 44 of 95
Addition + and subtraction - has the same precedence, and therefor we evaluate

the expression from left to right:

print(5 + 4 - 7 + 3)

Python Lists
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data,
the other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

Lists are created using square brackets:

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.

List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.

If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the
list.

Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of
the items will not change.

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Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in
a list after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example
Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

Page 46 of 95
type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':

<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thislist)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

· List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
· Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
· Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No
duplicate members.
· Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate
members.

*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.

**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.

Page 47 of 95
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that
type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Python - Access List Items

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index
number:

Example
Print the second item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end
the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.

Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

Page 48 of 95
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:

Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including,
"kiwi":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:

Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including
"mango" (-1):

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:

Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

Page 49 of 95
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Python - Change List Items

Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:

Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new
values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new
values:

Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

Page 50 of 95
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not
match the number of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where
you specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:

Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use
the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.

Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:

Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

Page 51 of 95
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[Link]("orange")
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.

The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:

Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use
the extend() method.

Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
[Link](tropical)
print(thislist)

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable

object (tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).

Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

Page 52 of 95
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
[Link](thistuple)
print(thislist)

Python - Remove List Items

Remove Specified Item
The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example
Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]("banana")
print(thislist)

If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method

removes the first occurrence:

Example
Remove the first occurrence of "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]

[Link]("banana")
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.

Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](1)
print(thislist)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.

Example
Page 53 of 95
Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example
Delete the entire list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example
Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
Page 54 of 95
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:

Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.

Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.

Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop

your way through the list items by referring to their indexes.

Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.

Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1

Looping Using List Comprehension

Page 55 of 95
List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:

Example
A shorthand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

Python - List Comprehension

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list
based on the values of an existing list.

Example:

Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the
letter "a" in the name.

Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
[Link](x)

print(newlist)

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:

Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]

print(newlist)

Page 56 of 95
The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]

The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that evaluate to True.

Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than "apple",
making the new list contain all fruits except "apple".

The condition is optional and can be omitted:

Example
With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.

Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Same example, but with a condition:

Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Expression
Page 57 of 95
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome,
which you can manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:

Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:

newlist = [[Link]() for x in fruits]

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':

newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]

The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to
manipulate the outcome:

Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":

newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

The expression in the example above says:

"Return the item if it is not banana, if it is banana return orange".

Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending,
by default:

Example
Sort the list alphabetically:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Page 58 of 95
Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

[Link](reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link](reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key
= function.

The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):

Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link](key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Page 59 of 95
Case Insensitive Sort
By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being

sorted before lower case letters:

Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.

So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use [Link] as a key function:

Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link](key = [Link])
print(thislist)

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?

The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.

Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Python - Copy Lists

Copy a List

Page 60 of 95
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.

Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.

Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = [Link]()
print(mylist)

Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Use the slice Operator

You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.

Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)

Python - Join Lists

Join Two Lists
Page 61 of 95
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.

One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:

Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
[Link](x)

print(list1)

Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements from

one list to another list:

Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

[Link](list2)
print(list1)

Python Sets
myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

Page 62 of 95
Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.

Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the
other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.

A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed.

* Note: Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove items and add new items.

Sets are written with curly brackets.

Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.

Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot
be referred to by index or key.

Unchangeable
Set items are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the
set has been created.

Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can remove items and add new items .

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.

Page 63 of 95
Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Note: The values True and 1 are considered the same value in sets, and are treated as duplicates:

Example
True and 1 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", True, 1, 2}

print(thisset)

Note: The values False and 0 are considered the same value in sets, and are
treated as duplicates:

Example
False and 0 is considered the same value:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", False, True, 0}

print(thisset)

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() function.

Example
Get the number of items in a set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:

Example

Page 64 of 95
String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':

<class 'set'>
Example
What is the data type of a set?

myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thisset)

Python Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",

Page 65 of 95
 "model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary
Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and do not allow

duplicates.

As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.

Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs and can be referred to by using
the key name.

Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

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Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.

When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.

Unordered means that the items do not have a defined order, you cannot refer to
an item by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items
after the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:

Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:

print(len(thisdict))

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Dictionary Items - Data Types
The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}

type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data
type 'dict':

<class 'dict'>
Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary.

