Chapter 1

Basics of Geography: Planets, Earth’s Motions, & Solar System

TOPICS COVERED
 Origin of universe
 Stars and constellations
 Solar system
o Asteroids
o Meteor, meteoroid and meteorite
o Sun
o Comet
o Planets
o Dwarf planets
o Theories of planet formation
 Evolution of earth
 Formation of moon
 Geological time scale
 Latitude and Longitude
o Important parallels of latitudes
o Heat zones of the earth
o Greenwich Meridian Time
o Time Zone
 Motion of the earth
o Rotation and revolution
o Axial tilt
o Seasons (Solstice and Equinox)
 Origin Of Universe

The Big Bang Theory: Understanding the

Universe’s Origins
 Initially, there was a “Tiny Ball” (singular atom) with an
unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature, and
infinite density.
 Violent explosion of “Tiny Ball” (Big Bang took place 13.7
billion years before the present).
 Rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang
then the expansion has slowed down.
  Scientists believe that though the space between the
galaxies is increasing, observations do not support the
expansion of galaxies.

Star Formation and Lifecycle

 The formation of stars is believed to have taken place some
5-6 billion years ago.
o Growing nebula develops localised clumps of gas that
continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies,
giving rise to formation of stars.
 A galaxy contains a large number of stars.
 Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in
thousands of light-years.
o Light year is a measure of distance and not of time. It is
the distance that light travels in one Earth year. 1 light
year is equal to 9.46 trillion km.

Constellations and Celestial Navigation

 Constellations are the various patterns formed by different
groups of stars.
o Example: Ursa Major or Big Bear
o Small bear or Saptarishi is a group of seven stars that
forms a part of the large Ursa Major Constellation
 In ancient times, people used to determine directions during
the night with the help of stars.
 The North star
o Indicates the north direction.
o It is also called the Pole Star.
o It always remains in the same position in the sky.
o We can locate the position of the Pole Star with the
help of the Saptarishi.

SOLAR SYSTEM
Asteroids: Small Celestial Bodies in the Solar
System
 Asteroids are a class of small rocky objects of the Solar
System orbiting around the Sun.
  They have also been called planetoids, especially the larger
ones.
 They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
 The largest asteroid is the
 Scientists are of the view that asteroids are parts of a planet
which exploded many years back.

Difference between Meteor, Meteoroid, and

Meteorite
They’re all related to the flashes of light called “shooting stars”
sometimes seen streaking across the sky. But we call the same
object by different names, depending on where it is.

 Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from

dust grains to small asteroids. Think of them as “space
rocks”.
 When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere (or that of
another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up, the
fireballs or “shooting stars” are called meteors.
 When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere
and hits the ground, it’s called a meteorite.

Solar Phenomena: Sun, Solar Flares,

Sunspot Cycle, and Impact
 The Sun is a star at the centre of the solar system.
 Primarily made up of hot gases.
 Important sources of energy for life on Earth are produced
from nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
 Solar Winds: Ejections of plasma (extremely hot charged
particles) that originate in the layer of the Sun known as the
corona (outermost layer, hidden due to sun’s light, visible in
solar eclipse).
 Solar/Stellar Flare
o It is a dramatic increase in brightness of a star (Due to
the magnetic energy stored in the star’s atmosphere).
o Occur in active regions around sunspots.
o Often accompanied by coronal mass ejection.
o Solar flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions and atoms
along with electromagnetic radiations.
 o Bombardment with such a huge amount of energy (as
observed in Proxima centauri) can strip water from the
atmosphere or Oceans and sterilise the ground.
o Impact
o When flare is ejected in the direction of the earth, the
particles hitting the upper earth’s atmosphere may
cause AURORA/Polar-light (Aurora-Borealis/Northern-
light and Aurora-Australis/Southern-Light)
o X-rays and UV rays may affect ionosphere and disrupt
long range radio communication
o Radiation risks posed by flares are one of the major
hurdles in manned space missions
 Sun-spot Cycle
o Amount of magnetic flux that rises up to the Sun’s
surface varies with time in a cycle called the solar
cycle.
o This cycle lasts 11 years on average cycle and is
sometime referred as the sunspot cycle
o Sunspots are darker, magnetically strong, cooler areas
on the surface of the sun (photosphere)
o Not pesent all over the sun, present between 25°-30°
latitude.
o It will help in understanding of the long-term variations
of the Sun and its impact on earth climate (Aditya L-1
Mission Objective).

Comets: Cosmic Snowballs Orbiting the Sun

 Cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust that orbit
the Sun.
 When frozen, they are the size of a small town.
 When a comet’s orbit brings it close to the Sun, it heats up
and spews dust and gases into a giant glowing head larger
than most planets.
 The dust and gases form a tail that stretches away from the
Sun for millions of miles.
 There are likely billions of comets orbiting our Sun in the
Kuiper Belt and even more distant Oort cloud.

Planets: Criteria Established by the

International Astronomical Union
According to the International Astronomical Union in 2006, a
planet must do 3 things:

 It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).

 It must have sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome
rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium
(nearly spherical) shape.
 It must be big enough that its gravity clears away any other
objects of a similar size near its orbit around the Sun.

Planets
Mercury: The Small, Dense, and Swift Planet Closest
to the Sun

 The smallest planet in our solar system and closest to the

Sun.
 Second densest planet.
 No moons or rings.
 Second hottest planet (Venus hottest).
 Lack of seasons on its surface due to the smallest tilt than all
other planets.
 Only slightly larger than Earth’s Moon.
 Fastest planet, zipping around the Sun every 88 Earth days.

Venus: Earth’s Sister Shrouded in Clouds and

Extreme Heat

 Sister of Earth due to proximity, mass and size.

 Surface of Venus is hidden by an opaque layer of clouds
which are formed from sulphuric acid.
 A thick atmosphere traps heat in a runaway greenhouse
effect, making it the hottest planet in our solar system.
 Venus spins slowly in the opposite direction from most
planets.
 Rotate clockwise (other planets – counter clockwise)
 Referred to as “morning star”, “evening star” (due to
brightness).
 Named after a female figure.

Earth: Our Vibrant Blue Planet Teeming with Life

 Largest of all the terrestrial planets.

 Most dense planet in the solar system.
  Only place we know of so far that’s inhabited by living
things.
 It’s also the only planet in our solar system with liquid water
on the surface.
 Ozone Layer protects it from harmful solar radiation.
 The moon (no atmosphere, only one face is ever seen from
earth and this condition is known as Tidal Locking).

Mars: The Red Desert World with Polar Ice Caps

 Mars is a dusty, cold, desert world with a very thin

atmosphere.
 There is strong evidence Mars was—billions of years ago—
wetter and warmer, with a thicker atmosphere.
 Mars is the only other planet besides Earth that has polar ice
caps.
 Seasons like Earth, but they last twice as long.
 Red Planet without magnetic field.
 Olympus Mons: The tallest mountain known in the terrestrial
planets system
 Notable Moons: Phobos and Deimos

Jupiter: Giant Planet with the Great Red Spot and

Moons

 Jupiter is more than twice as massive as the other planets of

our solar system combined.
 Giant planet’s Great Red spot is a centuries-old storm bigger
than Earth. Shortest day and highest gravity among the
eight planets .
 Atmosphere: 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, nearly the
same as the Sun’s.
 Notable moons: Europa, Ganyemede (largest moon in the
solar system), Callisto

Saturn: The Ringed Giant Planet with Spectacular

Moons

 “The Ringed Planet’’: The other giant planets have rings, but
none are as spectacular as Saturn’s.
 Second largest planet (diameter and mass).
 Gives off more energy than it receives from the Sun.
 Saturn appears pale yellow in colour because the upper
atmosphere contains ammonia crystals.
  Least density in the solar system.
 Notable moons: Titan, Rhea, and Enceladus

Uranus: The Tilted Ice Giant of the Outer Solar

System

 It rotates at a nearly 90-degree angle from the plane of its

orbit. This unique tilt makes Uranus appear to spin on its
side.
 Coldest planet in the solar system.
 Lightest of giants in the outer solar system.
 Uranium (discovered in 1789) was named after it.
 Voyager 2: only spacecraft to have flown by it
 Notable moons: Oberon, Titania, Miranda, Ariel, and Umbriel

Neptune: The Distant Blue Giant Discovered by Math

 Second largest gravity of any planet.

 It was the first planet located through mathematical
calculations.

Dwarf Planets: Celestial Bodies Beyond Traditional

Definitions

It is a celestial body that

 Is in orbit around the Sun.

 Has sufficient mass for itself-gravity to overcome rigid body
forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly
round) shape.
 Has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
 Is not a satellite.

Some prominent dwarf planets

 Pluto
 Ceres
 Makemake
 Haumea
 Eris

Comparing Terrestrial and Jovian Planets:

Contrasting Worlds in Our Solar System
  While the terrestrial planets are made of solid surfaces, the
Jovian planets are made of gaseous surfaces.
o The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity
of the parent star where it was too warm for gases to
condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed
at quite a distant location.
o As terrestrial planets were closer to the sun, the
intense solar winds blew off lots of gas and dust. Solar
winds were not intense/strong enough at the location
of Jovian planets to cause similar removal of gases.
o Terrestrial planets are smaller and their low gravity
could not hold escaping gases.
 When comparing the size, the Jovian planets are much larger
than the terrestrial planets.
 While the atmosphere of terrestrial planets is composed
mainly of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, hydrogen and helium
are found in abundance in the atmosphere of Jovian planets.
 The core of the Jovian planets is denser than the terrestrial
planets.
 The terrestrial planets spin less, and are therefore less
flattened at the poles.
 The Jovian planets have more moons when compared to
terrestrial ones.

THEORIES OF FORMATION OF PLANETS

The Nebular Hypothesis: Explaining the
Formation of Our Solar System
 Given by Immanuel Kant and re-examined by Pierre-Simon
Laplace.
 Nebula (Accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very
large cloud)
 Pockets of dust and gas began to collect into denser regions
due to the gravitational collapse at the center of the cloud
(Result of a passing star or shock waves from a supernova).
 Denser regions pulled in more and more matter
(Conservation of momentum caused it to begin rotating,
while increasing pressure caused it to heat up).
 Most of the material ended up in a ball at the center while
the rest of the matter flattened out into a disk that circled
around it.
 While the ball at the center formed the Sun, the rest of the
material would form into the protoplanetary disc.
  Planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated
with a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
 Accretion from this disc led to the formation of planets.
 Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in
regions such as the Asteroid Belt, Kuiper Belt, and Oort
cloud.

Binary Theories: Sun’s Hypothetical Companion

and Planet Formation
 According to these theories, the sun had a companion.
 Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering
star approached the sun resulting in separation of a cigar-
shaped extension of material from the solar surface.
 As the passing star moved away, the separated material of
the solar surface continued to revolve around the sun and
slowly condensed into planets.

From Barren Rock to Flourishing Biosphere:

Evolution of Earth’s Surface and Interior
 Earth initially was a Barren, rocky and hot object with a thin
atmosphere of hydrogen and helium.
 Evolution of life on the surface of the planet (between the
4,600 million years and the present).
 The earth has a layered structure with non-uniform materials
from the outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre of
the earth.
 The atmospheric matter has the least density.
 The earth’s interior has different zones from the surface to
deeper depths. Each of these contains materials with
different characteristics.

Formation of the Lithosphere: From Volatile

State to Solidification
 Volatile state during primordial stage – Temperature inside
has increased (Due to gradual increase in density) – Material
inside started getting separated depending on densities
(Heavier materials like iron sink towards the centre) – It
cooled further and solidified and condensed with passage of
time
  The gases and water vapor were released from the interior
as the earth cooled down.
o The process through which the gases were outpoured
from the interior is called
o Continuous volcanic eruptions contribute water vapor
and gases to the atmosphere.

Hydrosphere Formation: From Condensation to

Ocean Formation
 As the earth cooled, the released water vapor started
getting condensed.
 The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in
rainwater. This further decreased temperature causing more
condensation and more rain.
 The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the
depressions to give rise to oceans.
 The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million years
from the formation of the earth.

Atmospheric Evolution: From Primordial Gases to

Oxygen-Rich Atmosphere
 The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is
supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the solar
winds.
 The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is chiefly
contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.
 There are three stages in the evolution of the present
atmosphere.
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere.
2. Evolution of the atmosphere by the hot interior of the
earth.
3. Modification of atmospheric composition by the living
world through the process of photosynthesis.

FORMATION OF MOON
Moon Formation: The Fission Theory Explained
 Single rapidly rotating body possessing the Earth and the
Moon à Whole mass became a dumbbell-shaped body à
Separation
  Material forming the moon was separated from what we
have at present the depression occupied by the Pacific
Ocean

The Giant Impact Hypothesis: How the Moon was

Formed
 Earth struck by Theia (Mars size object) à Huge amount of
debris à Debris coalesces during orbiting the Earth à Moon
created Geological Time Scale

Eons: Understanding Earth’s Geological

Time
 Broadest category of geological time.
 Earth’s history is characterized by four eons; the Hadeon,
Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic (in order from oldest
to youngest).
 Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic are
sometimes informally referred to as the “Precambrian.”
 We live during the Phanerozoic, which means “visible life.”

Eras: Divisions of Earth’s Geological Time

 Eons of geologic time are subdivided into eras, which are the
second-longest units of geological time.
 The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

Periods: Subdivisions of Geological Eras

 Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are subdivided
into units of time called periods.
 The most well-known of all geological periods is the Jurassic
period of the Mesozoic era.

Epochs and Ages: Further Divisions of

Geological Periods
 Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs.
 In turn, epochs are divided into even narrower units of time
called ages.
Decreasing order
Supereon > Eon > Era > Period > Epoch

mya = Million years Ago

EONS
The Hadean Eon: Earth’s Formative Years Before
Life
 Indicates the time before reliable (fossil) evidence of life.
 Extremely hot temperature.
o Much of the Earth was molten (extreme
volcanism) leading to formation of crust after cooling.
 Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial
atmosphere (No oxygen) and then the ocean.
 Heavy CO2 atmosphere with water vapor and hydrogen.

The Archean Eon: Emergence of Life and

Continental Formation
 Beginning of life on Earth (Evidence of cyanobacteria dates
to 3500 mya).
 Life was limited to Prokaryota (simple single-celled
organisms lacking nuclei).
 No oxygen in the atmosphere.
 Formation of continents due to the cooling of Earth’s crust.
 Higher volcanic activity than today with multiple lava
eruptions.

The Proterozoic Eon: Emergence of Oxygen and

Tectonic Activity
 Last eon of the Precambrian “supereon”.
 Oxygen production started by Bacteria leading to the sudden
rise of life forms.
 Eukaryotes (have a nucleus) emerged.
 The early and late phases of this eon may have undergone
Snowball Earth periods (the planet went through extensive
glaciation resulting in a drop in sea levels).
 Very tectonically active
The Phanerozoic Eon: Emergence of
Complex Life and Continental Drift
 Complex multicellular life arose.
 Plant life on land emerged in the early Phanerozoic eon.
 Pangaea forms and is later disassociated into Laurasia and
Gondwana.

This Eon is divided into 3 eras:

1. Palaeozoic = An era of ancient life (arthropods, amphibians,
fishes)
2. Mesozoic = Age of reptiles and gymnosperms (climatic
extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs)
3. Cenozoic = Age of mammals and angiosperm

Latitude and Longitude

Latitudes: Mapping Earth’s North-South
Coordinates
 Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of
the earth’s equator.
 Latitude tells you where you are between the North Pole and
the South Pole.
 These are measured in degrees.
 Parallels or latitude lines
o Lines that run across the Earth from east to west at a
constant latitude.
o Everywhere on a parallel must have the same latitude.
o An example is the equator, which is at zero degrees of
latitude.
 A circle of latitude is an imaginary ring linking all points
sharing a

Longitudes: Mapping Earth’s East-West

Coordinates
 Longitude is measured by imaginary lines that run around
the Earth vertically (up and down) and meet at the North
and South Poles.
 These lines are known as
  The line which runs through Greenwich in London is called
the Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian. The Prime
Meridian is 0° longitude.
 The Earth is then divided into 180° east and 180° west.
 Longitude is the measurement east or west of the prime
meridian.
 Half of the world (the Eastern Hemisphere) is measured in
degrees east of the prime meridian. The other half (the
Western Hemisphere) is degrees west of the prime meridian.
 The anti-meridian is halfway around the world, at 180°. It is
the basis for the International Date Line.
 Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal length.

Key Parallels of Latitude: Equator, Tropics,

Circles, and Poles
Equator (0° latitude)
 Imaginary circular line running on the globe and divides it
into two equal parts.
 These are measured in degrees.
o Important reference point to locate places on the earth.
 All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called
parallels of latitudes.
 All parallels north/south of the equator are called ‘north
latitudes’/’south latitudes’. It is indicated by the letter ‘N’ or
‘S’.
 The size of the parallels of latitude decreases as we move
away from the equator.

Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern

Hemisphere
 It is the farthest northern latitude at which the sun can
appear directly overhead.
 It occurs on the June-solstice (marked between June 20 and
June 22).
 North of this line is the subtropics and Northern Temperate
Zone.

Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern

Hemisphere
  It is the farthest southern latitude at which the sun can
appear directly overhead.
 It occurs on the December-solstice (marked between
December 20 and December 23).
 South of this line is the subtropics and Southern Temperate
Zone.

Arctic/Antarctic Circle at 66½° north/south of the

equator
 Parallel of latitude around the Earth at approximately 66.5°
N/S
 Because of the Earth’s inclination of about 23 1⁄2° to the
vertical, It marks the southern/northern limit of the area
within which, for one day or more each year, the Sun does
not set (about June 21) or rise (about December 21).

North Pole (90°N) and South Pole (90° S)

 The North/South Pole is the northernmost/southernmost
point on Earth.
 It is the precise point of the intersection of the Earth’s
rotational axis and the Earth’s surface.
 Polaris (the current North Star) sits almost motionless in the
sky above the North Pole, making it an excellent fixed point
to use in celestial navigation in the Northern Hemisphere.
 All lines of longitude meet at the North and the South Pole.

Geographical Coordinates of India: Extent

and Position in the Northern Hemisphere
 India is a vast country and lies entirely in the Northern
hemisphere.
 The mainland extends between latitudes 8°4’N and 37°6’N
and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E.
 The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) divides the country into
almost two equal parts.

Heat Zones of the Earth: Torrid, Frigid, and

Temperate Regions Defined by Latitudes
Torrid Zone
  Areas lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
 This area receives the maximum heat and is called the
Torrid Zone.
 The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on
all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn.
 The tropics are known for their lush green vegetation and
moist climate.
 Average temperatures range from warm to hot year round.
 Many places in the tropics experience rainy seasons which
range from one to several months of consistent rainfall.

Frigid Zone
 Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in
the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and the
South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere called Frigid Zones.
 The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude
beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
 The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the
poles.
 Area is very cold because here the sun does not rise much
above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting
and provide less heat.

Temperate Zones
 The areas lie between the Torrid Zone and Frigid Zone and
have moderate temperatures.

Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT)

 Places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time
(East-Gain-Add).
 Places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time
(West-Lose-Subtract).

Countries through which Prime Meridian

passes
Time Zones and Daylight Saving Time
  A time zone is a region of the Earth that has adopted the
same standard time, usually referred to as the local time.
 Most adjacent time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by
convention compute their local time as an offset from
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
 Standard time zones can be defined by geometrically
subdividing the Earth’s spheroid into 24 lunes (wedge-
shaped sections), bordered by meridians each 15° of
longitude apart. The local time in neighboring zones is then
exactly one hour different.
o However, political and geographical practicalities can
result in irregularly-shaped zones that follow political
boundaries or that change their time seasonally (as
with daylight saving time), as well as being subject to
occasional redefinition as political conditions change.

The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an

hour or 1° in four minutes.

 The earth has been divided into twenty-four time zones of

one hour each (24 hours x 15° rotation = 360° rotation in a
day)

Indian Standard Time (IST)

 Time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30’E) passing
through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard
time for the whole country.
 IST at 82°30’E is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
o Indicates 05:30 hours earlier sunrise in India than the
countries taking GMT as a standard time.
 It goes through following states
o Uttar Pradesh
o Madhya Pradesh
o Chhattisgarh
o Orissa
o Andhra Pradesh

International Date Line

 It serves as the “line of demarcation” between two
consecutive calendar dates.
  It passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and roughly follows
a 180° (located halfway round the world from the prime
meridian).
 It bends and goes zig zag at the Bering Strait between
Siberia and Alaska, Fiji, Tonga and in some other islands.
 It follows a zig-zag pattern to avoid the confusion of having
different dates in the same country.
 The date changes by exactly one day while crossing it.
o A traveller crossing the date line from east to west
loses a day and while crossing the dateline from west
to east gains a day.

Daylight saving time (DST)

 Daylight saving time (DST) or summer time is the
practice of advancing clocks during summer months by
one hour.
 It is done so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer i.e.
fully utilizing the surplus sunlight in summers while
compensating the short day length in winters.
 Typically, regions with summer time adjust clocks forward
one hour close to the start of spring (terms “spring forward”)
and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time
(terms “fall back”).
 Daylight saving time practice is prevalent in many
temperate countries
o To conserve energy by utilizing the day light and
reduce evening use of incandescent lighting.
o To compensate for variation in day length experienced
from season to season.

Motions Of The Earth

Earth’s Motions: Rotation and Revolution
2 types of motion

1. Rotation

 Movement of the earth on its axis.

 As the Earth rotates, each area of its surface gets a turn to
face and be warmed by the sun. This is important to all life
on Earth.
  If the Earth did not rotate, one half of the Earth would always
be hot and bright, and the other part would be frozen and
dark. Life would not have been possible in such extreme
conditions.

2. Revolution

 Movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or

orbit.
 It takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve around the sun. Six
hours saved every year are added to make one day (24
hours) over a span of four years.
 This surplus day is added to the month of February. Such a
year with 366 days is called a leap year.
 The earth is going around the sun in an elliptical orbit.

Axial Tilt and Precession: Understanding Earth’s

Orbital Dynamics
 Axial tilt is the angle between the planet’s rotational axis
and its orbital axis.
 A planet’s orbital axis is perpendicular to the ecliptic or
orbital plane, the thin disk surrounding the sun and
extending to the edge of the solar system.
 Earth’s axis is not perpendicular. It has an axial tilt or
obliquity.
o The axis of the earth, which is an imaginary line, makes
an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane.
 Some planets, such as Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter, have
axes that are almost completely perpendicular, or straight
up-and-down.
 Uranus has the largest axial tilt in the solar system. Its axis
is tilted about 98 degrees, so its north pole is nearly on its
equator.

Axial Precession

 Earth’s axis appears stable but it actually wobbles very

slowly like a spinning top.
 This wobble is called axial precession.
 Earth’s axis helps determine the North Star.
o Currently, Earth’s axis points toward a star called
Polaris (current North Star due to its position almost
directly above the North Pole).
  Polaris will not always be the North Star, however. The
Earth’s axis is slowly wobbling away from Polaris. In another
13,000 years, it will point toward the new North Star, a star
called Vega.

Circle of illumination

 Due to the spherical shape of the earth, only half of it gets

light from the sun at a time and experiences day.
 The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is
called the circle of illumination.
 This circle does not coincide with the axis

Solstices: Earth’s Seasonal Extremes

 Solstice means that either the Northern or Southern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and receives the
maximum intensity of the sun’s rays throughout the year.
 Solstices and shifting solar declination are a result of Earth’s
23.5° axial tilt as it orbits the sun.
 From the North Pole, the sun is always above the horizon in
the summer and below the horizon in the winter.
o This means the region experiences up to 24 hours of
sunlight in the summer and 24 hours of darkness in the
winter.

Balanced Days: Understanding Equinoxes

 There are only two times of the year when the Earth’s axis is
tilted neither toward nor away from the sun.
 On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun
fall on the equator. This results in a “nearly” equal amount
of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. It is known
as equinox.
 23rd September = Autumn season (season after summer
and before the beginning of winter) in the northern
hemisphere and spring season (season after winter and
before the beginning of summer) in the southern
hemisphere.
 21st March = Spring in the northern hemisphere and
autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Earth’s Orbital Extremes: Perihelion and
Aphelion
 Perihelion
o It is the point when Earth is closest to the Sun.
o It occurs around 3rd January.
o The distance is 147.5 million kms.
 Aphelion
o It is the point when Earth is farthest from the Sun.
o It occurs on July 4.
o The distance is 152.5 million kms.
 Speed of Earth is fastest at Perihelion and slowest at
Aphelion (Kepler’s Second Law).

Uttarayan: The Northern Migration of the

Sun
 For 6 months of the year, the Sun appears to be moving
north.
 The Northward migration of Sun appears to begin after
December 22 and is completed on June 21, when the Sun is
directly overhead 23.½°
 In India, we call this apparent migration Uttarayan.

Dakshinayan: The Southern Migration of

the Sun
 After June 21, Sun appears to be moving South for the next 6
months.
 This southward migration appears to get finished when Sun
is directly overhead the 23.½°
 In India, we call this apparent migration Dakshinayan.

Effects of Earth’s Motion: Day, Night, and

Seasons
Reasons for day and night as well as seasons

 Days and Nights à Rotation

 Seasons à Revolution
 The schematic representation of seasonal variation is given
below. The diagram depicts the four different seasons on the
earth according to its position in space at that time.

Chapter 2

Geomorphology: Earth’s Structure, Tectonics, and

Landforms

Topic Covered
 Interior of the Earth

o Direct & Indirect Methods
o Earthquakes & Seismic Waves
 o Layered Structure
 Minerals & Rock System- Igneous, Sedimentary &
Metamorphic
 Continental Drift Theory
 Convection Current Theory
 Ocean Floor Mapping & Sea Floor Spreading Theory
 Plate Tectonics Theory
 Plate Interactions
o Divergence
 O/O (MOR)
 C/C (Rift Valley)
o Transverse (Fault)
o Convergence-
 O/O (Island Arc)
 C/C (Fold Mountains)
 O/C (Volcanic Mountains)

Exploring Earth’s Interior: Understanding

Geomorphology
Knowledge of the earth’s interior is very important to understand
the various geophysical phenomenons like earthquakes,
volcanism, etc. It also helps in mineral exploration. Geologists
have used two main types of evidence to learn about Earth’s
interior

Insights into Geomorphology: Earth’s Interior

Through Direct Evidence
 samples drilled from deep inside Earth help in making
inferences.
 Deepest drill at Kola (in Arctic Ocean) has so far reached a
depth of 12 km
 Volcanic eruptions

Exploring Geomorphology: Earth’s Interior

Through Indirect Evidence
 Seismic waves produced by earthquakes.
 Meteors are likely to have a similar internal structure as
of Earth (Both are solar objects and born from the same
nebular cloud).
  Gravity anomalies due to uneven distribution of mass of
material within the earth (Provide information about the
materials in the earth’s interior).
 Magnetic field study gives information about magnetic
material distribution in the crustal portion.

Seismic Waves in Geomorphology

 Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the
sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
These are mechanical waves and require medium to
propagate.
 These are the energy that travels through the earth and is
recorded on seismographs.
 Seismology= Study of earthquakes and seismic waves that
move through and around the earth.
 Seismologist= Scientist who studies earthquakes and
seismic waves.

Types of Seismic Waves

 Two main types —
o Body Waves
o Surface Waves
 Body waves can travel through the earth’s inner layers, but
surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet
like ripples on water.
 Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.

Body Waves
 Generated due to the release of energy at the focus. It
moves in all directions travelling through the body of the
earth.
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through
materials with different densities. The denser the material,
the higher is the velocity.
 Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when
coming across materials with different densities.
 There are two types of body waves
o P-Wave
o S-Wave
P wave or Primary wave
 Fastest kind of seismic wave.
 First to ‘arrive’ at a seismic station.
 Can move through solid rock and fluids.
 Velocity = Solids > Liquids > Gases
 It pushes and pulls the rock as it moves through, just like
sound waves push and pull the air.
 Hence, it is also known as compressional waves because
of the pushing and pulling they do.
 Particles move in the same direction of wave propagation.

The windows during the thunder rattle because the sound waves
push and pull on the window glass much like P waves push and
pull on rock.

S wave or Secondary wave

 Second wave felt in an earthquake.
 The S wave is slower than a P wave.
 It can only move through solid rock (not through any liquid
medium).
 Property helped seismologists to conclude that the
Earth’s outer core is a liquid.
 S waves move rock particles up and down (or side-to-side),
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Surface wave
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and
generate new set of waves called surface waves.
 It travels only through the crust and have lower frequency
than body waves.
 Arrive after body waves.
 Also known as long period waves.
 Almost entirely responsible for the damage and destruction
associated with earthquakes.
 This damage and the strength of the surface waves are
reduced in deeper earthquakes.
 There are two types of surface waves
1. Love Waves = Zig-Zag movement
2. Rayleigh Waves = Elliptical movement
Determining Earth’s Interior Through P and
S Waves
 Change of density in different layers of the Earth greatly
varies the wave velocity.
 The density of the earth as a whole can be estimated by
observing the changes in velocity of waves.
 By observing the changes in direction of the P and S waves
(emergence of shadow zones), different layers can be
estimated.

Geomorphological Implications of Seismic

Shadow Zones
 Shadow zone is the area of Earth’s surface where
seismographs cannot detect an earthquake after the waves
have passed through the earth.
 P-waves are refracted by the liquid outer core and are not
detected between 104° and 140°.
 S-waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core and are
not detected beyond 104°.
 This information led scientists to deduce a liquid outer core.

Earth’s Interior Layers in Geomorphology

 Layers distinct in terms of temperature, composition, and
density
 Heat radiation – Conduction mainly and convection in the
magma chamber
 Temperature increases with depth = 1 °C/32 meters (at 48
km @ 1200-1300 °C)
 This rate is mainly due to presence of radioactive materials
in the crust (up to 100 kms)

Temperature Variations Across Earth’s Layers:

Geomorphological Significance
 @ 48 Km = 1100 °C
 @ oceanic crust – (upper part- 0 °C; lower part- 1200 °C)
 @ 400-700 Km = 1500-1900 °C
 @ Junction of the mantle and outer core = 2900-3700 °C
 @ Outer and inner Core = 4300 °C
Density Variations in Earth’s Layers: Insights
from Geomorphology
 Outer thinner part is sedimentary rocks (0.8 to 1.6 km).
 Below this there are crystalline rocks up to 3 km.
 Average density of the earth is 5.5 g/cm3.
o Outer layer (continents) = SIAL or granitic rocks- 2.7
g/cm3
o Mantle and Oceanic crust = SIMA or Basaltic- 4.3 g/cm3
o Core = NiFe- 11.0 g/cm3

Earth’s Crust through Geomorphology

 Layer of solid rock that forms Earth’s outer “skin”
 Above mohorovic discontinuity
 Less than 1% of volume
 It includes both dry land (Continental) and ocean floor
(Oceanic)
 Oceanic crust consists mostly of basalt
 Continental crust consists mainly of granite

Exploring Earth’s Mantle: Geomorphological

Insights
 Layer of solid, hot rock 40 kilometers beneath the
surface- Largest layer
 Between Mohovoric and Gutenberg discontinuity
 Density = 3.3 g/cm3 at mohovoric and 5.7 g/cm3 at
Gutenberg
 Divided into layers
1. Lithosphere – Uppermost part of mantle and the crust
for a ridge layer about 100 kilometers thick
2. Asthenosphere – Softer part of mantle below the
lithosphere which is hotter and under increased
pressure
3. Lower Mantle – Solid material extending all the way
to Earth’s core

Earth’s Core: Geomorphological

Perspectives
 Made mostly of the metals Iron and Nickel (NiFe)
 Consists of two parts
 o Outer core – Layer of molten metal that surrounds
inner core (P waves slow down, while S waves stop)
o Inner core – Dense ball of solid metal
 Movement of liquid outer core creates Earth’s magnetic field

Earth’s chemical composition

Exploring Minerals and Their Significance in

Geomorphology
 A mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic
substance, having an orderly atomic structure and a definite
chemical composition and physical properties.
 A mineral is generally composed of two or more elements
but sometimes single element minerals like sulphur, copper,
silver, gold, graphite etc. are also found.
 These are usually solid and inorganic, and have a crystal
structure.
 Exceptions– Minerals such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas are organic substances found in solid, liquid, and
gaseous forms respectively.
 The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the
interior of the earth.
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found
in rocks.

Key Minerals in Geomorphology:

Characteristics and Uses
Feldspar
 Silicon and oxygen are common elements.
 Half of the earth’s crust is composed of feldspar.
 It is used in ceramics and glass making.

Quartz
 It is one of the most important components of sand and
granite.
 It consists of silica.
 It is a hard mineral virtually insoluble in water.
 It is white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
Pyroxene
 Pyroxene forms 10 percent of the earth’s crust.
 Commonly found in meteorites.
 It is in green or black colour.

Amphibole
 Used in the asbestos industry.
 Hornblende is another form of amphibole.

Mica
 Found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is used
in electrical instruments.

Olivine
 Used in jewellery.
 Found in basaltic rocks.

Bauxite
 It is the ore of aluminium (hydrous oxide of aluminium).
 It is non-crystalline.

Exploring Rocks and Their Role in

Geomorphology
 A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
o Do not have definite composition of mineral
constituents.
 Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.
 Denudation: An erosive process of breaking and removing
the rocks from the surface of the earth.
o It is the wearing away of the terrestrial land by
weathering, erosion, moving water, ice waves.
 Lithification: Process of compaction that turns denuded
sediments into the sedimentary rock.
o g. sandstone, limestone, shale, chert
Rock Classification in Geomorphology:
Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks — Solidified from magma and lava
2. Sedimentary Rocks — Result of deposition of fragments of
rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks — Formed out of existing rocks
undergoing recrystallization

Most Abundant = Igneous Rocks > Metamorphic Rocks >

Sedimentary Rocks

Igneous Rocks
 Formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the
earth.
 They are known as primary rocks.
 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff
are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
 Based on the presence of acid forming radicals (silicon),
igneous rocks are divided into Acid Rocks and Basic Rocks.

Intrusive Rocks: Granite and Plutonic Rocks

1. Intrusive rocks (Granite)
o Plutonic rocks
o Slow cooling (at great depths) of molten
material allows big-sized crystal. It results in large
mineral grains.
o Less dense and are lighter in color than basic rocks.
2. Extrusive rocks (Basalt- Deccan Traps)
o Volcanic rocks
o Rapid cooling (at the surface) molten material prevents
crystallization. It results in small and smooth grains.
o Denser and darker in color.
o Their origin under conditions of high temperatures
makes them Unfossiliferous.

Sedimentary or Detrital Rocks

  Formed as a result of lithification of denuded
rocks (Exogenic agents lead to weathering and erosion of
rocks exposed to it).
o Deposits through compaction turn into rocks.
o They are layered or stratified of varying thickness.
 Sometimes, the deposit layers retain their characteristics
even after lithification.
 It possesses 75% of the earth’s crust but occupies only 5%
on a volume basis.
 Till/Tillite – Ice deposited sedimentary rocks
 Loess – Wind deposited sediments

Geomorphology: Classification of
Sedimentary Rocks
 Mechanically formed – sandstone, conglomerate,
limestone, shale, loess etc.
o Formed by mechanical agents like running water, wind,
ocean currents, ice, etc.
o Arenaceous rocks: More sand and big sized particles.
They are porous and hard. E.g. sandstone.
o Argillaceous rocks: More clay and are fine-grained.
They are softer, impermeable and non-porous. They
are easily weathered and eroded. E.g. shale.
 Organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal
etc.
o The remains of plants and animals buried under
sediments undergo a transformation due to the heat
and pressure from overlying layers.
o Marine animals like corals and algae extract
CaCO3 form sea water and deposit it in their skeletons.
When they die, their skeletons together form
limestone.
 Chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, potash etc.
o Such rocks are precipitated chemically from solutions
of one kind or another.
o Example: Gypsum
o Water containing minerals in caves evaporates and
gives rise to Stalactites and stalagmites.

Geomorphology: Characteristics of
Sedimentary Rocks
  These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata.
 Marks of left behind water currents and waves etc.
 Have fossils of plants and animals.
 Generally porous (allow water to percolate through them).

Metamorphic Rock Formation and Processes

in Geomorphology
 Metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
 Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated
materials within the original rocks undergo recrystallization
and reorganization.
 These rocks form under the action of pressure, volume and
temperature (PVT) changes.
 Metamorphism occurs mainly by two processes
 Dynamic Metamorphism
o Rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic
processes.
o The minerals of sedimentary and igneous rocks re-
crystallize under the influence of pressure without any
appreciable chemical changes.
o Examples
 Granite – Gneiss
 Clay, Shale – Schist

Thermal Metamorphism and Its Types in

Geomorphology
 Minerals of sedimentary and igneous rocks re-crystallize
under the influence of high temperatures.
 Examples
o Sandstone – Quartzite
o Clay, Shale – Slate à Phyllit
o Coal – Anthracite, Graphite
o Limestone – Marble
 types of thermal metamorphism
o Contact metamorphism
 Rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma
and lava and the rock materials recrystallise
under high temperatures.
 Quite often new materials form out of magma or
lava are added to the rocks.
o Regional metamorphism
  Rocks undergo recrystallisation due to
deformation caused by tectonic shearing together
with high temperature or pressure or both.

Foliation or Lineation

 Arrangement of rocks grains during the process of

metamorphism.

Banding

 Structure in metamorphic rocks in which minerals or

materials of different groups are arranged into alternating
thin to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades.

Rock cycle

 A continuous process through which old rocks are

transformed into new ones.
 Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks form from
these rocks.

Oceans and Continents Distribution through

Continental Drift Theory
To explain the present distribution of oceans and continents,
various theories have been proposed.

Continental Drift Theory in Geomorphology

 By Alfred Wegener.
 According to the continental drift theory, the world was
made up of a single continent called Pangaea surrounded by
an ocean called Panthalassa through most of geologic time.
 A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge
landmasses
o Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north
o Gondwanaland to the south
 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era).
The continents began to break up and drift away from one
another.
 The continent eventually separated and drifted apart and
the seven continents emerged that exist today
Force for Continental Drift
 Pole-fleeing force (Rotation of the earth causes centrifugal
effect)
 Buoyant force (Object floats in the fluid due to this property)
 Tidal force (Due to the attraction of the moon and the sun
that develops tides in oceanic waters)
 Gravitational force

Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when

applied over many million years and the drift is still continuing.

Bouyancy = Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid on

an immersed object in a gravity field.

Archimedes’ principle = Buoyant force on an object is equal to

the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Also Read: AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY WITH LAND,

The drift was in two directions

 Equator wards due to the interaction of forces of
o Gravitational force
o Pole-fleeing force
o Buoyant force
 Westwards due to tidal currents caused by earth’s rotation
from west to east (Tidal currents act from east to west)

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift in

Geomorphology
1. Geomorphologic and geological similarities along the
coasts of South America-Africa and Europe-North
America.
a. The Jig-Saw-Fit of Continents.
b. Placer Deposits of gold in the Ghana coast without any
source rock in the nearby region.
2. Tillite
a. It is the sedimentary rock formed by glacier deposits.
b. The Gondawana systems of sediments from India have
counterparts in six different landmasses of the
Southern Hemisphere.
 3. Same Age of rocks across the Oceans. For example
a. Ranges in Canada match Norway and Sweden.
b. The Appalachian Mountains match UK Mountains.
4. Fossil evidence for ancient climates
a. Plant and animal fossils on very different continents
 Mesosaurus, which was a freshwater reptile.
 Glossopteris, which was a tropical fern.
b. Same plants and animals on such different land masses
indicates oneness of continents.

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory

 Too general with silly and sometimes illogical evidence.
o Buoyancy and Gravity act in opposite directions.
o The Earth would have stopped rotation if the tidal force
exerted by the sun and moon is strong enough to rift
the continents.
 It doesn’t explain why drift initiated only in the Mesozoic era
and not before.

The continental drift theory was unable to provide a strong reason

for continent movement. This issue was eliminated by the later
studies.

Gyanbazi (Something Extra)

Density – Measure of how much mass there is in a volume of a
substance.

3 types of heat transfer

1. Radiation – The transfer of energy through empty space.

There is no direct contact between the heat source and an object.

 Sunlight warming Earth’s surface

2. Conduction – Conduction takes place when two bodies of

unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there is a
flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of
heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature
or the contact is broken. Hence, it is a process of heat transfer by
direct contact of particles of matter.

 Metal spoon heating up in a pot of hot soup.

3. Convection – Transfer of heat by the movement of a heated
fluid (includes liquids and gases). Heat transfer by convection is
caused by differences in temperature and density within a fluid

Convectional Current Theory and Ocean

Floor Mapping in Geomorphology
 Given by Arthur Holme.

Heat generated due to the decay of radioactive elements creates

thermal differences in the mantle portion.

 To vent out, the thermal difference builds a convection

current cycle in the mantle.
o Rising (ascending) limbs of these currents =
Oceanic ridges are formed (Due to the divergence of
the lithospheric plate)
o Falling (descending) limbs of these currents =
Trenches are formed (Due to the convergence of the
lithospheric plate)
 The movement of the lithospheric plate is driven by
movement of magma in the mantle (Driven by convective
process).

This system of currents exists in the entire mantle portion.

Ocean Floor Mapping in Geomorphology

 During World War II, mankind reached the bottom of the
ocean floor through the usage of submarines.
 Detailed studies of the bottom of the ocean revealed that
the floor is full of relief with mountain ranges, deep trenches
etc.

Ocean Floor
 Continental shelf: Angle is 1º, depth is 120-150 meter, and it
extends generally 70 km into the sea. But this varies a lot
o The continental shelf is virtually absent in the west
coast of South America.
o It is 120 km wide on the east coast of North America. In
the Bay of Bengal, it is very wide as well.
  Continental slope: At the end of continental shelf slope
steepens abruptly. Its end marks the end of continental
blocks.
 Continental rise: At the end of continental slope, slope
becomes gentle again to 0.5º to 1º. Its end marks the end of
continental margin.
 Abyssal plains (Deep Sea Plain): Undulating plain lies 2-3
miles below sea level and covers 2/3rd of the ocean floor.
Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a
mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plainscover more than 50% of the
Earth’s surface.
 Oceanic Ridges: The oceanic ridge system is a continuous
underwater mountain range. It is created when magma
rising between diverging plates of the lithosphere cools and
forms a new layer of crust.
 Abyssal hills: Sea hills on abyssal plains rising less than 1000
meters from the floor are called Abyssal hills.
 Sea mounts: Sea hills on abyssal plains rising above 1000
meters from the floor are called sea mounts.
 Guyots: Guyots are seamounts which have flat tops. All of
them are generally of volcanic origin.
 Submarine trenches/deeps: Long narrow and steep
depression on abyssal plain is called a trench. The deeper
trenches (> 5500 meters) are called deeps.
 Canyons: Canyons are deep concave gorges on continental
shelf, slope or rise.
 Strait, sound / channel: Both straits and channels are narrow
pieces of water connecting two larger bodies of water.
Straits are narrower than a channel or sound.