Example
Using the dict() method to make a dictionary:

thisdict = dict(name = "John", age = 36, country = "Norway")

print(thisdict)

Python If ... Else

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Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

· Equals: a == b
· Not Equals: a != b
· Less than: a < b
· Less than or equal to: a <= b
· Greater than: a > b
· Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements"
and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example
If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if

statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know

that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define
scope in the code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for
this purpose.

Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):

a = 33
b = 200

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if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif
The elif keyword is Python's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not

true, then try this condition".

Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but

the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding

conditions.

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also

the elif condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen

that "a is greater than b".

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You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Shorthand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the
if statement.

Example
One line if statement:

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Shorthand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
put it all on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement:

a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:

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a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional

statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional

statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:

a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

Not
The not keyword is a logical operator, and is used to reverse the result of the

conditional statement:

Example
Test if a is NOT greater than b:

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a = 33
b = 200
if not a > b:
print("a is NOT greater than b")

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is

called nested if statements.

Example
x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement

with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example
a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

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A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can
add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to
print the full name:

Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")
Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

Parameters or Arguments?
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The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing: information
that are passed into a function.

From a function's perspective:

A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function

definition.

An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.
Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function
with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.

Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

my_function("Emil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function,
add a * before the parameter name in the function definition.

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This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items
accordingly:

Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:

def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.

This way the order of the arguments does not matter.

Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python

documentations.

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your
function, add two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function

definition.

This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:

Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the
parameter name:

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def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python

documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list,
dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.

E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the
function:

Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)

Return Values
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To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have

a function definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting

an error.

Example
def myfunction():
pass

Positional-Only Arguments
You can specify that a function can have ONLY positional arguments, or ONLY
keyword arguments.

To specify that a function can have only positional arguments, add , / after the

arguments:

Example
def my_function(x, /):
print(x)

my_function(3)

Without the , / you are actually allowed to use keyword arguments even if the

function expects positional arguments:

Example

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def my_function(x):
print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

But when adding the , / you will get an error if you try to send a keyword
argument:

Example
def my_function(x, /):
print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

Keyword-Only Arguments
To specify that a function can have only keyword arguments, add *, before the
arguments:

Example
def my_function(*, x):
print(x)

my_function(x = 3)

Without the *, you are allowed to use positional arguments even if the function
expects keyword arguments:

Example
def my_function(x):
print(x)

my_function(3)

But with the *, you will get an error if you try to send a positional argument:

Example
def my_function(*, x):
print(x)

my_function(3)

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Combine Positional-Only and Keyword-
Only
You can combine the two argument types in the same function.

Any argument before the / , are positional-only, and any

argument after the *, are keyword-only.

Example
def my_function(a, b, /, *, c, d):
print(a + b + c + d)

my_function(5, 6, c = 7, d = 8)

Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call
itself.

Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that

a function calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through
data to reach a result.

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip
into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts
of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly recursion can
be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to programming.

In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself

("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time

we recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when
it is 0).

To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works,
best way to find out is by testing and modifying it.
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Example
Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("Recursion Example Results:")

tri_recursion(6)

Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments but can only have one
expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed, and the result is returned:

Example
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example
Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Example
Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:

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x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous
function inside another function.

Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument
will be multiplied with an unknown number:

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number
you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)

print(mydoubler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the
number you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mytripler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same
program:

Example
Page 82 of 95
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)

print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))
Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short
period of time

Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.

Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example
Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.

If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:

car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"

However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And
what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?

The solution is an array!

An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.

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Access the Elements of an Array
You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.

Example
Get the value of the first array item:

x = cars[0]

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements
in an array).

Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.

Example
Print each item in the cars array:

for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.

Example
Add one more element to the cars array:

[Link]("Honda")

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Removing Array Elements
You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:

[Link](1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":

[Link]("Volvo")

Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the
specified value.

Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

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 extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the
current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.