Exploring Paleomagnetism: Earth’s

Magnetic History
 The word paleomagnetism literally means ancient
magnetism.
 Studies of different-aged rock give information about past
strength and orientation of the Earth’s magnetic properties.
 Minerals of rocks assumed the direction of magnetic field
polarity when they were formed and preserved their
property after the solidification.
 Normal Polarity = North-seeking end of the compass
needle points toward the present north magnetic pole.
 Reversed Polarity = North-seeking end of the compass
needle points toward the present south magnetic pole
Features of ocean floor
 The mapping of the ocean floor and Paleomagnetic studies
of rocks from oceanic regions reveals:
o Volcanic eruptions are common all along the mid-
oceanic ridges and they bring huge amounts of lava to
the surface.
o Remarkable similarities of rocks at equidistant
locations on either side of the crest in terms of
constituents and age.
o Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are normal
polarity and are the youngest. The age of the rocks
increases as one moves away from the crest.
o Rocks on the oceanic crust are much younger than
those on the continents.
o The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake
occurrences while in the mid-oceanic ridge areas, the
quake foci have shallow depths.

Sea Floor Spreading: Earth’s Dynamic

Evolution
The features of oceanic relief provided many insights but
following questions remained unanswered

 Why was there no oceanic crust before the mid Mesozoic

era?
 Why does the age of crust increase while going away from
mid oceanic ridge?
 Why is the continuous creation of crust not causing the
increase of oceanic floor?

To answer the above questions, Harry Hess utilised the study of

convection current and paleomganetism and proposed the theory
of SeaFloor Spreading.

 The younger age of the oceanic crust and the fact that the
spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the
other indicates the consumption of the oceanic crust.
 Hot magma from Earth’s mantle rises up through the mid-
oceanic ridges and constantly produces new oceanic crust.
 Crust cools and flows sideways forming a new seafloor. It is
recycled millions of years later when it returns to the mantle
by descending into the deep ocean trenches.
  This indicates that the crust near the oceanic ridge would be
youngest (due to its recent creation by an outpour of
basaltic lava from the interior of the earth) and near the
trenches would be oldest.
 Rate of seafloor spreading is decided by age and distance
between two equal magnetic strips.
 This indicates the formation and consumption of the
oceanic crust is a cyclical process driven by
convection currents in the mantle.
 Seafloor spreading theory helps in providing explanation of
continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

Deciphering Plate Tectonics: Earth’s Puzzle

Unveiled
The sea floor spreading theory explained the oceanic crust
movement effectively but it did not explain the reason of
continental plate movement. To remove this drawback, plate
tectonic theory is given by McKenzie and Parker.

 Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth’s crust and uppermost

mantle, together referred to as the
 The earth’s lithosphere is broken into distinct plates. These
plates float on a ductile layer of the asthenosphere (upper
mantle) as a rigid unit.
 Lithospheric plates (or crustal plates or tectonic plates) can
be differentiated as
o Minor plates or major plates
o Continental plates (Arabian plate) or oceanic plates
(Pacific plate)
 Sometime a combination of both (Indo-Australian
plate)
 A plate may be referred to as the continental
plate or oceanic plate depending on which of the
two occupy a larger portion of the plate.
 Oceanic plates = Simatic and relatively thinner
 Continental plates = Sialic and relatively thicker
 Plate density (Denser plate goes for the subduction)

o Oceanic Plate > Continental Plate
o Bigger Plate > Smaller Plate

Types of Tectonics Plates

The earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and some
minor plates.

Major tectonic plates

 Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
 North American plate
 South American plate
 Pacific plate
 India-Australia-New Zealand plate
 Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
 Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

Minor tectonic plates

 Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
 Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
 Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
 Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
 Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate
(North of New Guinea)
 Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.
 Turkish plate
 Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)
 Caribbean plate
 Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American
plates)
 Iranian plate

There are lots of other minor plates than the above mentioned
one. Most of these minor plates were formed due to stress
generated by converging major plates. For example, the
Mediterranean Sea is divided into numerous minor plates because
of the compressive force exerted by Eurasian and African plates.

Force for the Plate Movement

 Convection current cycle

Types of Plate boundaries interaction

 Divergence or Divergent Edge or the Constructive Edge
 Convergence or Convergent Edge or Destructive Edge
 Transcurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or Transform Fault.
Divergence forming or Divergent Edge or the
Constructive Edge
 Such edges are sites of earth crust formation (hence
constructive) and volcanic earth forms are common along
such edges.
 Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common along divergent
edges.
 The sites where the plates move away from each other are
called spreading sites.
 The best-known example of divergent boundaries is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge.

At Ocean

 Formation of Mid-oceanic ridges through which Basaltic

magma erupts and moves apart (sea floor spreading).

At Continents

 Formation of Rift Valley (East African Rift Valley on African

and Somali plates).
 Rifts are the initial stage of a continental break-up.
 The continuous diverging force below the rifts can lead to
the formation of a new ocean basin.

New Ocean Formation from Rift Valley

A huge rift forming in the Ethiopian Afar desert is expected to

become the world’s newest ocean. When this happens, the Afar
Rift will turn into a new ocean that will split the African continent
and release the Horn of Africa from its land mass.

Convergence or Convergent Edge or

Destructive Edge
There are mainly 3 ways in which convergence can occur

Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries
 When two oceanic plates collide, the denser plate sinks
below the lighter plate.
o Normally the older plate will subduct because of its
higher density.
  It forms a trench along the boundary.
 The rocks in the subduction zone become
o Low density and high pressure magma forms that rises
upward due to the buoyant force.
 A continuous upward movement of magma creates volcanic
islands on the ocean floor.
 Earthquakes and Volcanism are common.
 The deepest oceanic trench, the Mariana Trench, is the
result of the Pacific Plate moving beneath the Mariana Plate.
 Example = Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc

Oceanic-Continental Boundaries
 When oceanic and continental plates collide, the oceanic
plate undergoes subduction.
o Oceanic plates are denser than continental plates,
which mean they have a higher subduction potential.
o They are constantly being pulled into the mantle,
where they are melted and recycled into new magma.
o It forms a trench along the boundary. The trenches
formed here are less deep than formed in ocean-ocean
convergence.
 The rocks in the subduction zone become metamorphosed.
o Low density and high pressure magma forms that rises
upward due to the buoyant force.
 Earthquakes and Volcanism are common.
 A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant
volcanic eruptions at the surface of the continental plate
along the margin.
 The Cascade Mountains of western North America and the
Andes of western South America feature such active
volcanoes.

Continental-Continental Boundaries
 Continental-continental convergent boundaries pit large
slabs of crust against each other.
 There is very little subduction as most of the rock is too light
to be carried very far down into the dense mantle.
o The zone of collision may undergo crumpling and
folding and folded mountains may emerge.
 Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust; instead, it cools
intrusively and forms granite. Highly metamorphosed rock,
like gneiss, is also common.
 o Earthquakes are frequent but no volcanic activity
occurs.
 The ocean basin or a sedimentary basin (geosynclinal
sediments found along the continental margins) is squeezed
between the two converging plates.
o Himalayan mountains have come out of a great
geosynclinecalled the Tethys Sea.
 This is an orogenic collision. Himalayan Boundary Fault is
one such example.

Geosyncline theory of mountain building

 Geosyncline: A large-scale depression in the earth’s crust
containing very thick deposits.

Phases of formation
 Continent à Oceanic Crust ß Continent
o Creation of depression between continental plates
o Sediments deposit in this depression
o Depression also contain marine origin sediments due to
the presence of erstwhile ocean
Continent-Contine
Ocean-Continent
Ocean-Ocean Convergence Convergence
Convergence (Cordilleran
(Island-Arc Convergence) (Himalayan
Convergence)
Convergence)
Neither plate subdu
Denser plate subduction and Oceanic plate subduction and shallow subduction l
trench formation trench formation crumpling and foldin
plate
Earthquake and Volcanism Earthquake and Volcanism Earthquake
Low density high pressure
Magma (matamorphosed Fragments of ocean
Magma (matamorphosed
rocks) rises upward leading crust get plastered l
rocks) formation that rises
volcanic eruptions all along welding of two plate
upward leading volcanic
the boundaries (known as Suture Zo
eruptions
Extensive volcanic mountain
Chain of volcanic islands
formation known as Fold mountain forma
formation known as Island Arc
Continental Arc
Examples = Indonesian Examples = Rockies (North
Examples = Himalay
Archipelago, Philippine Island America) and Andes (South
Alps, Urals, Appalac
Arc America) Mountains
  There is evidence of marine origin sediments have been
found in the Karakoram range of Trans-Himalayas. This
shows the presence of ocean in between the Indian and
Eurasian plate before the collision that had been ultimately
transformed into the geosyncline due to the compressive
forces of two plates.

Transform Faults in Geomorphology

 Formed when two plates pass each other and grind against
each other.
 There is only deformation of the existing landform (no
creation or destruction).
o Neither creation of crust (no basaltic lava eruption) nor
destruction of crust (no subduction)
 Seismic activity occurs during grinding of passing plates.
 Example = San Andreas Fault @ western coast of USA

Ring of Fire
 The Ring of Fire is also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt.
 It is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active
volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
 Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at convergent
boundaries (falling limbs creating trenches)
called subduction zones.
o Plate that is underneath is pushed down (subducted)
by the plate above, melts and becomes magma.
 The abundance of magma so near to Earth’s surface gives
rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity.

Rates of Plate Movement and its

significance
 The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel
the mid-oceanic ridges help scientists determine the rates of
plate movement.
 These rates of movement for these plates vary considerably.
 The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr),
and the East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in the South
Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile, has the fastest rate
(more than 15 cm/yr).
Significance of Plate Tectonics in
Geomorphology
 It helps in understanding large-scale geological phenomena,
such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and the existence of ocean
basins and continents.
 It aids in the interpretation of landforms.
 The concept of plate tectonics explains mineralogy. New
minerals pour up from the mantle and deposit in the
lithosphere. These rocks are the source of many minerals.
o The famous Pacific Ring of fire known for its violent
volcanic activity is also a ring of mineral deposits.

Formation of the Himalayas: A Geological

Journey
 225 million years ago (mya) India was a large island situated
off the Australian coast and separated from Asia by the
Tethys Ocean.
 The supercontinent Pangea began to break up 200 Ma and
India started a northward drift towards Asia.
 80 Ma India was 6,400 km south of the Asian continent but
moving towards it at a rate of between 9 and 16 cm per
year.
o At this time Tethys Ocean floor would have been
subducting northwards beneath Asia and the plate
margin would have been a Convergent oceanic-
continental one just like the Andes today.
 From about 50-40 Ma the rate of northward drift of the
Indian continental plate slowed to around 4-6 cm per year.
o This slowdown is interpreted to mark the beginning of
the collision between the Eurasian and Indian
continental plates, the closing of the former Tethys
Ocean, and the initiation of Himalayan uplift.
 The Eurasian plate was partly crumpled and buckled up
above the Indian plate but due to their low density/high
buoyancy neither continental plate could be subducted.
 This caused the continental crust to thicken due to folding
and faulting by compressional forces pushing up the
Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau.
 The Himalayas are still rising by more than 1 cm per year as
India continues to move northwards into Asia, which explains
 the occurrence of shallow focus earthquakes in the rregion
today.

Chapter 3
59 min read
Geomorphic Processes: Types of mountains,
Movements, & Erosion

We are going to cover

 Geomorphic processes
 Endogenic process
 Sudden movement
 Diastrophic movement
 Epeirigenic movement
 Orogenic movement
o Crustal deformation processes
o Fold
o Fault
o Types of mountains
 Fold
 Block
 Volcanic
 Residual
o Significance of mountains
o Some relevant definitions related to mountains
o Some details of important mountain ranges

Exogenic process
 Weathering
o Chemical
o Physical
o Biological
 Mass movement
o Slow and Rapid
 Erosion and deposition
 Geographical Landforms
o Glacial
 o Riverine
o Karst (Chalkland)
o Marine
o Arid
 Water
 Wind
o Plateaus
o Plains

After learning about the earth formation, the evolution of its crust
and other inner layers, the rocks and minerals the crust is
composed of, the crustal plates movement, it is time to know in
detail about the surface of the earth on which we live.

Geomorphic Processes: Forces Shaping

Earth’s Surface
 Force responsible for features on the earth’s surface comes
from within (Endogenetic Forces)and above (Exogenetic
Forces) the earth’s surface.
 The endogenic and exogenic forces cause physical stresses
and chemical actions on earth materials and bring changes
in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known
as geomorphic processes.
 In general terms, the endogenic forces are mainly land
building forces and the exogenic processes are mainly land
wearing forces.
 The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down
(degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation)
of basins/ depressions, on the earth’s surface.
 The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the
surface of the earth through erosion is known as
 The exogenic processes fail to even out the relief variations
of the surface of the earth due to the endogenic forces that
continuously elevate or build up parts of the earth’s surface.

Geomorphic Processes: Endogenic Forces

 The energy emanating from within the earth is the main
force behind endogenic geomorphic processes.
 This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational
and tidal frictionand primordial heat from the origin of the
earth.
  Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow
from within, the action of endogenic forces are not uniform.
Hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface is
uneven.
 Endogenetic forces are of 2 types based on direction
o Horizontal
o Vertical
 Endogenetic Forces are of 2 types based on intensity
o Sudden forces
o Diastrophic forces

Understanding Sudden Movements in

Geomorphic Processes
 It is due to sudden forces from deep inside the earth.
 It can cause huge damage both at the surface and below the
surface.
 These are extreme events and become disasters when they
occur in densely populated areas.
 It is a result of long period preparation deep within the
earth; but the effects on the earth surface were quick and
sudden.
 Geologically, they are known as ‘Constructive forces’ as they
create relief features on the Earth’s surface.
 The two main phenomenon for sudden movement are
 Volcanism = It includes the movement of molten rock
(magma) onto or towards the earth’s surface through narrow
volcanic vents or fissures.
 Earthquake =It is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth
caused by the abrupt release of slowly accumulated energy.

We will read about volcanoes and earthquakes in detail in

the geographical phenomenon topic.

Exploring Diastrophic Movements in

Geomorphic Processes
 All processes that move, lift or build up portions of the crust
of Earth come under diastrophism.
 Very slow and effects become discernible after thousands
and millions of years.
 Constructive forces– Affect larger areas of the globe and
produce meso-level reliefs.
 1. Example: mountains, plateaus and plains
 Diastrophic movements are further divided
1. Epeirogenic movements
2. Orogenic movements

Understanding Epeirogenic Movements in

Geomorphic Processes
 Epeirogenic-or-continent forming movements are radial
movements (act along the radius of the earth).
 It causes upliftment and subsidence of continental masses
through upward and downward movements.
 Movements are vertical and they affect a larger part.
 Vertical movements are mainly associated with the
formation of continents and plateaus (continental building
process).
 Upward movement can be of two types-

Upward movement or upliftment

 Of whole continent or part thereof
 Of coastal land of the continents called as emergence
 Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu Coast)
 Malabar coast (Kerala Coast)
 Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast)

Downward movement or subsidence

 Of whole continent or part thereof
 Of coastal land near the coast called submergence
 Features = Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned lowlands
 The Andamans and Nicobars are the visible part of the
submerged Arakan range.
 A part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of
an earthquake in 1819.

Exploring Geomorphic Processes: The

Dynamics of Orogenic Movements
 Horizontal movement or tangential force.
 Either move towards each other or away from each other.
  They move in opposite directions due to the ‘tensional
forces’ or ‘divergent forces’ (create rupture, cracks, fracture
and faults).
 They move towards each other due to the ‘compressional
forces or convergent force’ (create crustal deformation
leading to formation of folds or subsidence of crustal parts).

Exploring Geomorphic Processes: Crustal

Deformation Through Folds and Faults
The understanding of crustal deformation processes is very vital
to effectively grasp the concept of fold and block mountain
formation. These are basically of 3 types

 Compression– shortening (Fold mountain creation)

 Tension– Stretching (Block mountain creation)
 Shearing– stress when two pieces slide past each other
(Transverse fault)

Folds
A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms due to the
application of compressional stress on rocks or a part of the
earth’s crust. The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock
layers).Some important terminologies related to folds are

 Anticlines and synclines are the most common up-and-down

Anticline = ∩-shape with the oldest rocks in the centre of the

folds that result from compression.

fold.
 Syncline = U-shape, with the youngest rocks in the centre of
the fold.
 OverturnedFold= A highly inclined axial plane such that the
strata on one limb are overturned.
 RecumbentFold = has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
 Nappe = A sheet of rock that has moved sideways over
neighbouring strata as a result of an overthrust or folding.

Faults
 A surface along which a rock body has broken and been
displaced is known as a fault.
 Based on the elasticity of the rocks and the force, fractures
are seen.
  Fault plane: The plane along which the rocks are displaced
by tensional and compressional forces acting vertically and
horizontally is known as a fault plane.
 Fault plane may be vertical, horizontal, inclined, curved or
any other form

Normal Fault
 A dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved
downward relative to the block below.
 This type of faulting occurs in response to extension.
 Occurs when the “hanging wall” moves down relative to the
“foot wall”.

Reverse Fault
 A dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault
plane, moves up and over the lower block.
 This type of faulting is common in areas of compression.
 When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often
described as a thrust fault.
 Occurs where the “hanging wall” moves up or is thrust over
the “foot wall”.

Strike-slip fault
 A fault on which the two blocks slide past one another. The
San Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral fault.

Left-lateral strike-slip fault

 If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length,
this is a type of strike-slip fault where the left block moves
toward you and the right block moves away.

Right-lateral strike-slip fault

 If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length,
this is a type of strike-slip fault where the right block moves
toward you and the left block moves away.

TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
Fold Mountains: Nature’s Artistry Shaped by
Geomorphic Processes
 Fold Mountains are created at the converging site of two or
more of Earth’s tectonic plates.
 It is the result of Earth’s crustal rocks folding by compressive
forces due to the endogenic or internal forces.
 They are considered as the “true mountains”.
 The term Orogenesis or mountain building is commonly used
for Fold Mountains.
 These are extensive mountain chains with lofty heights
whereas their width is considerably small.
 These mountains formed along unstable parts of the earth
and hence have recurrent seismicity.
 They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper,
gold etc.

Examples

 Rockies (North America) – 4,830 km

 Andes (South America)– 7,000 km
 Alps (Europe)– 1,200 km
 Atlas (Africa) – 2,500 km
 Himalayas (Asia) – 2,400 km

Geomorphic Processes: Exploring the Types

of Fold Mountains
Fold Mountains On the basis of Nature of Fold
 Simple folded mountains – Folds are arranged in waves like
patterns with a well-developed system of anticline and
synclines.
 Complex folded mountains – Folds are complex in nature
due to extreme compressional forces like overfold,
recumbent fold and nappe. Himalayas are one such
example.

Deciphering Geomorphic Processes:

Understanding Fold Mountains Based on Origin
Period
 Old fold mountains
 o Mountains which originated before the Tertiary period.
o These mountains have been so greatly eroded that
they have become residual fold mountains.
o Example
o Aravalis – 800 km
o Appalachians – 2,414 km
 Young or New fold mountains
 Fold mountains of the Tertiary period.
 They are further subdivided based on their location
o Andean type
 At the ocean-continental convergent boundaries
(C-O).
 Prone to both earthquakes and volcanic activities.
 Example
 Rockies
 Andes
 Himalayan type
o At the continental-continental convergent boundaries
(C-C).
o No active volcanoes here.
o Presence of sedimentary deposits of marine origin
because of
o Example
o Great Himalayas

Block Mountains: Geomorphic Insights into

Tectonic Plate Drift
 Block Mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s
tectonic plates drift away.
 Result of rifting of the Earth’s crustal rocks by tensile forces
arising from the endogenic or internal forces.
 Also called fault-block Mountains since they are formed due
to faulting as a result of tensile and compressive forces.
 The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the lowered
blocks are called graben.
 Examples
 Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben)
 Rhine Valley (graben) and Vosges mountain (horst) in
Europe

Volcanic Mountains: Geomorphic Processes

  A mountain formed due to volcanic activity is called Volcanic
Mountain.
 As these are formed by the accumulation of volcanic
material, they are also known as mountains of
accumulation.
 Examples
 Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)
 Fujiyama (Japan)
 Andaman and Nicobar islands in India is the tip of the
volcanic mountains which rise from the ocean floor.

Residual or Dissected Mountains:

Understanding Geomorphic Processes
 These mountains are evolved by denudation.
 That is why they are also known as relict mountains or
mountains of circum denudation.
 They have been worn down from previously existing
elevated regions.
 Examples
o Nilgiri Hills
o Parasnath
o Girnar
o Rajmahal
 But Nilgiris got their present height as a result of subsequent
uplift.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS ON THE

BASIS OF LOCATION
 Continental mountains
 Oceanic mountains

Exploring Continental Mountains: Coastal

and Inland Ranges Around the World
 Coastal mountains
o the Rockies
o the Appalachians
o the Alpine mountain chains
o the Western Ghats (India)
o the Eastern Ghats (India)
 Inland mountains
 o the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe)
o the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of Asia
o the Urals of Russia
o the Aravallis, the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the
Maikal of India

Discovering Oceanic Mountains: Features

and Examples
 Found on continental shelves and ocean floors.
 If the height of the mountains is considered from the ocean
floor,
 Mauna Kea (9140 m) is the highest mountain when the
height of the mountains is considered from the ocean floor.
 A dormant volcanic mountain in the Hawaii hotspot volcanic
chain.

Significance of Mountains: Water Sources

and River Origins
 The mountains are a storehouse of water.
 Many rivers have their source in the glaciers of mountains.
 Three of the world’s major rivers, the Indus, the Ganges and
the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailash And
cross and encircle the Himalayas.
 Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and
generation of hydro-electricity.

Mountain Features: Ridges, Ranges,

Systems, Chains, and Cordilleras
 Mountain Ridge
o Mountains originated as a result of local folding and
faulting.
o Generally, the slope of one side of the ridge is steep
and the other side is moderate (In case of Himalayas,
the southern slope is steeper compared to the northern
slope).
o In some cases a ridge may have a symmetrical slope
on both sides.
 Mountain Range
 o It refers to a series of ridges which originated in the
same age and underwent the same processes.
o The most prominent or characteristic feature of
mountain ranges is their long and narrow extension.
o Example
o Himalayas are a mountain range with Himadri ridge,
Himachal ridge, and Shiwalik ridge.
 Mountain System
o A group of mountain ranges formed in a single period,
similar in their form, structure and extension, is termed
a mountain system.
o Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada (USA), the
Rocky mountain system of North America and the
Appalachian.
 Mountain Chain
o It consists of mountain ranges which differ in size and
periods of formation.
o It refers to highlands composed of different types of
mountains, fold, block, or volcanic mountains although
there is a proper arrangement of the mountains.
 Cordillera
o Cordillera refers to several mountain groups and
systems.
o Example = the Western Cordillera in the western part
of the USA and in British Columbia of Canada.

Major Mountain Ranges: Andes, Rockies,

Ural, Atlas, Himalayas, and Alps
The Andes
 Longest continental mountain range in the world.
 World’s highest mountain range outside of Asia with an
average height of 4000 meters.
 highest peak is Mount Aconcagua (6,962 m)
 volcanic origin, but now it’s dormant
 World’s highest volcanoes are in the Andes.
 Ojos del Salado (6,893 m),an active volcano, on the Chile-
Argentina border is the highest volcano on earth.

The Rocky
 Mountain range forms a part of the American Cordillera.
  Formed due to Ocean-Continent collision.
 The rocks making up the mountains were formed before the
mountains were raised.
 The Rocky Mountains took shape during an intense period of
plate tectonic activity.

The Ural Mountains

 Their eastern side is usually considered the natural
boundary between Europe and Asia.
 Since the 18th century, the mountains have been a major
mineral base of Russia.

The Atlas Mountains

 Mountain range across the north-western stretch of Africa
extending about 2,500 km through Algeria, Morocco and
Tunisia.
 The highest peak is Toubkal (4,165 metres) in south-western
Morocco.
 These mountains were formed when Africa and Europe
collided.
 The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic
coastlines from the Sahara Desert.

The Himalayan range

 It is home to the planet’s highest peaks, including the
highest, Mount Everest.
 The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by the
Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north by
the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic
Plain.

The Alps
 The mountains were formed as the African and Eurasian
tectonic plates collided.
 Extreme folding caused by the event resulted in marine
sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high
mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc (4,810 m) at the
French–Italian border.
 The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks
higher than 4,000 meters, known as the four-thousanders.
The Influence of Climate on Mountain Height and
Erosion Patterns
 Mountain height depends more on ice and glacier coverage
than tectonic forces.
 In colder climates, the snowline on mountains starts lower
down causing erosion at lower altitudes. At low latitudes, the
atmosphere is warm and the snowline is high.
 At cold locations far from the equator, erosion by snow and
ice easily matched any growth due to the Earth’s plates
crunching together.
 Hence, colder climates are better at eroding peaks.

Exogenic Processes and Geomorphic Agents

 Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a direct result of stress
induced in earth materials due to various forces that come
into existence due to the sun’s heat.
 Geomorphic Agent = Any exogenic element of nature (like
water, ice, wind, etc.) capable of acquiring and transporting
earth materials (mobile medium)
 The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes
are small and slow but it affects the rocks severely in the
long run due to continued fatigue.

Denudation: Processes and Causes

 All the exogenic geomorphic processes (Weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion and transportation) are
included in denudation.
 ‘Denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.
 Internal resisting force applied per unit area is called stress.
The basic reason that leads to weathering, erosion and
deposition is development of stresses in the body of the
earth materials.
 Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear
stresses (separating forces). It is this stress that breaks
rocks and other earth materials.
 Temperature and precipitation are the two important
climatic elements that control various processes by inducing
stress in earth materials.
 Earth materials become subjected to molecular
stresses caused due to temperature changes.
  Loosening of bonds between grains caused due to chemical
processes.

Weathering: Mechanical and Chemical

Processes
 Mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather
and climate.
 An in-situ or on-site process (very little or no motion of
materials takes place).

Weathering: Solution, Carbonation,

Hydration, and Oxidation-Reduction
 A group of weathering processes acts on the rocks to
decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state.
 A group of weathering processes acts on the rocks to
chemically decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine
state.

1. Solution
o Something is dissolved in water or acids.
o This phenomenon depends upon the solubility of a
mineral in water or weak acids.
o Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulfates,
and potassium etc. are affected by this process.
o Easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
2. Carbonation
o Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals.
o Carbonic acid forms by absorbing Carbon Dioxide from
the atmosphere that acts as a weak acid on various
minerals (like limestone).
3. Hydration
o Chemical addition of water.
o Minerals take up water and expand causing an increase
in the volume of the material itself or rock.
o This process is reversible and long. Continued
repetition causes fatigue leading to disintegration of
rocks.
 o The volume changes in minerals due to hydration will
also help in physical weathering through exfoliation
and granular disintegration.
4. Oxidation and reduction

o Oxidation is the gain of oxygen. Reduction is loss of
oxygen.
o Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the
atmosphere and water.
o A combination of a mineral with oxygen forms oxides
(rusting in case of iron) or hydroxides.
o Reduction takes place on placement of oxidized
minerals in an oxygen deficient environment.
 Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas
of stagnant water and waterlogged ground.
o Red color of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or
bluish grey.
 Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat
speed up all chemical reactions.
 These weathering processes are interrelated. Hydration,
carbonation and oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the
weathering process.

Biological Weathering: Effects of Organism

Growth and Human Activities
 Biological weathering is physical changes (removal of
minerals and ions) due to growth or movement of
organisms.
 New surfaces for chemical attack is exposed by
 Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms,
rodents etc.
 Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and
cultivating soils.

Physical or Mechanical Weathering: Forces

and Factors at Play
 Depend on some applied forces like
1. Gravitational forces.
2. Expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal
growth or animal activity.
 3. Water pressures are controlled by wetting and drying
cycles.

Physical or Mechanical Weathering

Processes: Forces and Effects
Unloading and Expansion
 Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion
releases vertical pressure. It causes expansion of upper
layers of the rock, resulting in disintegration of rock masses.
 In areas of curved ground surface, arched fractures tend to
produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs of rock.
 Large, smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes form
due to this process.

Exfoliation is the term used to describe the removal of sheets of

rock from a rock’s surface due a range of physical and chemical
processes during weathering.

Granular Disintegration
 A form of weathering where the grains of a rock become
loosened and fall out.

Exfoliation due to the Temperature Changes and

Expansion
 Due to the diurnal changes in the temperatures, the surface
layers of the rocks tend to expand more than the rock at
depth that leads to formation of stress within the rock.
 Due to this, surface layers undergo exfoliation that result in
smooth rounded surfaces in rocks known as exfoliated tors.
 This process is most effective in dry climates and high
elevations where diurnal temperature changes are drastic.

Block Separation
 This type of disintegration takes place in rocks with
numerous joints acquired by shrinkage due to cooling or
mountain-making pressures.
 This type of disintegration in rocks can be achieved by
comparatively weaker forces.
Shattering
 A huge rock may undergo disintegration along weak zones.
This produces highly angular pieces with sharp corners and
edges. The process is known as shattering.

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

 Water penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in rocks
during the warm season. This water freezes into ice during
the cold season and its volume expands as a result.
 This exerts tremendous pressure on rock walls to tear apart
even where the rocks are massive.
 Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores
and cracks of rocks during repeated cycles of freezing and
melting.

Salt Weathering
 Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and
crystallisation.
 Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and
barium have a tendency to expand.
 High temperature ranges in deserts favor such salt
expansion.
 Salt crystals in near-surface pores split the individual grains
within rocks which eventually fall off.
 This process of falling off of individual grains may result in
granular disintegration or granular foliation.

Effects of Weathering on Landforms: From

Peneplains to Tors
 Weathering and erosion tend to level down the irregularities
of landforms and create a peneplain (a more or less level
land surface produced by erosion over a long period,
undisturbed by crustal movement).
 The strong wind erosion leaves behind whale-back shaped
rocks in arid landscape. These are calledinselberg(an
isolated hill or mountain rising abruptly from a
plain)or ruware.
  Sometimes, differential weathering of soft strata exposes
the dome like hard rock masses, called tors. Tors are a
common feature of the South Indian landscape.

Weathering and Erosion: Static vs. Mobile

Processes
 Weathering is a static process (disintegrated material does
not involve any motion except the falling down under force
of gravity).
 Erosion is a mobile process (involves motion)

Significance of Weathering: Catalyst for Soil

Formation and Mineral Enrichment
 The initial step of soil formation.
 Weathering helps in soil enrichment (enhancing certain
valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc.)
making extraction of the same valuable material sufficient
and economically viable.

Mass Movement: Nature’s Forceful Dance

Down Slopes
 Mass movement, also called Mass Wasting, is a bulk
movement of soil and rock debris down slopes under the
influence of gravity.
 Mass of rock debris moves down the slope under the direct
influence of gravity rather than air, water, or ice (but mass
may carry with it air, water, ice).
 Weathering is not pre-requisite for mass movement though
it aid mass movement (mass movement is more active on
weathered slope).
 Mass movement does not come under erosion (no
geomorphic agents participate in the mass movement
process).
 Several activating causes precede mass movements
o Removal of support from below.
o Increase in gradient and height of slopes.
o Overloading through addition of materials.
o Heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope
materials.
o Removal of material or load from above.
 o Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery.
o Excessive natural seepage.
o Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and
rivers leading to slow outflow of water from under the
slopes or river banks.
o Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.

Exploring the Dynamics: Slow and Rapid

Mass Movement Processes
We can use a classification that divides mass movement
processes into two broad categories.

 Slow mass movements

o Creep
o Solifluction

 Rapid mass movements

o Earth flow
o Mud flow
o Debris avalanche
o Landslide
 Slump
 Rock slide
 Debris Slide

These mass movements occur mainly due to two reasons

 Slope Failures – a sudden failure of the slope resulting in

transport of debris downhill by sliding, rolling, falling, or
slumping.
 Sediment Flows – debris flows down hill mixed with water or
air.

Landslides: Rock/Debris Falls, Slumps, and

Slides
Rock/Debris Falls
 Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope
becomes dislodged and falls down the slope.
 Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,
regolith, vegetation, and rocks.
  The accumulation of rock debris at the base of a steep slope
is called talus. Slumps (also called Rotational Slides)
 Types of slides wherein downward rotation of rock or regolith
occurs along a concave-upward curved surface (rotational
slides).
 The upper surface of each slump block remains relatively
undisturbed, as do the individual blocks.
 Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope.
 Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger slumps.

Slides (also called Translational Slides)

 Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris
slide down a pre-existing surface.
 Piles of talus are common at the base of a rock slide or
debris slide.
 Slides differ from slumps in that there is no rotation of the
sliding rock mass along a curved surface.

Sediment Flows: Slurry Flows, Granular

Flows, and Debris Avalanches
 A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or regolith with
some water or air.
 It occurs when sufficient force is applied to rocks and
regolith that they begin to flow down slope.
 They can be broken into two types depending on the amount
of water present.
 Slurry Flows (considered water-saturated flows)
 Solifluction – Fntaining water (slow process). These occur in
areas where the soil remains saturated with water for long
periods of time.
 Debris Flows – These occur at higher velocities than
solifluction and often result from heavy rains causing
saturation of the soil and regolith with water.
 Mudflows – These are a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of
sediment and water that has a consistency ranging between
soup-like and wet concrete. These usually result from heavy
rains in areas where there is an abundance of
unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams.
Volcanic mudflows are often referred to as lahars.
 Granular Flows (not saturated with water)
o Creep – The very slow, usually continuous movement of
regolith down slope. Creep occurs on almost all slopes,
 but the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in
bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined
utility poles.
o Earthflows – Usually associated with heavy rains and
move at velocities between several cm/yr and 100s of
m/day. They usually remain active for long periods of
time.
o Grain Flows – Usually form in relatively dry material,
such as a sand dune, on a steep slope. A small
disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains
moving rapidly down slope.
o Debris Avalanches – These are very high velocity flows
of large volume mixtures of rock and regolith that
result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope.
They move down slopes and then can travel for
considerable distances along relatively gentle slopes.
They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
o Snow Avalanches are similar to debris avalanches,
but involve only snow, and are much more common
than debris avalanches.

Erosion and Deposition: Processes and

Agents of Change
 Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock
debris.
 Denudational processes like erosion and transportation are
controlled by kinetic energy.
 The erosion and transportation of earth materials is brought
about by wind, running water, glaciers, waves and ground
water.
 The first three agents are controlled by climatic conditions
and represent three states of matter
o Solid (glacier)
o Liquid (running water)
o Gaseous (wind)
 The work of the other two agents of erosion — waves and
ground water — is not controlled by climate.
 Waves = Location along the interface of litho and
hydrosphere (coastal region) determine the work of waves
 Ground water = Determined by the lithological character of
the region (karst topography develops in the permeable and
soluble rocks)
  The landforms produced by each of these agents of erosion.
 Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
o erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy
on gentler slopes.
o Due to this, the materials carried by them start to
settle themselves.
o In other words, deposition is not actually the work of
any agent.
 The same erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers,
wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or
depositional agents also.

Types of Erosion: Understanding Hydraulic

Action, Corrosion, Attrition, and Corrasion
This erosion of the materials is carried in
following ways
 Hydraulic Action: This is the mechanical loosening that
sweeps away the materials by the sheer force or river water
itself. No load or material is involved in this process.
 Corrosion or Solution: This is the chemical or solvent action
of water on soluble or partly soluble rocks while coming in
contact with them.
 Attrition:A form of fluvial erosion in which the bed load is
eroded by itself when the transported material rolls and
collides into one another. The coarser boulders are broken
down into smaller stones and pebbles.
 Corrosion or Abration: The rock particles break off additional
rock fragments when they bounce, scrape and drag along
the bottom and sides of the river. They are two types:
o Vertical corrosion which acts downward
o Lateral corrosion which acts on both sides

Transportation in Erosion: Traction,

Saltation, Suspension, and Solution
This transportation of eroded materials is carried
in four ways:
 Traction: The heavier and larger rock fragments like gravels,
pebbles etc are forced by the flow of the river to roll along
 its bed. This process is called traction and the load
transported in this way is called traction load.
 Saltation: Some of the fragments of the rocks move along
the bed of a stream by jumping or bouncing continuously.
This process is called saltation.
 Suspension: The holding up of small particles of sand, silt
and mud by the water as the stream flows is called
suspension.
 Solution: Some parts of the rock fragments dissolved in the
river water and transported. This type of transportation is
called solution transportation.

GEOGRAPHICAL LANDFORMS
Glacial Landforms: Erosional Features in
Highlands and Depositional Features in
Lowlands
 A glacier is a large mass of ice that is persistently moving
under its own weight over the land or as linear flows down
the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys.
 Glaciers move under the influence of the force of gravity.
 It generally gives rise to erosional features in the highlands
and depositional features on lowlands.
 The movement of glaciers is slow, unlike water flow. Glaciers
flow like very slow rivers.

Highland Glaciations
 It erodes its valley by two processes viz. plucking &
abrasion.
 Plucking→Occurs when rocks and stones become frozen to
the base or sides of the glacier and are plucked from the
ground or rock face as the glacier moves. This leaves behind
a jagged landscape.
 Abrasion→Occurs when rocks and stones become embedded
in the base and sides of the glacier. These are then rubbed
against the bedrock (at the bottom of the glacier) and rock
faces (at the sides of the glacier) as the glacier moves.

Moraine
  Moraines are accumulations of dirt and rocks that have
fallen onto the glacier surface or have been pushed along by
the glacier as it moves.
 The dirt and rocks composing moraines can range in size
from powdery silt to large rocks and boulders.
 A receding glacier can leave behind moraines that are visible
long after the glacier retreats.
o Ground moraine = Deposited beneath glaciers,
widespread beneath continental glaciers, very poorly
drained area with many closed depressions.
o End or terminal moraine = Deposited as a ridge along
the edge of a stationary glacier.
o Lateral moraine = Valley-side debris accumulated
along the sides of a mountain valley glacier.
o Medial moraine = Formed by the confluence of two
lateral moraines as tributary mountain glaciers merge.

Crevasses
 A crevasse is simply a deep crack in a glacier or ice sheet
caused by changing stresses as ice moves.

Arete/Horn/Cirques
 An arête is a thin, crest of rock left after two adjacent
glaciers have worn a steep ridge into the rock.
 A horn(pyramidal peak)results when glaciers erode three or
more arêtes, usually forming a sharp-edged peak.
 Example = The Matterhorn (highest peak in the Alps) and
the Everest (highest peak in the Himalayas)
 Cirques (or corrie or cwm) are concave, circular basins
carved by the base of a glacier as it erodes the landscape.
 A lake of water can be seen frequently inside the cirques
after the glacier vanishes. Such lakes are calledCirque or
Tarn lakes.

Bergschrund/Rimaye
 At the head of a glacier, where it begins to leave the
snowfield of a corrie, a deep vertical crack opens up called a
Bergschrund or Rimaye.
 This happens in summer when although the ice continues to
move out of the corrie, there is no new snow to replace it.
U-shape glacial trough
 U-shaped valleys, trough valleys or glacial troughs, are
formed by the process of glaciation.
 They are characteristic of mountain glaciation in particular.
 They have a characteristic U shape, with steep, straight
sides and a flat or rounded bottom.

Fjord
 A fjord is formed when a glacier retreats, after carving its
typical U-shaped valley, and the sea fills the resulting valley
floor.
 This forms a narrow, steep sided inlet connected to the sea.

Hanging valley
 A small mountain glacier may join a larger valley glacier, just
as a stream may join a larger river.
 The smaller glacier, however, may not be as deep as the
main one, and its base may be higher in elevation than the
main glacier’s base.

Lowland Glaciation
Roche Mountonne
 A Roche moutonnée called as
 It is a rock formation created by the passing of a glacier over
underlying bedrock.
 Results in asymmetric erosional

Crag and tail

 When a more resistant rock persists in the passage of
glaciers, the upstream side is smoothed by abrasion and its
downstream side is roughened & steepened by plucking
called Roche moutonnee.
 A tadpole-shaped landform developed by glacial erosion of
rocks on unequal resistance.
 It is a larger rock mass than a Roche moutonnee.
 Crag is a mass of hard rock with a steep slope on the upward
side.
 The tail is formed in softer rocks.
Drumlins
 Drumlins are elongated, teardrop-shaped hills of rock, sand,
and gravel that formed under moving glacier ice.
o Steeper slope at upstream & gentle slope along
downstream.
 One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called
the stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other end
called tail.
 Drumlins give an indication of the direction of glacier
movement.
o The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving
ice.

DRUMLINS VS ROCHE MOUNTONNE

 Type of landform
o “Drumlins” are glacial depositional landforms, whereas
“Roche moutonnee”are glacial erosional landforms.
 Place of origin
o “Drumlins” are formed in outwash plains at the foothills
of the mountainous area, whereas “Roche moutonnee”
are formed at a high altitude compared to drumlins.
 Type of surface
o “Drumlins” have smooth surface at both upstream and
downstream side, whereas “Roche moutonnee” have
smooth surface at upstream side and rough surface at
downstream side.

Boulder clay and glacial till

 Boulder clay contains many large stones and boulders,
formed by deposition from melting glaciers and ice sheets.

Erratics
 Glacial erratics are stones and rocks that were transported
by a glacier, and then left behind after the glacier melted.
 Erratics can be carried for hundreds of kilometers, and can
range in size from pebbles to large boulders.
 They are called erratics bucause they are composed of
materials entirely different from those of the region in which
they are found.
Outwash Plain
 The large quantities of water that flowed from the melting
ice deposited various kinds of materials, the most important
of which is called glacial outwash.
 Outwash plains made up of outwash deposits are
characteristically flat and consist of layers of sand and other
fine sediments.
 It is also known as a sandur.
 Such plains with their sandy soils are often used for
specialized kinds of agriculture.

Eskers
 Glaciers melt in summer –> Water flows on the surface of
the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves
through holes in the ice.
 These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like
streams in a channel beneath the ice.
 Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the
ground) with ice forming its banks.
 Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with
some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier.
 After the ice melts, these subglacial river deposits can be
found as a sinuous ridge called esker. .

RIVERINE LANDFORM
 The landforms created as a result of degradational action
(erosion) or aggradational work (deposition) of running water
is called fluvial landforms.
 The fluvial processes may be divided into three physical
phases – erosion, transportation and deposition.
 Most of the erosional landforms made by running water are
associated with vigorous and youthful rivers flowing over
steep gradients. With time, The stream channels over steep
gradients turn gentler due to continued erosion with time. As
a consequence, it loses the velocity, facilitating active
deposition.

Running water effects of landforms: Erosion,

Transportation, and Deposition
  Erosion occurs when overland flow moves soil particles and
rock materials downslope.
 These particles and materials carried by erosion are the load
of the river.
 This load acts as a grinding tool. It hels in cutting the bottom
and sides of the river bed. This results in deepening and
widening of the river channel.