Extras

Python Try Except

The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.

The except block lets you handle the error.

The else block lets you execute code when there is no error.

The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try-
and except blocks.

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Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and
generate an error message.

These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:

Example
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:

try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")

Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.

Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:

Example
This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:

print(x)

Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to
execute a special block of code for a special kind of error:

Example
Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other
errors:

try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no
errors were raised:

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Example
In this example, the try block does not generate any error:

try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises
an error or not.

Example
try:
print(x)
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")

This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:

Example
Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:

try:
f = open("[Link]")
try:
[Link]("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
[Link]()
except:
print("Something went wrong when opening the file")

The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.

Raise an exception

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As a Python developer you can choose to throw an exception if a condition
occurs.

To throw (or raise) an exception, use the raise keyword.

Example
Raise an error and stop the program if x is lower than 0:

x = -1

if x < 0:
raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")

The raise keyword is used to raise an exception.

You can define what kind of error to raise, and the text to print to the user.

Example
Raise a TypeError if x is not an integer:

x = "hello"

if not type(x) is int:

raise TypeError("Only integers are allowed")

Python User Input

User Input
Python allows for user input.

· That means we are able to ask the user for input.

· The method is a bit different in Python 3.6 than Python 2.7.

· Python 3.6 uses the input() method.

· Python 2.7 uses the raw_input() method.

The following example asks for the username, and when you entered the
username, it gets printed on the screen:

Page 89 of 95
 Python 3.6
username = input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

Python 2.7
username = raw_input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)
Python stops executing when it comes to the input() function, and continues
when the user has given some input.

Python File Open

File handling is an important part of any web application.

Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting
files.

File Handling
The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.

The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.

There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:

· "r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does
not exist

· "a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not
exist

· "w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist

· "x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists

In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode

· "t" - Text - Default value. Text mode

· "b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax
To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:

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f = open("[Link]")

The code above is the same as:

f = open("[Link]", "rt")

Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to
specify them.

Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error.

Python File Open

Open a File on the Server
Assume we have the following file, located in the same folder as Python:

[Link]

Hello! Welcome to [Link]

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!

To open the file, use the built-in open() function.

The open() function returns a file object, which has a read() method for reading
the content of the file:

Example
f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

If the file is located in a different location, you will have to specify the file path,
like this:

Example
Open a file on a different location:

f = open("D:\\myfiles\[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Read Only Parts of the File

By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify
how many characters you want to return:

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Example
Return the 5 first characters of the file:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](5))

Read Lines
You can return one line by using the readline() method:

Example
Read one line of the file:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

By calling readline() two times, you can read the two first lines:

Example
Read two lines of the file:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
print([Link]())

By looping through the lines of the file, you can read the whole file, line by line:

Example
Loop through the file line by line:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
for x in f:
print(x)

Close Files
It is a good practice to always close the file when you are done with it.

Example
Close the file when you are finished with it:

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f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()
Note: You should always close your files. In some cases, due to buffering,
changes made to a file may not show until you close the file.

Python File Write

Write to an Existing File
To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:

"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file

"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example
Open the file "[Link]" and append content to the file:

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("Now the file has more content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Example
Open the file "[Link]" and overwrite the content:

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the overwriting:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.

Create a New File

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To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the following
parameters:

"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exists

"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exists

"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exists

Example
Create a file called "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "x")

Result: a new empty file is created!

Example
Create a new file if it does not exist:

f = open("[Link]", "w")

Python Delete File

Delete a File
To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its [Link]() function:

Example
Remove the file "[Link]":

import os
[Link]("[Link]")

Check if File exist:

To avoid getting an error, you might want to check if the file exists before you
try to delete it:

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Example
Check if file exists, then delete it:

import os
if [Link]("[Link]"):
[Link]("[Link]")
else:
print("The file does not exist")

Delete Folder
To delete an entire folder, use the [Link]() method:

Example
Remove the folder "myfolder":

import os
[Link]("myfolder")
Note: You can only remove empty folders.

End of Notes

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