Erosional Landforms: Valleys, Potholes,

Waterfalls, and More
Valleys
 A valleyis a low area between hills or mountains typically
with a river running through it.
 Evolution = Rills –> Gully –> Valley
 A rillis a shallow channel in some soil, created by the erosion
of flowing water.
 Rillscan generally be easily removed by tilling the soil. When
rills get large enough that they cannot easily be removed,
they’re known as gullies.
 There are many types of valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge,
canyon, etc. depending upon dimensions and shape.
 Valley types depend upon the type and structure of rocks in
which they form. For example, canyons commonly form in
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and gorges form in
hard rocks.
 A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as its
bottom
 A canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom (a variant of
gorge).

Potholes
 Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky
beds of hills streams.
 The pebbles collected in the small and shallow depression
rotates due to the flowing water causing growth of a
depressions to form potholes.

Plunge Pools
  Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes
commonly found at the foot of a waterfall.
 They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and
rotation of boulders.

Rapid
 When a river runs over alternating layers of hard and soft
rock (creating unequal
resistance), rapids and waterfalls may form.
 The outcrop of a band of hard rocks may cause a river to
jump or fall down stream.

Waterfall
 Waterfalls often form in the upper stages of a river where it
flows over different bands of rock. It erodes soft rock more
quickly than hard rock and this may lead to the creation of a
waterfall.
 Formation of a waterfall:
o The soft rock erodes more quickly, undercutting the
hard rock.
o The hard rock is left overhanging. It eventually
collapses due to the absence of any support.
o The fallen rocks crash into the plunge pool. They swirl
around, causing more erosion.
o Over time, this process is repeated and the waterfall
moves upstream.

A steep-sided gorge is formed as the

waterfall retreats.
Incised Meanders
 Incised meanders are meanders which are particularly well
developed and occur when a river’s base level has fallen
giving the river a large amount of vertical erosion power,
allowing it to downcut.
 There are two types of incised
meanders, entrenched meanders and ingrown
o Entrenched meanders are symmetrical and form when
the river downcuts particularly quickly. Due to the
speed which the river downcuts, there is little
 opportunity for lateral erosion to occur giving them
their symmetrical shape.
o Ingrown meanders are asymmetrical. They form when
the river downcuts at a less rapid pace, giving the river
opportunity to erode laterally as well as vertically.

River Terraces
 A rejuvenating river can erode vertically into the former
floodplain to produce features called river terraces.
 If vertical erosion is rapid then paired terraces are formed
either side of the channel.
 If vertical erosion is slower though, unpaired terraces form
as the river is given opportunity to meander.
 River terraces are particularly useful for settlements as they
provide flat areas above the present floodplain.

Depositional Landforms: Alluvial Fans,

Deltas, and More
Alluvial Fans
 An alluvial fan is a wide fan shaped deposit by a river.
 An alluvial fan is formed when a river flows out of a
mountain valley.
 The river becomes wider and more shallow making it be
slower and the sediment is deposited in a fan shape.

Deltas
 Deltas are like alluvial fans (i.e. a depositional feature) but
develop at a different location .
 Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are
very well sorted with clear stratification.
 The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer fractions
like silts and clays are carried out into the sea.
 Deltas are found at the mouth of large rivers – for example,
the Ganges delta.
 The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the
sea.
 As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue to
increase in length and the delta continues to build up into
the sea.
  There are three main types of delta, named after the shape
they create.
o Arcuate or fan-shaped – the land around the river
mouth arches out into the sea and the river splits many
times on the way to the sea, creating a fan effect.
 Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus
o Cuspate – the land around the mouth of the river juts
out arrow-like into the sea.
 Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
o Bird’s foot – the river splits on the way to the sea, each
part of the river juts out into the sea, rather like a
bird’s foot.

Floodplains
 A floodplain is the area around a river that is covered in
times of flood.
 The rivers have a wide floodplain in the lower course.
 It is a depositional feature where large sized materials are
deposited first when the river enters the gentle slope.
 Active (near to the river) and Inactive Flood plains (receded
part-away from the river) are seen.
 Sometimes in inactive floodplains, cut off streams can be
seen.
 The floodplains in a delta are called delta plains.
 A floodplain is a very fertile area due to the
rich alluvium deposited by floodwaters.
 This makes floodplains a good place for agriculture.
 A build up of alluvium on the banks of a river can
create levees, which raise the river bank.

Natural Levees
 Levees are natural embankments which are formed when a
river floods.
 When a river floods friction with the floodplain leads to a
rapid decrease in the velocity of the river (causing decrease
in the capacity to transport material), larger material is
deposited closest to the river bank. This often leads to
large,raised mounds being formed.
 Smaller material is deposited further away and leads to the
formation of gently sloping sides of the levees.
 These act as a natural protection against floods.A breach in
a levee causes sudden floods in adjoining areas like in the
 case of the Hwang-He or Yellow river of China (China’s
sorrow).

Point bars or meander bars

 They are sediments deposited in linear fashion by the
flowing rivers.
 If there are more than one ridge, narrow and elongated
depressions are found in between the point bars.
 As the rivers build point bars on the convex side, the banks
on the concave side will erode actively.

Braided Channel
 These are thread-like streams of water rejoin and subdivide
repeatedly to give a typical braided pattern.
 A braided channel is one that is divided into smaller
channels by temporary islands called eyots.
 Braided channels tend to form in rivers that have a
significant amount of sedimentary load, a steep profile and
where discharge regularly fluctuates.
 When the river’s carrying capacity is exceeded the river
deposits, its load into the channel and eyots

Meanders (Lateral erosion)

 As the river erodes laterally, to the right side then the left
side, it forms large bends, and then horseshoe-like loops
called meanders.
 In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight
courses. Loop-like channel patterns called meanders develop
over flood and delta plains.
 The formation of meanders is due to both deposition and
erosion and meanders gradually migrate downstream.
o Outside of the bend where water flow has most energy
due to decreased friction, the force of the
water erodes and undercuts the river bank.
o Inside of the bend, river flow is slower due to the more
friction leading deposition of material.

Oxbow Lake
 An oxbow lake is a meander that is no longer attached to the
river.
  The water has to find a straighter route downstream during
the floods, so the water flows over the ends of the meander.
 As the flood starts to go down, the water deposits sediment
and covers up the ends of the meander making an oxbow
lake.

Exploring Upper Course River Features: V-

Shaped Valleys, Rapids, and More
 It starts from the source of the river in hilly or mountainous
areas.
 As the river moves through the upper course, it cuts
downwards.
 The gradient (slope) here is steep and the river channel is
narrow.(image)
 Vertical erosion in this highland part of the river helps to
create steep-sided V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs,
rapids, waterfalls and gorges

Middle Course River Evolution: Alluvial

Fans, Meanders, and More
 In the middle course the river has more energy and a high
volume of water.
 In this stage, vertical erosion slowly starts to replace lateral
erosion (sideways). This causes widening of the river
channel.
 The river channel has also deepened.
 A larger river channel means there is less friction, so the
water flows faster.
 Landforms like alluvial fans, piedmont alluvial plains,
meanders etc. can be seen at this stage.

Geography of River Lower Course:

Depositional Features
 In the lower course, the river has a high volume and a large
discharge.
 Heavy debris brought down from upper and middle courses.
 Vertical erosion has almost stopped but lateral erosion still
goes on.
 The work of the river is mainly deposition. This builds up its
bed and forms an extensive flood plain.
  Landforms like braided channels, floodplains, levees,
meanders, oxbow lakes, deltas etc. can be seen at this stage

Karst Landforms: Geological Features

Shaped by Chemical Erosion
 A karst landform is a geological feature created on the
earth’s surface by the drainage of water into the ground
resulting in chemical erosion of bedrock.
 For this reason, the development of karst landforms is
limited to areas where comparatively soluble rocks —
principally limestone — exist.
 Approximately 8% of the earth’s land surface is karst terrain.

Limestone Pavement: Nature’s Unique

‘Stone Pavement’ of Exposed Limestone
 A landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed
limestone that resembles an artificial pavement.

Features of limestone pavements

Clint: Section of a limestone pavement separated from adjacent
sections by grikes.

 Grike: Vertical crack that develops along a joint in limestone.

 Karren: small hollow that forms on the surface of a limestone
clint.

Caverns: Mystical Subterranean Worlds

Carved by Nature’s Erosive Touch
 Limestone caverns and caves are large sub-surface
voids where the rocks have been dissolved by carbonation.
 Calcium carbonate precipitates out of the saturated
carbonate solution and accumulates as deposits.
 Stalactites: Deposits that grow from the ceiling downward.
 Stalagmites:Deposits that grow from the ground up.
 Column: Forms when the stalactite and stalagmites get
attached forming a pillar.
Sinkholes: Nature’s Surprising
Subterranean Potholes
 Collapsed/depressed limestone features that develop in
karst landscapes.
 The groundwater slowly dissolves the limestone rock below
the surface until it eventually becomes unstable and
collapses creating local depressional features.
 Uvala: Collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that
coalesce into a compound sinkhole.

Swallow Holes: The Mysterious

Underground Passageways
 The swallow holes are cylindrical tunnel-like holes lying
underneath the sinkhole at some depth.
 The surface streams which sink disappear underground
through swallow holes because these are linked with
underground caves through vertical shafts.

Mysteries of Karst Windows: Nature’s Artistic

Creations
 The open, broad area formation due to the collapse of
adjoining multiple sinkholes is called a karst window.

Exploring the Enigmatic Poljes and Blind

Valleys: Nature’s Hidden Gems
 A number of uvalas may coalesce to create a valley
called polje which is actually a flat-floored depression.
 If the streams lose themselves in these valleys, then these
are called blind valleys. These valleys may have surface
streams and may be used for agriculture.

Sinking Creeks and Bogas: Nature’s

Mysterious Disappearances
 In a valley, the water often gets lost through cracks and
fissures in the bed. These are called sinking creeks, and if
their tops are open, they are called bogas.
Dry Valleys and Hanging Valleys: The
Erosion’s Story
 Sometimes, a stream cuts through an impermeable layer to
reach a limestone bed. It erodes so much that it goes very
deep. The water table is also lowered. Now
the tributaries start serving the subterranean drainage and
get dried up. These are dry valleys or bournes.
 Lack of adequate quantities of water and reduced erosion
leaves them hanging at a height from the main valley. Thus,
they are also referred to as hanging valleys.

HUMS: Curved Remnants of Limestone Rock

Erosion
 These are curved relics of limestone rocks after erosion.

Shaping the Coastline: Understanding

Marine Landforms
 The Coastal Landforms are formed by the constant action of
the waves, tides, and currents.
 The coastline changes the coastal landforms under the
influence of these denudational agents and gives shapes to
various types of marine landform features.

Agent of Erosion: Waves and Their Impact

on Coastal Landforms
Waves
 Most of the changes along the coasts are accomplished by
waves.
 Constant impact of breaking waves drastically affects the
coasts.
o When waves break, the water is thrown with great
force onto the shore along with a great churning of
sediments on the sea bottom.
 Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching
changes in a short period of time than normal breaking
waves.
  Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms
depend upon
o the configuration of land and sea floor
o whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or
retreating (submerging) landward
 Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are
considered to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
landforms:
o High, rocky coasts (submerged coasts)
 The sea will be very close to the land with a
narrow coast or no coast.
 Erosional features are dominant here.
 The shores of these high rocky coasts do not show
any depositional landforms.
 Wave-cut platforms, cliffs, sea caves etc. are
common here.
 Most of the west coasts of the Indian Peninsula
belong to this category.
o Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts
(emerged coasts).
 The length of these coasts is extended by the
rivers by building coastal plains and deltas.
 Depositional features are dominant here.
 Bars, Barriers, spits, lagoons etc are common on
these coasts.
 Most of the east coasts of the India Peninsula are
of this category.

Marine Erosional Landforms: Chasms, Cliff

Erosion and Wave-Cut Platforms, Sea
Caves, Sea Arches, Stacks/Skarries/Chimney
Rock, Stump, Blow Holes
Chasms
 These are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or notch
on the edge or surface of something).
 It is carved by wave actionthrough headward erosion
(downcutting) of weak vertical planes in the rocks.
 With time, further headward erosion is hindered by lateral
erosion of chasm mouth, which itself keeps widening till a
bay is formed.
Cliff erosion and wave-cut platforms
Sea Cliff
 A very steep rock face adjoining the coast forms a cliff.
 Their steep nature is the result of wave-induced erosion near
sea level and the subsequent collapse of rocks at a higher
elevation.
 At the base of the cliff, the sea cuts a notch, which gradually
undermines the cliff so that it collapses.
 The best-known cliffs are the Chalk cliffs of the English
channel and the White Cliffs of Dover

Stages in cliff retreat

 Waves attack the bottom of the cliff, particularly during
storms and at high tide, forming a wave-cut notch.
 At the same time weathering attacks and weakens the top of
the cliff.
 The weakened cliff is left unsupported and eventually
collapses.
 Once the sea has removed the fallen rocks it can start the
process again.
 The cliff will move back and leave a rocky platform at the
base called a wave-cut platform.

Sea Caves
 Prolonged attack of waves against the base of the cliff and
the rock debris that gets smashed against the cliff along
with lashing waves create holes in regions of weakness.
 These holes get further widened and deepened to form sea
caves.
 Example Flamborough head, England

Sea Arches
 When two caves approach one another from either side of a
headland and unite, they form a bridge like structure, known
as arch.
 Sea cave –> || <-- Sea cave
 These archways may have an arcuate or rectangular shape,
with the opening extending below water level.
 Example the Neddle Eye near Wick, Scotland
Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock
 Continued erosion, under the attack of the wave, can result
in the total collapse of an arch.
 The seaward portion of headland will remain as an isolated
pillar of rock known as stack.
 Like all other features, sea stacks is also temporary and
eventually, the stack will also disappear

Stump
 The stack is gradually eroded, leaving behind only the
stump.
 Stumps are only just visible above the sea level.

Blow holes
 When sea caves grow towards the land and upwards
creating a vertical shaft that is exposed on the surface, it
results in a blowhole.
 Water often gushes out at the top part of the landform when
waves move to the sea cave with significant force.
 Example Holborn Head, Scotland

Marine Depositional Landforms: Beach,

Dune, Bar, Barrier, Spit and Hook,
Tombolos
Beach
 Beaches are temporary features covering the rock debris on
or along a wave-cut platform.
 These are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by
deposition but may occur as patches along even the rugged
shores.
 Sands and gravel loosened from the land are moved by
waves to be deposited along the shore as beaches.
 Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes from
land carried by the streams and rivers or from wave erosion.
 Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials.
Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small
pebbles and even cobbles.
Dune
 Just behind the beach, the coastal sands lifted and winnowed
from over the beach surfaces will be deposited as sand
dunes.
 On shore, winds play a major part in the formation of these
dunes
 Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are
very common along low sedimentary coasts.
 Sand dunes are common in the coasts of Belgium, Denmark
and the Netherlands

Bar
 When a ridge of sand and shingle forms in the sea in the off-
shore zone (from the position of low tide waterline to
seaward), it is called a bar.
 The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across the
mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
 Bars are submerged features.
 When bars show up above water, they are called barrier
bars.
 Generally, bars are approximately parallel to the coast.

Barrier
 An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further addition of
sand is termed a barrier bar.
 The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across the
mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
 They usually occur in chains.
 They are subject to change during storms and other action,
but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create
areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish.

Spit and Hook

 Barrier bar which gets keyed up to the headland of a bay is
called a spit.
 Spits are projected depositional landforms with one end
attached to the land and the other end projecting into the
sea.
 Spits may also develop attached to headlands/hills.
 The mode of formation of spit is similar to a bar or barrier.
  A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land is called
a hook.
 When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay and
block it, a lagoon
 The lagoons would gradually get filled up by sediments from
the land giving rise to a coastal plain.

Tombolos
 Tombolo joins two landmasses by a connecting bar.
 The tombolo is a deposition landform in which an island is
attached to the mainland by a narrow piece of land such as
a spit or bar.
 A tombolo is a sandy isthmus.
 Example = Tombolo can be found in Chesil beach in England
which links the Isle of Portland with mainland.

Arid Erosional Landforms: Deflation

Hollows, Ventifacts, Yardangs
Mechanism of Arid Erosion
 Deflation
o Lifting and blowing away loose materials from the
ground.
o It results in the lowering of the land surface to form
large depressions called deflation hollows.
 Abrasion
o The sand-blasting of rock surfaces by winds when they
hurl sand particles against them is called abrasion.
o Abrasion is most effective at or near the base of rocks,
where the amount of maternal the wind is able to carry
is greatest.
 Attrition
o Wind borne particles wear each other away when they
roll against one another in a collision.
o This process is known as attrition. The sizes of particles
are reduced by this and the grains are rounded into
millet seed sand.
 Saltation
o Slightly larger particles move by rolling or bouncing on
the ground.
Water-Eroded Arid Landforms: Rills, Gullies,
Ravines, Badland Topography, Bolsons,
Playas, Pediments, Bajadas, Pediplains
Rill
 In hillslope geomorphology, a rill is a narrow and shallow
channel cut into soil by the erosive action of flowing water.

Gully
 Rillscan generally be easily removed by tilling the soil. When
rills get large enough that they cannot easily be removed,
they’re known as gullies.

Ravine
 A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often
the product of stream cutting erosion.
 Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies,
although smaller than valleys.

Badland Topography
 Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary
rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded by
wind and water.
 They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation,
lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density.

Bolsons
 The intermontane basins in arid or semiarid areas are
generally called bolsons.
 Such basins are characterized by 3 unique landforms which
from the mountain front downward are pediments, bajadas
and playas.
 Playas
o Numerous ephemeral streams after originating from
the surrounding mountain fronts drain into the bolsons.
These temporary lakes are called playas.
o After the evaporation of water, salt-covered playas are
called salinas.
  The playa plain covered up by salts is called alkali
flats.
o Pediments
 Pediments situated between mountain front and
bajada in intermontane basin.
o These are broad, extensive, and gently sloping areas of
rockcut surfaces which spread as aprons around the
bases of mountains.
o There is no difference between a pediment and
an alluvial fan in form and function but pediment is an
erosional landform while a fan is a constructional one.
 Bajada
 Gently sloping depositional plain between pediments and
playa is called bajada.
 Bajada is formed due to coalescence of several alluvial fans.
Thus, bajada is a wholly depositional feature.
 Pediplains
o A pediplain is an extensive flat terrain formed by the
coalescence of pediments.
o The steep wash slope and free face of pediments
retreat backward after its formation.
o Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments
extend backwards at the expense of the mountain
front.
 Gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an
inselberg (a remnant of the mountain).
o That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to
low featureless plains called pediplains.

Arid Landforms: Wind-Eroded and

Depositional
 The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the following
ways, viz. deflation, abrasion, and attrition.

Erosional Landforms in Arid Regions

Deflation basins
 Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the
removal of particles by wind.
 Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several
kilometers in diameter.
Mushroom rock
 Formation of rock pillars shaped like a mushroom with
narrow pillars and broad top surfaces.
 In deserts, a greater amount of sand and rock particles are
transported close to the ground by the winds which cause
more bottom erosion in overlying rocks than the top.

Monadnock or Inselbergs
 Monadnock or inselberg is an isolated rock hill, knob, ridge,
or small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping
or virtually level surrounding plain.

Demoiselles
 These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above
soft rocks as a result of differential erosion of hard and soft
rocks.

Zeugen
 Zeugen is a flat-topped rock mass resembling a capped
inkpot.
 It stands on softer rock pedestals like mudstone, shale, etc.
 Zeugens are formed in desert areas characterized by a high
range of temperature.
 The alternate freeze and thaw of moisture results in
expansion and contraction which ultimately disintegrates
rocks along the joints.

Yardangs
 Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are up to tens of
meters high and kilometers long and are forms that have
been streamlined by desert winds.
 The famous sphinx at Giza in Egypt may be a modified
yardang.

Wind bridges and windows

 Powerful wind continuously abrades stone lattices, creating
holes.
  Sometimes the holes are gradually widened to reach the
other end of the rocks to create the effect of a window—thus
forming a wind window.
 Window bridges are formed when the holes are further
widened to form an arch-like feature.

Depositional Landforms in Arid Regions:

Ripple Marks, Sand Dunes, and Loess
Ripple Marks
 Ripple marks are sedimentary structures and indicate
agitation by water (current or waves) or wind.
 These are ridges of sediment that form in response to wind
blowing along a layer of sediment.
 Ripple marks are generally depositional features (formed at
a fluid/sediment interface)

Sand Dunes
 Heaps or mounds of sands are generally called sand dunes
or simply dunes.
 Though sand dunes are significant depositional features of
desert areas, they are also formed in all those areas where
sands are available in profusion and wind is capable of
transporting and depositing them in suitable areas.

Barchan Dunes
 Barchan dunes have a crescentic shape with two horns.
 The windward side is convex while the leeward is concave
and steep.

Transverse Dunes
 Transverse Dunes are dunes deposited transverse to the
prevailing wind direction.

Longitudinal Dunes
 Longitudinal Dunes are formed parallel to the wind
movement.
 In other words, these dunes are formed by a modification in
the shape of the transverse dunes.
Parabolic Dunes
 They look much like Barchan, but accumulation of sand and
formation is opposite to Barchan.
 Some shrubs are also found growing on them.
 The surface of all these types of dunes is marked by ripples.

Seif
 It is similar to barchan with a small difference.
 Seif has only one wing or point. This happens when there is
a shift in wind conditions.
 The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and high.

Star dunes
 It has a high central peak, radically extending three or four
arms.

Reversing dunes
 These are formed when winds blow from opposite directions
and are balanced in strength and duration.

Whaleback dunes
 When the longitudinal dunes migrate, the coarser sands are
left behind to form whaleback dunes.
 Very large whaleback dunes are known as draas.

Loess
 The surface is covered by deposits of wind-transported silt
that has settled out from dust storms over many thousands
of years.

Plateaus: Features, Formation, and

Significance
 A flat-topped tableland with steep descent to the
surrounding lowland.
 It covers about one-third of the Earth’s land.
 They are one of the four major landforms, along with
mountains, plains, and hills.
  Plateaus, like mountains, may be young or old.
 The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
 Valleys form when river water cuts through the plateau.
 The Columbia Plateau (between the Cascade and Rocky
Mountains in the north-western USA) is cut through by the
Columbia River.
 Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it is broken up into
smaller raised sections.
 Many outlier plateaus are composed of very old, dense rock
formations. Iron ore and coal often are found in plateau
outliers.
 Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral
deposits. This is why many of the mining areas in the world
are located in the plateau areas.

Types of Plateaus: Tectonic, Volcanic,

Intermontane, Dissected, Continental,
Oceanic, Piedmont
Tectonic
 Forms as a result of upward movement in the Earth’s crust.
 The uplift is caused by the slow collision of tectonic plates.
 Example:
o Tibetan plateau

Volcanic
 Formed by basaltic lava which comes from the interior of
Earth’s crust and spread over its surface to form successive
sheets.
 Example:
o The Columbia Plateau (USA)
o Deccan Traps

Intermontane
 Plateau that are enclosed by fold mountains.
 These plateaus are some of the highest and most extensive
plateau in the world.
 Example:
o Tibetan plateau (between the Himalayas and Kunlun)
o Mongolian plateau
Dissected
 These plateaus are evolved by denudation.
 Example:
 The Colorado Plateau (Western USA)

Continental
 These are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas,
forming away from mountains.
 Example:
 Antarctic Plateau in East Antarctica.

Oceanic
 Bordered by ocean or sea on all sides.
 Example:
o Caribbean
o Mid-Pacific Mountain

Piedmount
 These are bordered by a mountain on one side and a plain or
ocean on the other side.
 Example:
o Pantagonian Plateau (South America

Major Plateaus of the World: Tibetan

Plateau, Plateau of Arabia and more
Tibetan plateau
 It is the world’s largest and highest plateau.
 The Tibetan Plateau lies between the Himalayas to the south
and Taklamakan desert to the north.
 It is shared between China, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan.
 It is sometimes termed the Third Pole given its ice fields
contain the largest reserve of freshwater outside the polar
regions.

Plateau of Arabia
  Westernmost part of Asia.
 Very high Aridity due to low Rainfall.
 Rich petroleum reserves.

Pamir plateau
 It is known as the Roof of the world.
 Pamirs Plateau is located in West China, extending across
Tajikistan, China and Afghanistan.
 At the junction of the Himalayas (to south east) with the Tian
Shan (North East), Karakoram (south east), Kunlun (east),
Hindu Kush(west) and Suleiman (south).

Great Basin
 Largest intermontane plateau of the continent.
 The Basin forms an area of inland drainage for rivers.
 Lies in the United States, covering the states of Nevada
Utah, California etc.

Colorado Plateau
 The Colorado river and its tributaries have deep cuts in the
soft rocks of the region.
 Such deep cuts have formed canyons and Grand Canyon is
the largest of them.

Columbian Plateau
 Mostly lie in the USA.
 It lies between Rockies and Cascade range.
 It is a Basaltic Lava Plateau.
 It has rich mineral resources.

Ethiopian Highlands
 It lies in Ethiopia.
 It is the highest Plateau of Africa.
 It is volcanic in nature.
 Highest peak is Ras Dashan (4,620m).
 Cooler despite being close to the equator.

East African plateau

  It is shared between Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.
 Multiple rift valleys and lakes.

Katanga plateau
 Lies in Democratic Republic of Congo.
 Rich in mineral resources like Cobalt, Copper, and Diamond
etc.

Adamawa Plateau
 Lies in Cameroon, Nigeria and central African Republic.
 Savannah vegetation.
 Bauxite deposits.

Western Plateau
 It occupies nearly two-thirds of the continent.
 Most of the plateau is a desert or semi-desert.
 Rich in Minerals such as gold and iron ore.
 The Kimberly plateau is an example of western highlands.

Anatolian Plateau
 Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey lies on this
plateau.
 It is an intermontane plateau lying between Pontiac and
Taurus Mountain ranges.
 Tigris-Euphrates Rivers flow through this plateau.
 Precious wool producing Angora goats are found here.

Patagonian Plateau
 It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms) lying in the
southern part of Argentina.
 It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
 It is an important region for sheep rearing.

Mascarene Plateau
 Plateau in the Indian Ocean.
 It extends between the Seychelles and Mauritius Islands.

Deccan Plateau
  The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which covers the
majority of the southern part of India.
 It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the Western Ghats
on the west of the plateau and the Eastern Ghats on the east
of the plateau.
 The Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently
eastwards. This is why most Deccan plateau rivers flow from
west to east.
 The plateau includes the Deccan Traps which is the largest
volcanic feature on Earth.
 It is made of multiple basaltic lava layers containing some
unique fossils and minerals.

We will read about the Deccan Plateau in detail in the Indian

Physical Geography Section.

Plains: Characteristics and Human

Habitation
 A plain is an area of lowland, either level or undulating.
 It rarely rises more than a few hundred feet above sea level.
 It possesses a high concentration of human habitation.

Classification of Plains Based on Formation

Processes
Plains can be classified in following types on the basis of
their mode of formation

 Structural plain
 Erosional plains
 Depositional plains

Structural Plains
 Structurally depressed area of the world.
 Formed by horizontally bedded rocks, relatively undisturbed
by the crustal movement of the earth.

Erosional Plains
 Plains that are carved by the erosional agents.
  Agents of erosion smooth out the irregularities of the Earth’s
surface.
 The surface of such plains is hardly smooth. This is why
these plains are also called Peneplains, which means almost
plain.

Depositional Plains
 These plains are formed by the deposition of materials
brought by various agents of transportation.
 Plains formed by the river deposits are calledriverine or
alluvial plains.
 The depositions of sediments in a lake give rise to a
Lacustrine Plain or Lake Plains.
 Example: The Valley of Kashmir
 Plains formed by glacial deposits are called Glacial or Drift
Plains.
 Loess Plains form when the wind acts as the major
depositional agent.

Chapter 4
24 min read
Geographical Phenomenon: Volcanism,
Earthquake, Tsunami
TOPICS COVERED
 Volcanism
 Earthquake
 Tsunami
SYLLABUS FOR GS PAPER
Prelims Paper I

Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic

Geography of India and the World.

Paper 2 (GS-I)

Salient features of the world’s physical geography.

Volcanism: Earth’s Cooling Mechanism

 Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma)
onto or toward the earth’s surface.
 A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock
material – lava – escape to the ground.
 Pyroclastic– Denotes rock fragments or ash erupted by a
volcano, especially as a hot, dense, destructive flow.

Why do they erupt?

 Volcanoes are just a natural way through which the Earth
and other planets cool-off by releasing internal heat and
pressure.

Volcanism: Process of Eruption

1. Melting of Earth’s mantle and Magma formation
2. Magma rises (Less density than surrounding rocks)
3. Bubbles of gases forms inside magma (from the gas
dissolved in the magma)
4. Tremendous pressure of bubbles helps to bring the magma
to the surface
5. Eruption of magma and flow of lava after eruption
Also Read: GEOMORPHOLOGY: EARTH’S STRUCTURE, TECTONICS, AND

Factors Leading to Volcanism

 Plate Tectonics:Convergence of two lithospheric plates (due
to the converging limbs of convection cell) causing
downward movement of one into the mantle
  Ocean floor spreading: The plates move apart on both sides
of the ridge (due to the diverging limbs of the convection
cell) and magma wells up from the mantle.
 Plate movement over a “hot spot”: Magmas can penetrate to
the surface via relatively fixed “hot-spot” (We will read
about it in detail ahead).
 Weak Earth Surface: Magma and gases find the opportunity
to escape with great velocity through eruptions due to high
internal pressure.
 A decrease in external pressure: This can trigger an eruption
by minimizing the volcano’s ability to hold back the
increasing pressures inside the magma chamber.

Volcanism: Classification Based on Eruption

Frequency

Active Dormant Extinct

Eruption is not regular, long Eruption recorded in
Erupt frequently
interval of repose historic times
Mount St Helens Kilimanjaro (Eastern
Fujiyama (Japan)
in US Africa)

Volcanism: Classification Based on Lava

Characteristics
Basaltic Eruption Andesitic Eruption
Basic Lava Acidic Lava
Metallic mineral rich Silica rich
Less viscous (High fluidity) Highly viscous (Low Fluidity)
Slower solidification Solidify quickly
Quiet eruption Explosive eruption
Lava flows far and wide distance Less flow of lava create large structures

Volcanism: Types Based on Ejection of Materials

Volcanism: Exploring the Phenomenon of

Exhalative Eruptions
 Materials discharge in the gaseous form.
 These gases may escape through vents (in the form of hot
springs, geysers, fumaroles and solfataras).
  This kind of volcanism indicates the volcano is reaching its
extinction.
 Associated landforms → Sinter mounds, cones of
precipitated minerals and mud volcanoes.

Subaqueous Mysteries: Underwater Volcanism

 Occurs below the surface of water.
 Lava flowing over the deep ocean floor or in contact with
water consolidates to produce a structure like that of a heap
of pillows.
 Pillow lava of Pre-Cambrian Age are found in parts of
Karnataka.

Liquid Fire: Exploring the Phenomenon of

Effusive Volcanism
 Denoting igneous rocks outpoured as lava and later
solidified.
 Silica poor lava (basalt) that flows through larger distances.
o Example: Deccan traps
 Columnar structure is sometimes developed in fine-grained
plateau basalts.
o Columnar basalts are visible in the Deccan traps near
Bombay.

Explosive Fury: The Power of Volcanic Eruptions

 This type of activity results in fragmentation and ejection of
solid material through vents.
 Volcanic eject that settle out of air or water are sometimes
called pyroclastic sediments.

Eruptive Volcanoes Types (Based on the

typical pattern or mode of eruptions)
Hawaiian Eruption
 It involves the effusive outpouring of fluid basalt lava from
craters, lava lakes or fissures.
 Because these flows are very fluid, they can travel miles
from their source as lava rivers before they cool and harden.
 Little gas or tephra is produced.
  Examples: The great basalt plateaus of Columbia and
Iceland.

Strombolian Eruption
 Strombolian eruptions are distinct bursts of fluid lava
(usually basalt or andesite) from the mouth of a magma-
filled summit conduit.
 The explosions usually occur every few minutes at regular or
irregular intervals.
 The explosions of lava, which can reach heights of hundreds
of meters, are caused by the bursting of large bubbles of
gas, which travel upward in the magma-filled conduit until
they reach the open air.
 Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near Italy and known as
‘lighthouse of the Mediterranean’.

Icelandic Eruption
 The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of molten
basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel fissures.
 Such outpourings often build lava plateaus.

Pilinian Eruption
 The largest and most violent of all the types of volcanic
eruptions.
 They are caused by the fragmentation of gassy magma, and
are usually associated with very viscous magmas (dacite
and rhyolite).
 They release enormous amounts of energy and create
eruption columns of gas and ash that can drift or be blown
hundreds or thousands of miles away from the volcano.
 The eruption columns are usually shaped like a mushroom
(similar to a nuclear explosion) or an Italian pine tree.
 Plinian eruptions are extremely destructive, and can even
obliterate the entire top of a mountain, as occurred at Mount
St. Helens in 1980.

Pelean or Nuée Ardente (glowing cloud) Eruption

 A large quantity of gas, dust, ash, and incandescent lava
fragments are blown out of a central crater, fall back, and
 form tongue-like, glowing avalanches that move downslope
at velocities as great as 100 miles per hour.
 Example: Occurred on the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines
in 1968.

Vulcanian Eruption
 It is a short, violent, relatively small explosion of viscous
magma (usually andesite).
 Vulcanian eruptions create powerful explosions.
 This type of eruption results from the fragmentation and
explosion of a plug of lava in a volcanic conduit, or from the
rupture of a lava dome (viscous lava that piles up over a
vent).
 They produce tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic density
currents (clouds of hot ash, gas and rock that flow almost
like fluids).
 Only minor lava flows result.
 The volcano is dormant for decades or for centuries after
each eruption cycle.

Volcanic Landforms: Exploring the Diverse

Faces of Volcanism
Types Property
 Narrow vent through which magma comes
out explosively.
Conical Vent
 Common in Andesitic volcanism
(Stratovolcano)
 Narrow and linear volcanic vent through
which lava comes out
Fissure vent  Generally no explosive activity occurs.
 Common in basaltic volcanism (shield
type volcanoes)
 Found at constructive plate margins.
 Mostly made-up of basalt.
 These volcanoes are not steep.
Shield Volcanoes
 Less explosive (But becomes explosive if
water gets into the vent)
 Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
  Found at destructive plate margins.
 Eruption of cooler and more viscous lava
(Andesitic lava) than basalt.
 Violent eruption
 Pyroclastic material accumulates in the
Composite
Volcanoes (Stratovolcano)
vicinity of the vent openings. This leads to
formation of layers making the mounts
appear as composite volcanoes.
 Examples: Mount St. Helens, Mount
Rainier, Mt. Stromboli ‘Lighthouse of the
Mediterranean’, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji etc.
 Steep circular or oval-shaped hill structure
Cinder Cone made-up of pyroclastic fragments.
 It was built around a volcanic vent.
 Inverted cone-shaped vent through which
the magma comes out.
Crater
 It looks like a bowl-shaped depression if
the volcano turns inactive.
 The crater turns into a lake after the
magma eruption. It is known as a
Caldera ‘caldera’.
 Examples: Lonar Lake (Maharashtra) and
Krakatao (Indonesia).
 Thin magma came out through cracks and
fissures of the Earth’s interior.
 A series of these huge eruptions builds up
Fissure Type Flood Basalt a thick stack of basalt lava.
Provinces  The flowing lava spread over a vast area.
 Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India),
Snake Basin (USA), Icelandic Shield,
Canadian Shield etc.
 Basaltic lava (less viscous and slow
cooling causing longer distance
Mid-Ocean Ridge
Volcanoes
spreading)
 Lava here is responsible for seafloor
spreading.
 Mound-shaped protrusion
Lava (Volcanic) dome
 Viscous magma piles up around the vent
Volcanism: Delving into Intrusive Geological
Features
Intrusive landforms are formed when magma
cools within the crust. Some major intrusive
landforms are
1. Batholith: Cooled down and solidified magma inside
the Earth
2. Laccolith: Large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with level
base connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
3. Lapolith: Saucer shaped body concave to the sky.
4. Phacolith: A wavy mass of intrusive rocks found at the base
of synclines or at the top of anticline.
5. Sills: Solidified horizontal lava layers inside the Earth.
6. Dykes: Solidified vertical lava layers inside the Earth

Volcanism: Geysers, Fumaroles, and Hot

Springs
 Surface water percolates downward through the rocks below
the Earth’s surface to high-temperature regions surrounding
a magma reservoir.
 This water is heated, becomes less dense, and rises back to
the surface along fissures and cracks in the form of Geysers,
fumaroles (also called solfataras), and hot springs.
o Geysers provide spectacular displays of underground
energy suddenly unleashed.
 Fumaroles emit mixtures of steam and other gases. These
are fed by conduits that pass through the water table before
reaching the surface of the ground.
 Places where warm groundwater (heated by energy created
by the earth) pools on the ground are called Hot Spring.
Hot Water Spring Geyser
Hot springs are springs that A geyser is a spring characterised by
are produced by intermittent discharge of water ejected
geothermally heated turbulently. The water discharge is accompanied
groundwater. by vapour (or steam) as well.
Very colourful due to the
presence of cyanobacteria of Distinct colours due to silicate deposits.
different colours.
Found in very few regions. Iceland is famous for
Found all across the world.
its geysers.
Example: Tattapani
Example: Old faithful (USA)
(Himachal Pradesh)
 Medicinal values
 Can be helpful in

harness geo-thermal
energy

Examples
Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming Black
Growler steam vents (fumaroles), Norris Basin, Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming

Hotspot Volcanism: Interior Plate Activity

 Hotspot Volcanism is somewhat different from the other
types because this type of volcanism occurs not at the
margins but at the interior parts of the lithospheric plates.
 Well known examples include Hawaiian Hotspot Volcanism,
Yellowstone Hotspot Volcanism and Reunion Hotspot
Volcanism.

Hot spot
 “Hotspot” refers to an area in the Earth’s mantle from where
hot plumes rise upward through the process of convection
and form volcanoes on the overlying crust
 This heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the
lithosphere.
 The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes through
cracks in the crust to form volcanoes.
 Hot-spots are relatively fixed in comparison to the plates.

Mantle plumes
 Hotspot volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centres known
as the mantle plume.
 Mantle plumes = Exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below
the Earth’s crust
 These mantle plumes are almost like lava lamps consisting
of a rising bulging head fed by a long, narrow tail that
originates from the mantle.
  As the plume head reaches the lithosphere, it spreads into a
mushroom shape. These features are called diapirs.
 Melting takes place when the head of a plume encounters
the base of the lithosphere resulting in formation of large
volumes of basalt magma.
 The magma finds its way to the earth surface when an
explosion takes place.

Hotspot volcano chain

 Due to the tectonic plate movement over the stationary hot
spot, the volcanoes are rafted away and new ones form in
their place resulting in the formation of a chain of volcanoes,
such as the Hawaiian Islands.

Hotspot volcanic landforms

 Volcanic activity at hot spots can create submarine
mountains known as seamounts.
 Hot spot seamounts that reach the surface of the water can
create entire chains of islands.
o Examples
o The U.S. state of Hawaii
o Reunion islands near Madagascar
 Hot spots can also develop beneath continents
o Example = The Yellowstone hotspot, U.S.A
Also Read: BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY

EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES
Positive Impacts of Volcanoes: Shaping
Landscapes and Resources
 Volcanism creates new landforms like islands, plateaus,
volcanic mountains etc.
 The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and
orchards.
 Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon weathering and
decomposition.
 Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive
agriculture, forestry operations on them provide valuable
timber resources.
 Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores, are brought to
the surface by volcanoes.
  The Kimberlite rock (source of diamonds) of South Africa is
the pipe of an ancient volcano.
 Waters in the depth are heated from contact with hot
magma giving rise to springs and geysers.
 The geothermal heat energy resource from the earth’s
interior in areas of volcanic activity is used to generate
Geothermal Electricity
 The Puga valley in Ladakh region and Manikaran (Himachal
Pradesh) are promising spots in India for the generation of
Geothermal Electricity.
 Geothermal potential can also be used for space heating.
 As scenic features of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist
trade, few landforms outrank volcanoes.

Destructive Impact of Volcanoes:

Unleashing Nature’s Fury
Volcanism can be a greatly damaging natural
disaster.
 The damage is caused by advancing lava which engulfs
whole cities.
 Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to life.
 Violent earthquakes associated with the volcanic activity
and mudflows of volcanic ash saturated by heavy rain can
bury nearby places.
 Sometimes ash can precipitate under the influence of rain
and completely cover whole cities.
 In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called tsunamis in
Japan) are an additional danger which are generated by
submarine earth faults where volcanism is active.

Volcanic Gases: Impacts on Atmosphere and

Environment
 The volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen fluoride etc. pose the greatest potential hazard to
people, animals, agriculture, and property.
 Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air
pollution.
 Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject high volume of
sulfur aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to lower
 surface temperatures and promote depletion of the Earth’s
ozone layer.

Volcanism in India: Barren Island and

Narcondam
 There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in the
Indian peninsula.
 Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair became
active again in 1991 and 1995.
 The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam,
about 150 km north-east of Barren Island; it is probably
extinct. Its crater wall has been completely destroyed.

Recent Major Volcanic eruptions around the

world
1. Mount Etna → Sicily, Italy
2. Mount Sinabung → Karo plateau of North Sumatra, Indonesia
3. Mayotte Island → France, Western Indian Ocean
4. Mount Agung → Indonesia
5. Mount Soputan → Indonesia
6. Anak Krakatau island → Indonesia
Also Read: MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES OF INDIA: DISTRIBUTION, GOVER
CHALLENGE

Significant Volcanic Eruptions: Mt.

Vesuvius, Krakatau, and Mt. Pelee
In the history of mankind perhaps the most disastrous eruptions
were those of Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and Mt. Pelee.

Mt. Vesuviusis
 A Stratovolcano (composite volcano) in Italy.
 The city of Pompeii, located to the southwest, was buried
beneath twenty feet of volcanic ashes cemented by the
torrential downpours of heavy rain.

Krakatau
 Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the Sunda Straits,
between Java and Sumatra.
  The explosion could be heard in Australia, almost 3,000
miles away.
 Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited and nobody was
killed by the lava flows, the vibration set up enormous waves
over 100 feet high which drowned 36,000 people in the
coastal districts of Indonesia.

Mt. Pelee
 The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West Indies in May 1902 was
the most catastrophic of modern times.
 Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on the path of the
lava, was completely destroyed within minutes.
 Its entire population of 30,000 was killed almost instantly.

Earthquake
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth
caused by the abrupt release of slowly accumulated energy.

Earthquake Formation: Understanding the

Release of Energy
 Earthquakes are caused due to release of energy which
generates waves that travel in all directions.
 The release of energy occurs along a fault.
 A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
 Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions.
 The friction locks the opposite moving rocks together as
they are pressed by overlying strata. The tendency to move
apart at some point of time overcomes this friction.
 As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually slide,
past one another abruptly causing release of energy.
 The energy waves travel in all directions.
 The point where the energy is released is called the focus of
an earthquake, alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.
 The energy waves traveling in different directions reach the
surface. The point on the surface nearest to the focus is
called epicenter. It is the first one to experience the waves.
It is a point directly above the focus.
 On the basis of focus, earthquakes can be classified as
o shallow focus (focus located at depth of up to 70 km)
o intermediate focus (70-300 km depth)
o deep focus earthquakes (foci depth of up to 700 km)
Shallow and Deep Focus Earthquakes
 A quake’s destructive force depends not only on its strength,
but also on location and distance (depth) from the epicentre.
 Quakes can strike near the surface or deep within the Earth.
 Both shallow and deep focus earthquakes are “tectonic”
earthquakes originating within the earth’s depths at various
points.
 Shallow focus earthquakes occur quite frequently and at
random whereas deep focus earthquakes occur every 20 to
30 years along the given fault line.
 Less energy is released during a shallow focus earthquake,
while terminus energy accumulates during a deep focus
earthquake.
 According to the U.S. Geological Survey, most quakes occur
at shallow depths.

Shallow Earthquakes: Causes and Impacts

 These are commonly occurring “crustal earthquakes” caused
by fault and movements of the continental plates.
 Generally tend to be more damaging than deeper quakes
due to their focus nearer to the surface of the Earth.
o Shaking is more intense from quakes that hit close to
the surface like setting off “a bomb directly under a
city”.

Deep Earthquakes: Subduction and Ripple Effects

 This earthquake occurs within the subducting plate as it
moves beneath the other plate.
 Deep quakes may be less damaging but they’re usually
more widely felt.
o Seismic waves from deep quakes have to travel farther
to the surface, losing energy along the way.

Earthquake Swarms: Insights into

Subsurface Dynamics
 Series of low magnitude earthquakes occur in a localized
region and over a period of time ranging from days, weeks
to even months.
  Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often occur in
swarms.
o Hence earthquake swarms can serve as markers for
the location of the flowing magma throughout the
volcanoes.
 Himalayan swarm was attributed to low strength of the
earth’s crust in the area which could not hold the tectonic
energy.

Phenomenon: Seismic Waves in Earth’s

Crust
 Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy
stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released.
 This happens due to the slipping of land (masses of rock
straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip”).
 These waves travel in all directions.
 Earthquake waves are basically of two types
o Body Waves
o Surface Waves

Earthquake: Body Waves

 Generated due to the release of energy at the focus.
 It move in all directions travelling through the body of the
earth.
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through
materials with different densities. The denser the material,
the higher is the velocity.
 Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when
coming across materials with different densities.
 There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-
waves (Discussed earlier).

P-wave or Primary wave in Earthquake

 Fastest kind of seismic wave.
 First to ‘arrive’ at a seismic station.
 Can move through solid rock and fluids.
 Velocity = Solids > Liquids > Gases
 It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound
waves push and pull the air.
 Particles move in the same direction of wave propagation.
S-wave or Secondary wave in Earthquake
 Second wave felt in an earthquake.
 The S wave is slower than a P wave.
 It can only move through solid rock (not through any liquid
medium).
 S waves move rock particles up and down (or side-to-side),
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Surface Waves: Earthquake’s Destructive

Force
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and
generate new sets of waves called surface waves.
 These waves move along the surface.
 Arrive after body waves on seismograph (Recorded last on
the seismograph)
 Starts from the epicenter.
 They are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse
vibration long period waves.
 Responsible for destructive forces of the earthquakes.
 Longest distance but die out faster (Generally affect the
surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depth).
 First few small and weak swings are recorded called ‘the first
preliminary tremors’ and ‘second preliminary tremors’ and
then main tremors.
 There are two types of surface waves
1. Love waves- zig-zag movement
2. Rayleigh waves- elliptical movement

Earthquake Surface Waves: Love Wave

 It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from
side-to-side.
 Confined to the surface of the crust (produce entirely
horizontal motion).

Earthquake Surface Waves: Rayleigh Waves

 Rayleigh waves roll along the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean.
 Due to the rolling, it moves the ground up and down, and
side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.
  Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other
waves.

Classification of Earthquakes
 Tectonic quakes caused by plate tectonics. They account for
most earthquakes worldwide and usually occur at the
boundaries of tectonic plates.
 Volcanic quakes are associated with active volcanism. They
are generally not as powerful as tectonic quakes and often
occur relatively near the surface. Consequently, they are
usually only felt in the vicinity of the hypocentre.
 Collapse quakes can be triggered by such phenomena as
cave-ins, mostly in karst areas or close to mining facilities,
as a result of subsidence.
 Explosion quakes occur due to high-density explosions such
as nuclear explosions. The occurrence of this type of
earthquake is artificial in nature.
 Induced quakes are caused by human activity, like tunnel
construction, filling reservoirs, and implementing
geothermal or fracking projects.

Measurement of Earthquakes: Richter Scale

and Mercalli Scale
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the
magnitude or intensity of the shock.

 Richter scale– The magnitude scale is known as the Richter

scale. The magnitude relates to the energy released during
the quake. The magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers,
0-10.
 Mercalli scale– The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an
Italian seismologist. The intensity scale takes into account
the visible damage caused by the event. The range of
intensity scale is from 1-12.

Earthquake Prone Zones in India: Seismic

Classification and Geographic Distribution
 Over 59% of India’s land area is under threat of moderate to
severe
  Based on the past seismic history, the Bureau of Indian
Standards divided the country into four seismic zones, Zone
II, III, IV and V.
 Zone V is the most seismically active region, while zone II is
the least active region.
 The zones are divided on the basis of Modified Mercalli (MM)
intensity, which measures the impact of earthquakes.
 The area covered under different seismic zones include:
o Zone II
 It falls under a low intensity zone.
 It covers approximately 40% of the country.
 It comprises major parts of peninsular region and
Karnataka Plateau.
o Zone III
 It falls under a moderate intensity zone.
 It covers approx 30% of the country.
o Zone IV
 It falls under a severe intensity zone.
 It covers approx 17.5% of the country.
o Zone V
 It falls under a very severe intensity zone.
 It covers approximately 11% of the country.
 It comprises the entire northeastern India, parts of
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, part of
North Bihar and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Consequences of Earthquakes: Impact on

Lives, Infrastructure, and Environment
 Damage to property and infrastructure: Underground
pipelines and railway lines are damaged or broken.
 Loss of lives: Duration of tremors of an earthquake is
normally of only a few seconds, but thousands of people
may die in this short period. More than 25,000 people died in
the Gujarat earthquake of 2001. Earthquakes also cause the
death of wildlife and result in a destruction of their habitat.
 Floods: Flood may result as an indirect consequence of an
earthquake due to dam or levee failure.
 Changes in river courses: Sometimes river channels are
blocked or their courses are changed due to the impact of
the earthquake.
 They can cause submergence and emergence of landforms
along coastal regions, for example the Coastline of Kutch.
  Tsunamis: Tsunamis are extremely high sea waves caused
by an earthquake. It wreaks havoc on settlement of coastal
areas. Tsunamis are waves generated by the tremors and
not an earthquake in itself.
 Soil liquefaction: Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of
the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as
sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a
solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures,
like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied
deposits.
 Cracks and fissures: Sometimes cracks and fissures develop
in roads, railway tracks, and fields, making them useless.
The well known San Andreas Fault formed during the
earthquake of San Francisco (California).
 Landslides and Avalanches: landslides and avalanches may
be triggered due to an earthquake.
 Fires: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical
power or gas lines. it may also become difficult to stop the
spread of a fire once it has started.

Tsunami: Characteristics and Impact

 It is a series of waves of extremely long wavelength and long
period generated in a body of water by an impulsive
disturbance that displaces water.
 Since they are long wavelengths, they lose very little energy
along the way.
 Tsunami is a Japanese term meaning a harbor wave.
 It is also commonly known as killer waves.

Generating Tsunami Waves: Causes and

Mechanisms
 A tsunami is caused by a large and sudden displacement of
the ocean. This displacement caused due to
1. Earthquake
 Undersea volcanoes
 Anthropogenic factors like nuclear explosions
 Landslides
 Meteors, Asteroids

Tsunami formation
Waves: Some important terminologies
Some important terminologies related to the
wave
 Crest and Trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave
are called the crest and trough respectively.
 Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a
trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
 Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
 Wave period: It is the time interval between two successive
wave crests or troughs.
 Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two
successive crests.
 Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given
point during a one second time interval.

Motion in oceanic water

 The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean
water bodies.
o Horizontal motion = ocean currents and waves
o Vertical motion = Tides
 Tsunamis are not the same as ocean waves.
o Most ocean waves are generated by wind whereas
Tsunami have different sources (impulsive
disturbance).
o Wind waves only affect the ocean surface whereas
tsunamis move through the entire water column, from
the ocean surface to the ocean floor.

Characteristics of Tsunami Waves in the

Ocean
 Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long
wavelengths and periods created in oceans by an impulsive
disturbance.
 Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of their
long wavelengths.
 It travels at different speeds in water: it travels slow in
shallow water that is shallow and fast in deep water.
As tsunami waves are long wavelength waves, they cannot be
perceived in deep oceans (negligible amplitude when compared
with their wavelength). A tsunami may be less than a foot in
height on the surface of the open ocean. This is why they are not
noticed by sailors. But the powerful shock wave of energy travels
rapidly through the ocean as fast as a commercial jet. Once a
tsunami reaches shallow water near the coast, the wave
amplitude increases (conservation of energy). The top of the
wave moves faster than the bottom, causing the sea to rise
dramatically. The waves may occasionally reach a height of 20 to
30 metres above mean sea level.

The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: Causes

and Effects
 An earthquake under the Indian Ocean on 26th of December
2004 generated the Tsunami wave that had impacted the
Indian Ocean Region very severely.
 Earthquake had its epicenter near the western boundary of
Sumatra. The with magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale.
o Reason = Indian plate went under the Burma plate due
to the tectonic activity
o Effect of tectonic activity
o The ocean floor was displaced by about 10-20 meters
with a downward direction tilt.
 The gap that was being created by the displacement was
filled by in-flow of surrounding water.
 This caused the withdrawal of the water mass from the
coastlines of the landmasses in the south and Southeast
Asia.
 The water mass rushed back towards the coastline as a
tsunami after thrusting of the Indian plate below the Burma
plate.

Tsunami Early Warning Systems: India’s

Preparedness
 The prevention of Tsunami is nearly impossible but its effect
can be mitigated through early warning systems.
 There are many regional and international early warning
systems installed all across the globe.
 India had volunteered to join the International Tsunami
Warning System after the December 2004 tsunami disaster.
 The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System
(DOARS) was set up in the Indian Ocean post-2004.
 Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC)
 Embedded with specific systems called Deep Ocean
Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART).
 It was established in 2007 at Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Sciences (INCOIS – ESSO) Hyderabad, an
autonomous body under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
 It is up and running to provide tsunami advisories for the
events occurring in the global oceans.
 It has been recognized as one of the best systems in the
world.
 The ITEWC includes a real-time seismic monitoring network
of seventeen broadband seismic stations to detect
tsunamigenic earthquakes and to provide timely warnings to
the vulnerable community.
 It also receives earthquake data from all other global
networks to detect earthquakes (o
 f M6.5).
Chapter 5
36 min read

OCEANOGRPAHY

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
 Division of ocean floor
 Continental shelf
 Continental slope
 continental rise
 Deep ocean floor
 Oceanic ridge
 Submarine Canyons
 Trenches
 Sea mounts
 Hills
 Guyots
 Marginal sea
 Bays, gulf, straits, and Isthmus
 Continental shelf deposits
 Abyssal plain deposits
 UN Convention on Laws of Seas (UNCLOS) and sea division
 Ocean zones
 Intertidal, Photic, Neritic, Aphotic, Oceanic, Bentic
 Marine deposits
 Marine pollution
 Types of islands
 Ocean temperature
 Salinity
 Oceanic movement
 Waves
 Ocean current
 Forces responsible
 Gyres
 Equatorial Countercurrents
 North Indian Ocean Current
 Effects of ocean currents
 Upwelling and Downwelling
 o Ekman spiral and transport
o Nutrients enrichment
 Tide
o Ebb and Flood/Flow
o Moon position and tide (Syzygy and Quadrature)
 Coral reefs
 Relief features
 Coral bleaching
 Kelp Forest

The oceans are the largest and most prominent feature on Earth.
In fact, they are the single most defining feature of our planet.
Water covers roughly around 70% of Earth’s surface. The world
ocean is a single inter-connected body of water, which is large in
size and volume. It can be divided into five principal oceans– the
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern or Antarctic Ocean, and Arctic
Ocean.

DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions

 Continental-Oceanic margin
 Continental Shelf
 Continental Slope
 Continental Rise
 Deep ocean plains
 Oceanic Ridges

Continental-Oceanic margin

Continental Shelf

 Angle is 1º, depth is 120-150 meter, and it extends

generally 70 km into the sea. But this varies a lot
 Width=The continental shelf is virtually absent in west
coast of South [Link] is 120 km wide in east coast of
North America. In Bay of Bengal too, it is very wide.
  Depth =It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in
some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called
the shelf break.
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together covers5% of the
total area of the oceans.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable
thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers
etc.
 The shelf is formed mainly due to
 Submergence of a part of continent
 Relative rise in sea level
 Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers

Continental Slope

 At the end of continental shelf slope steepens abruptly.

 The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the
ocean basins.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2°-5°.
 The depth of the slope region varies between 200 m and
3km.
 The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at
this depth and gives rise to continental rise.
 Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.

Continental Rise

 The continental rise is a sediment underwater feature found

between the continental slope and the abyssal plain.
 Sediment, silt, and other material are picked-up by river
when it travels over land, which is gradually carried out to
sea. Some of these sediments settle on the continental shelf,
but others drift down the continental slope to form the
continental rise.
 The formation of the continental rise is a constant and very
slow process.

Deep Sea Plain (Abyssal Plain)

  At the end of continental slope, slope becomes gentle again
to 0.5º to 1º.
 Its end marks the end of continental margin.
 Undulating plain lies 2-3 miles below sea level and cover
40% of ocean floor.
 Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a
mid-ocean ridge.
 Abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the Earth’s surface.
 These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like
clay and silt.

Oceanic Ridges

 A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains

separated by a large depression. [Divergent Boundary]
 The oceanic ridge system is a continuous underwater
mountain range. It is created when magma rising between
diverging plates of the lithosphere cools and forms a new
layer of crust.

There are also minor relief features in the ocean floors like

 Submarine Canyons

o Canyons are deep concave gorges on continental shelf,
slope or rise, often extending from the mouths of large
rivers.
 Trenches

o Long narrow and steep depression on abyssal plain is
called a trench.
o The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea
plain at the bases of continental slopes and along
island arcs.
o They are of tectonic origin and are formed during
Ocean-Ocean Convergence and Ocean-Continent
Convergence.
o They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding
ocean floor.
o The deeper trenches (> 5500 meters) are
called deeps.
 o The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold
mountains or the island chains.
o They are associated with active volcanoes and strong
earthquakes (Deep Focus Earthquakes like in Japan).
 Sea mounts

o Sea hills on abyssal plains rising above 1000 meters
from the floor are called sea mounts.
 Hills

o Sea hills on abyssal plains rising less than 1000 meters
from the floor are called Abyssal hills.
 Guyots

o Guyots are seamounts which have flat tops. All of them
are generally of volcanic origin.

Marginal Sea

A marginal sea is a division of an ocean, partially enclosed by

islands, archipelagos, or peninsulas, adjacent to or widely opens
to the open ocean at the surface, and/or bounded by submarine
ridges on the sea floor.

Examples (Locate these on Atlas)

 Arabian Sea
 Persian Gulf
 Red Sea
 Gulf of Oman
 Gulf of Aden
 Gulf of Kutch
 Gulf of Khambat
 Bay of Bengal
 Andaman Sea
 Malacca Strait
 Mozambique Channel
 Great Australian Bight
 Gulf of Mannar
 Laccadive Sea
Bays, Gulfs, Straits, and Isthmus
 Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water bodies that are
contained within a larger body of water near land.
 These three water bodies are usually located at important
points of human activities; thus, conflicts with nature and
neighbors are common.

Bays

 Bay is a water body surrounded on three sides by land with

the fourth side (mouth) wide open towards oceans (In Gulfs,
the mouth is narrow).
 A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
 Example: Hudson Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
 An example of a bay at a river’s mouth is New York Bay, at
the mouth of the Hudson River (Hudson Estuary).

Gulfs

 A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes with a narrow

mouth, that is almost completely surrounded by land.
 The world’s largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
 Other Examples = Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden (between
the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian Gulf
(between Saudi Arabia and Iran), Gulf of Mannar.

Straits

 A strait is a narrow passageway of water between the

landmass (continents or islands).
 When a body of water such as a strait is capable of being
blocked or even closed in order to control transportation
routes, the body is called a “choke point”.

Isthmus
  Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait. i.e., a narrow strip
of land connecting two larger land masses.
 Example: Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez.

Continental Shelf Deposits

Properties

 They are responsible for preventing cold under-current from

rising and also increases the height of tides.
 They are excellent location for ports.
 Rich in marine organi[Link] sunlight reaches the
shelves and so minute plankton grows on them. This causes
fishes to reach the shelves. The shelves are thus known as
the richest fishing grounds of the world.

Resources

 90% of petroleum reserves are found in shelves. E.g.:

Bombay High, Gulf of Cambay, Persian Gulf, Strait of
Hormuz, Arctic Ocean, and Gulf of Mexico.
 Sulfur metal rarely found on land but is abundant in Gulf of
Mexico continental shelf due to marine volcanism.
 Concentration of heavy metals on shelf. E.g.: Monazite sand
in Kerala (Thorium), gold, silver and diamonds.
 Pearls.

Resources from an abyssal plain

 Poly metallic nodules are a concentration of metals around a

core. Found in all oceans. Some of the minerals are rare on
land.

Polymetallic Nodules (PMNs)

 Polymetallic nodules (also called as manganese nodules)
are small potato-sized (from millimetres to tens of
centimetres in diameter) lumps of minerals found in deep
sea.
  They contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, cadmium,
vanadium, molybdenum, titanium in various proportions of
which nickel, cobalt and copper are considered to be of
economic and strategic importance.
 They are found in abundance carpeting the sea floor of world
oceans in deep sea.
 India was the first country to receive the status of a pioneer
investor for exploration and utilization of PMNs.
 It was allocated an exclusive area in Central Indian Ocean
Basin by United Nations (UN) in 1987.
 National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) will
launch ‘Samudrayaan project’ by 2021-22 to explore the
deep sea region. It is pilot project of Union Ministry of Earth
Sciences as part the ‘Deep Ocean mission’ for deep ocean
mining of rare minerals.
 Samudrayaan project
 It proposes to send indigenously developed submersible
vehicle with three persons to a depth of about 6000 metres
to carry out deep underwater studies.

Significance of Polymetallic Nodules

 They contain Rare Earth Elements and metals which are

important to high-tech industries.
 The amount of copper contained in the CCZ nodules is
estimated to be about 20% of that held in global land-based
reserves.
 These Rare earth minerals are considered as the great
source of valuable minerals such as gold, silver and zinc.
 Presently, China is controlling more than 95% of rare earth
metals. The exploration by India will nullify the increasing
influence of China.

Challenges

 The extraction of metals from the PMN is not yet found to be

economically viable at this stage.
 The deep sea mining without holistic approach may cause a
disturbance in the aquatic ecosystem.
UN Convention on Laws of Seas

 Decides deep sea mining, environment protection, maritime

boundary and dispute settlement.

UNCLOS sections the oceans into:

Territorial waters

 12 Nautical Miles from the baseline.

 Countries are free to set laws and use its resources.
 Foreign vessels arenot given all rights to passage through
except “Innocent Passage”.
 Passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to
peace and security.
 Nations have right to suspend the innocent passage.
 Submarine while passing through other country’s territorial
waters has to navigate on the surface and show their flags.

Contiguous Zone

 Area 12 Nautical Miles beyond the Territorial waters (i.e. 24

Nautical Miles from the baseline limit).
 Country can enforce laws only in 4 areas viz. pollution,
taxation, customs, and immigration.

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)

 Area from the edge of the territorial sea out to 200 nautical
miles from the baseline.
 Country has sole exploitation rights over all natural
resources.
 The most important reason to introduce EEZ was to halt the
clashes over the fishing rights and oil rights.
 Foreign vessels have freedom of navigation and over flight,
subject to the regulation of the coastal states.
 Foreign states are allowed to lay submarine pipes and
cables.
International Seabed Authority
 It is an intergovernmental body that organizes, regulates
and controls all mineral (non-living resources) related
activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits
of national jurisdiction and ensures that marine ecosystem
remains protected.
 It was established in 1994by the Law of the Sea Convention
and functions under the aegis of the United Nations
Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
 HQ at Jamaica.
 It has an observer status to UN.
 The total area under its regulation is more than 54% of the
total area of the world’s oceans.
 India is its member.
 ISA has registered & voluntary commitments towards
Agenda 2030 for sustainable development.

Marine Deposits

Sources

 River brought sediments

 Weathering due to wave actions
 Wind Blown Dust
 Submarine erosion
 Marine life decomposition
 Extraterrestrial (Meteorites)
 Volcanic

Marine Pollution

Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of

which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the
ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the
health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

Types of Islands
Type Description Diagram
 Continental islands are
simply unsubmerged parts of
the continental shelf that are
entirely surrounded by water.
 Once a part of large
continent separated by
Continent
al Island
geomorphologic processes. 
 Many of the larger islands of
the world are of the
continental type.
 Example=SriLanka,
Madagascar, Vancouver,
Baffin Island
 Volcanic islands occur in
ocean basins (such as the
Hawaiian Islands) or on or
near ocean ridges (e.g., St.
Paul Rocks and Ascension
Island in the Atlantic Ocean)
Volcanic
Island
or on hotspot. 
 They are large volcanoes
erupted on the seafloor
whose tops have emerged
above sea level.
 Example = Japan,
Philippines, Kurile, Aleutian
 A sandbar is an area of sand,
gravel or fine sediment that
sits above the water.
 It may be connected to the
shoreline, or it may be
offshore.
Sand-bar  It is generally narrow and

Island straight.
 A sandbar is also known as
a shoal or sandbank.
 A large sandbar is called
a barrier island.
 Example = Long Island (New
York)
Coral  Island built of organic 
 material derived from
skeletons of corals and
numerous other animals and
plants associated with corals.
 Coral islands consist of low
Island
land perhaps only a few
meters above sea level.
 Example=Lakshadweep,
Maldives,Mauritius, Bahama,
Bermuda

OCEAN TEMPERATURE
 The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for
determining the
o Movement of large volumes of water (vertical and
horizontal ocean currents),
o Type and distribution of marine organisms at various
depths of oceans,
o Climate of coastal lands, etc.
 Main energy source for ocean temperature
– Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation)
 Oceans play an important role in energy and temperature
regulation on earth (it warms slowly in comparison of land
due to its specific heat of the water).
 Average temperature of ocean = 3-5 degree Celsius
 But average surface temperature of ocean water = 25
degree

Factors affecting temperature distribution

Latitude

 Surface water temperature decreases from the equator

towards the pole.
 It is due to the declining intensity of insolation per unit
area while moving towards pole.
 But highest temperature is not at the equator insteadat the
tropics (high rainfall, cloud cover = high albedo/ reflection of
sunrays)
Hemispheric variation

 Unequal distribution of land and water.

 Northern hemisphere is warmer than southern because of
large land mass in northern hemisphere (High specific heat
of water causes slower heating of it).

Prevailing winds (Longitudinal variation of temperature)

 The offshore winds (Winds blow towards the ocean from the
land) drive warm surface water away from coast.
 This results in upwelling of cold water from below.
 The onshore winds raise the temperature at coast by piling
up warm water near it.

Ocean currents

 Oceanic currents describe the movement of water from one

location to another.
 Warm ocean currents = Increases the temperature of cold
areas (like Gulf stream)
 Cold ocean currents = Lowers the temperature in cold areas
(Like Canary current)

Enclosed and open sea

 Temperature at Lower latitudes = Enclosed sea > Open sea

 Temperature at Higher latitude = Open sea > Enclosed sea

Physical characteristics of the sea surface:

 Boiling point of the sea water increases with increasing

salinity and vice versa.
 Salinity increased –> Boiling point increased –> Evaporation
decreased
Diurnal range of temperature

 Maximum temperature in day and minimum temperature in

night time.
 Tropical water has higher diurnal range (due to less cloud)
than equatorial waters.
 Because, heating and cooling of water rapid under clear sky.

Annual range of temperature

 Bigger the size of ocean =Better mixing of water and heat +

Slow heating
 Hence, lower annual range
 Pacific ocean –> Lower annual range than Atlantic Ocean

Variationin ocean temperature

 Earth’s surface at equator receives about four times more

average incoming solar energy than at pole.
 Radiation penetrates some distance below the surface due
to the transparency of water.
 Shorter wavelengths (high energy) penetrate deeper than
longer wavelengths. Heat is carried further to the deeper
levels by mixing.
 Diurnal and seasonal temperature variations are relatively
small in water than on land due to the high specific heat of
water.
 Most solar energy is absorbed within a few meters of the
ocean surface by directly heating the surface water. This
provides the energy for photosynthesis for marine plants
and algae.

Vertical variation in oceanic temperature

 Vertical distribution of temperature in the deep

ocean is controlled by density driven water movements.
 The maximum temperature of oceans is always at their
surface due to the direct incidence of solar energy.
  Heat conduction by itself is extremely slow, so only a small
proportion of heat is transferred downwards by this process.
 The heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the oceans
through the process of convection.

Thermal layer distribution in ocean

 1stlayer
o Top layer consists of warm oceanic water.
o It is about 500 meter thick with temperature
range between 20-25°C.
o This layer exists throughout the year in tropical
region but develops only during summer in mid-
latitude.
 2 layer
nd

o Temperature decline rapidly between the depths of

about 200 meters to 1000 meters.
o This region of steep temperature gradient is known as
the permanent thermocline.
o About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found
below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone,
temperatures approach 0°C.
o The thermocline is less steep (almost absent) in Polar
Regions as the surface temperatures are close to 0°C
which results in small variations in temperature with
depth.
 3 layer
rd

o There is virtually no seasonal variation beyond 1000

meters (beneath permanent thermocline) and the
temperatures are around 2°C.
o This layer extends up to the deep ocean floor.
o This narrow range is maintained throughout the deep
oceans, both geographically and seasonally, because it
is determined by the temperature of the cold, dense
water that sinks at the polar-regions and flows towards
the Equator.

Horizontal variation in oceanic temperature

 Average temperature of surface water of the ocean is about

27 °C.
  Average temperature gradually decreases from the equator
towards the poles.
 The ocean temperature records,relativity lower temperature
in southern hemisphere then the northern hemisphere.
 This anomaly is a result of unequal distribution of land and
water in the northern and southern hemispheres.
 The highest temperature is recorded slightly away from
equator in the northern direction.

SALINITY

Throughout Earth’s history, certain processes have served to

make the ocean salty. The weathering of rocks delivers minerals,
including salt, into the ocean.

 Salinity is a vital property of sea water. It is determined by

the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater.
 It is usually expressed as parts per thousand (o/oo) orppt.
 Salinityof 7 o/oo has been considered as the upper limit to
demarcate ‘brackish water’.
 Even small variations in ocean surface salinity (i.e.,
concentration of dissolved salts) can have dramatic effects
on the water cycle and ocean circulation.
 Factors that affect the salinity of the oceans can be
broadly grouped into two categories:

[Link] that increase salinity(due to increase in salt

concentration by extracting fresh water from the ocean)


o

 Evaporation from the ocean’s surface
waters removes water molecules, leaving
the salt behind.
 Ice formation as freezing of ice leaves salt
in the water.
 Advection of more saline water
 Mixing with more saline deep water(Due to
the ocean currents)
 Solution of salt deposits
2. Factors that decrease salinity (due to the decrease in salt
concentration by incorporating freshwater into the ocean)


o

 Precipitation on the ocean surface waters
adds water molecules.
 Melting of ice which dilutes the
concentration of salt in the water.
 Advection of less saline water
 Mixing with less saline deep water(Due to
the ocean currents)
 Inflow of fresh water from land
 Surface salinity majorly affected by three processes
o Decrease of salinity by precipitation
o Increase of salinity by evaporation
o Change of salinity by mixing processes (Due to the
ocean currents)

Salinity of the oceans

 Standard salinity of ocean water is = 35.5 ppt – salinity of

Atlantic Ocean
 Dead Sea (350 salinity), Lake van (400), Lake Urmia
 Man seldom drowns in sea with high salinity
 Because, high salinity = high density

Sources of salts in ocean water

 Sediments carried by rivers.

 Submarine volcanism at Oceanic Ridge.
 Chemical reaction between rocks of geothermal vent of
volcano and cold water.
 Erosion of oceanic rocks.

Share of different salts is as shown below

Removal of Salts in Ocean water

  Physical removal – waves break at the beaches, salt-spray
 Biological removal – marine lifeforms extract calcium from
sea water for their bones.

Distribution of salinity

Vertical (Change with depth)

 Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depend

upon the location of the sea.
 Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater
causes its density to increase. High salinity seawater,
generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads
to stratification by salinity.
 There is a distinct zone called the halocline(compare this
with thermocline) where salinity increases sharply.

Horizontal

 Highest salinity is found near tropics.

 It decreases towards equator and pole
o Equator = Heavier rains causes incorporation of
freshwater
o Poles = Less evaporation prevents removal of water
molecule from the surface

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SALINITY, TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY

Temperature and density share an inverse relationship.


o As temperature increases, the space between water
molecules increases (hence volume increases) which
therefore decreases the salinity.
o If the temperature of water decreases its density
increases, but only to a point.
o At a temperature of 4°C pure water reaches its
maximum or peak density, cooled further it expands
 and becomes less dense than the surrounding water
which is why when water freezes at 0°C it floats.

Density = Mass/Volume

 Example = Let the mass of a definite water body is 10 and

volume is 5, which gives density is equal to 2. If the volume
increases to 10 keeping mass constant, the density reduces
to 1.
 Salinity and density share a positive relationship.
o As density increases, the amount of salts in the water
(also known as salinity), increases.
 The ocean water is constantly churning underneath, bringing
nutrients up to the top.
o The difference in density of cold water versus density
of warmer water is responsible for ocean currents and
upwelling.
o Warm seawater floats and cold (4° C), dense (1 g/cm3)
seawater sinks, so ocean temperatures also vary
across the surface and into the depths.

Variation of density, salinity, and temperature with the

oceanic depth

 When the temperature, density or salinity of a layer changes

rapidly, this region is referred to as a cline.
 Thermoclines are areas of rapid change in temperature.
Areas of rapid change in density are pycnoclines and areas
of rapid change in salinity are haloclines.

OCEANIC MOVEMENT
 The ocean water is dynamic and its movement is influenced
by physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density
and the external forces like of the sun, moon and the winds.
 The horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean
water bodies.
 The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and
waves.
  Water moves ahead from one place to another through
ocean currents while the water in the waves does not move,
but the wave trains move ahead.
 The vertical motion refers to tides (rise and fall of water in
the oceans and seas) and upwelling.
 Due to attraction of the sun and the moon, the ocean water
is raised up and falls down twice a day.
 The upwelling of cold water from subsurface and the sinking
of surface water are also forms of vertical motion of ocean
water.
 Vertical currentsarise mainlydue todensity
differencescausedby temperatureandsalinity changes.

Waves
 Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface
water layer.
 The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave.
 They die out quickly on reaching shore or shallow waters.
 Actual motion of water beneath the wave is circular.

Important terminologies related to wave

 Crest and Trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave

are called the crest and trough respectively.
 Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of
a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
 Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
 Wave period: It is the time interval between two successive
wave crests or troughs.
 Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two
successive crests.
 Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given
point during one second time interval.
 Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves
through the water. It is measured in knots.

Breaking of wave
When the depth of water is less than half the wavelength, the
wave breaks.

Waves

 The size and force of the wave depends on

o Velocity of the wind
o Duration of the wind
o Distance over which the wind blows unhindered (the
fetch)
 If the water is deep (so that bottom doesn’t interfere with
the wave), winds blow over large distances for longer time,
waves are bigger.

Important effects by waves

 Sea: Normally several trains of differing wave lengths and

directional movements of waves occurs in seas. This overall
irregular and chaotic wave pattern is called sea.
 Swell: If the wave moves away from the disturbance zone
into a smooth zone, there appears a uniform pattern of
equivalent wavelength and amplitude. This is called swell.
 Surf: As the swell reaches shore, the pattern gets disturbed
due to friction from the shallow sea floor and the wave
breaks. The lower part of the wave travels more slowly than
the upper part so its height increases, they crowd together
and eventually breaks. This breaking is called surf.
 Swash: Once the wave breaks, the top fallen over part is
carried over to the shore. This is called swash.
 Backwash: As the water goes back to the sea, it is called
backwash.

OCEAN CURRENT

Ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water

masses that flow from one place to another circumnavigating the
earth. The forces that initiate the movement of water are:

Wind
  The major ocean currents are wind-driven currents, though
some ocean currents result from density and salinity
variations of water.
o The subtropical high pressure cells are responsible for
many of the Earth’s great ocean currents.

Heating by solar energy

 Water expands under high temperature.

o Near equator, water is lighter than at the poles.
o Near poles, water is cold hence denser and sinks down
causing movement of water from equator towards the
pole.
o Cold water from pole flow towards equator at
subsurface level, to balance loss of water at equator.

Salinity

 Salinity increases density of water which sinks at depth.

o Less saline water move towards high saline water on
the surface.
o High saline water move towards less saline water at
sub-surface
 Equator → rainfall (less saline water)
 Poles → iceberg (high saline water)

Thermohaline differences

 Thermohaline circulations are due to changes in density

(result of changes in temperature and salinity).
 Thermohaline circulations can be both –
o Vertical (i.e. upwelling or downwelling)
o Horizontal (Ocean current movement)

Ocean currents can be classified based on temperature as

cold currents and warm currents:

Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are
usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and
middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern
hemisphere, they are found on the west coasts of continents in
high latitudes.

Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These
currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in
the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on
the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical Gyres

 The large, circular moving loops of water that are driven by

the major wind belts of the world are called gyres which
generally comprises of four main currents.
 They rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. World’s five
subtropical gyres:
o The North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre or Sargasso sea
(due to presence of seaweed called Sargasso on the
surface)
o The South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre or Navigator gyre
(after the Portuguese prince Henry, the navigator)
o The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre or Turtle gyre
o The South Pacific Subtropical Gyre or Hyerdahl gyre
o The Indian Ocean Subtropical or Majid gyre

Sargasso Sea

 The Sargasso Sea is a motionless sea confined to the sub-

tropical north Atlantic gyre.
o The gyral system formed by the anti-cyclonic
circulation of oceanic water.
o Atmospheric stability due to it being located in
the transition zone of the trade winds and the
westerlies which is characterized by anti-cyclonic
conditions.
o Hence, there are feeble winds which allow little
intermixing with waters outside the gyre.
  It is located entirely within the Atlantic Ocean, is the only
sea without a land boundary.

Equatorial Countercurrents

Equatorial currents moves large volume of water westward. As a

result water piles up along the western margin of an ocean basin,
which raises sea level on the western side of the basin.

 The water on the western margins then flows downhill under

the influence of gravity, creating narrow equatorial counter
currents that flow to the east counter to and between the
adjoining equatorial currents.

North Indian Ocean Currents

 Indian Ocean is half an ocean; hence the behavior of the

North Indian Ocean Currents is different from that of Atlantic
Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean Currents.
 Seasonal monsoon winds peculiar to the Northern Indian
Ocean region directly influence the ocean surface water
movement.
 Due to the seasonal change of ocean current circulation,
North Indian Ocean Currents is important for sea-trade,
cultural interaction.
 During summer, wind and current flow towards India from
Arabia in influence of strong south-west monsoon winds.
o Sea vessel moves from Arabia to India by utilizing wind
and ocean current.
 During winter, wind and current flow towards Arabia from
India in influence of prevailing trade winds (easterly trade
winds)
o Sea vessel moves from India to Arabia by utilizing wind
and ocean current.

Effects of ocean currents

1. Meeting of cold and warm currents

o Creates excellent fishing zones.
  Kurishio (warm) + Oyashio (cold)
 Labrador (cold) + Gulf Stream(warm)
 Falkland (cold) + Brazilian(warm)
o Mixing of cold and warm water creates fog.
2. Warming effect by warm current
o This makes port operable near the adjacent areas in
comparison of areas lying on the same latitude but at
the locations where cold current flows.
o Norway ports are operable in winter whereas ports in
Russia freeze.
3. Dessicating effect by cold currents (an element for desert
formation)
o Peru or Humboldt current = Atacama Desert
o Benguela current = Namib Desert
o Canary current = Sahara Desert
o California current = Mojave Desert

Upwelling and Downwelling

Ekman spiral and transport

 When the wind pushes the water in its direction, the surface
layer begins to move but gets deflected towards the right (in
North hemisphere) due to Coriolis Effect.
 This surface layer pulls along the layer immediately below
with it. But as that layer moves it gets deflected further to
right.
 Successive layers move progressively right until a layer
moves 90º to the direction of the wind. This is called Ekman
spiral.
 Ekman transport is the movement of the 90º layer.

Upwelling

 Upwelling occurs where water from the deeper parts of the

ocean is allowed to travel upwards to the surface.

Downwelling

 Downwelling is the vertical movement of surface water to

deeper parts of the ocean which occurs in the areas where
waters converge and “pile up”.
Upwelling and nutrient enrichment at surface water

TIDES
 The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a
day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and the moon, is
called a tide.
o Cause of Tide = Gravitational Pull of Moon (major
effect) and Sun (minor effect) + Centrifugal Force
  The gravitational pull and the centrifugal force (due to
inertia) working together are responsible for creating the
two major tidal bulges on the earth.
 Tsunami, storm surge, and tides are tidal waves (waves with
large wavelengths that have greater intensity and
destructive power).

Ebb and Flood/Flow

In open sea

 Ebb is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low tide)
during which the water level is falling.
 Flood is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low
tide) during which the water level is rising.

In tidal inlet system

 Ebb is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low tide)
during which the tidal current is flowing seaward (ebb
current).
 Flood is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low
tide) during which the tidal current is flowing inland (flood
current).

MOON POSTION AND TIDE

Magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee of earth

Perigee tides are higher than apogee tides

 When the earth is closest to the moon (Perigee), tidal ranges

are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually
low tides.
 When the earth is farthest from the moon (apogee), tidal
ranges are much less than average.

Syzygy

 Syzygy refers to the positions of the sun, earth, and moon in

a straight line.
  It occurs when the sun, moon, and earth aligned in a same
line as shown in figure.
 occur twice a month
o Conjuction – New moon
o opposition – full moon
 It causes spring tides (maximum tides due to the combined
effect of gravitational force by sun and moon gravitation).

Quadrature

 Quadrature refers to the orthogonal positions of the sun and

moon.
 The forces of the sun and moon – counteract
 Occurs on 7/8th Day of every fortnight.
 It causes Neap tides are (minimum tides due to the counter
effect of gravitational force by sun and moon).
 There is a 7 Days interval between the spring tides and neap
tides.

SOME IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF TIDE

 Tidal bore: When a tide enters a narrow and shallow
estuary of a river, the front of the tide appears to be vertical
(due to piling up of water because of bottom friction). This is
called tidal bore.
 Tidal current: When a gulf is connected with a sea through
a narrow channel, during tides water flows in and out. This is
called tidal current.
 Kallakkadal: These are ocean swells which occur in Indian
Ocean during April-May. They originate in South Indian
Ocean due to storms and propagate northward with ocean
currents. They get amplified as they reach shores. The
flooding is most severe on spring tides.

Tidal range

 Difference between High tide and Low Tide.

 It depends upon:
 Depth of ocean water
 Configuration of coastline
  Openness and closeness of the sea

Highest tidal range

 World: Bay of Fundy

 India: Gulf of Khambhat

CORAL REEFS
 Underwater structures made from calcium carbonate
secreted by corals.
 It often called “rainforests of the sea” as they form some of
the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.
 An individual coral is known as a polyp which has a
symbiotic relationship with plant like cells
called zooxanthellae.
o Polyp ingests tiny organisms called plankton & other
small creatures.
o Thousands of identical polyps live together and form
a coral colony.
 Each polyp excretes a calcium carbonate exoskeleton
beneath it. Over long periods of time, the skeletons of many
coral colonies add up to build the structure of a coral reef.
 Many other species – fish, invertebrates, algae and
microorganisms – make their homes on and around this reef.
 Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into
coral Islands (Lakshadweep).
o In India, they are present around A&N, Lakshadweep,
Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar.

Coral Reef Relief Features

Fringing reef (Shore reefs), barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are
formed on atolls) are the most important relief features.

Fringing Reef
  It is a coral platform attached to a continental coast or an
island, sometimes separated by a narrow, shallow lagoon
known as Boat Channel.
 They grow from the deep bottom of the sea and have
their seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea.
 Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and
large increase in depth.
 Fringing Reefs are the most commonly found coral reefs
among the three.
 Example = Sakau Island in New Hebrides, South Florida
Reef.

Barrier Reef

 Barrier Reefs develop off the coast and parallel to the

shore as a broken and irregular ring.
 They are separated from their adjacent land mass by a
lagoon of open, often deep water.
 They are considered as the largest, highest and widest reefs
among the three coral reefs.
o They run for 100 kilometres and is several kilometres
wide
 Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or
atolls, although examples can be found in the tropical
Atlantic as well as the Pacific.
 Example = The Great Barrier Reef of Australia which is
1200 mile long.

Atoll

 An atoll can be defined as a reef that is roughly circular and

surrounds a large central lagoon.
o If a fringing reef forms around a volcanic island that
subsides completely below sea level while the coral
continues to grow upward, an atoll forms.
 This lagoon is mostly deep having a depth of 80-150 metres
and may be joined with sea water through a number of
channels cutting across the reef.
 Atolls are located at great distances from deep see
platforms, where the submarine features may help in
 formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a volcanic
cone which may reach a level suitable for coral growth.
 Example = Fiji Atolls, Suvadivo in Maldives and Funafoothis
Atoll of Ellice.

Conditions for survival

 Shallow water: Where sunlight can reach them. Rarely

develop in water deeper than 165 feet (50 meters).
 Clear water: That lets sunlight through. They don’t thrive
well when the water is opaque.
 Warm water: Reef-building corals require warm water
conditions to survive. Different corals living in different
regions can withstand water temperatures of 68–90° F or
20–32° C.
 Pollution-free water: Corals are sensitive to pollution and
sediments. Wastewater discharged into the ocean near the
reef can contain too many nutrients that cause seaweeds to
overgrow the reef.
 Salinity: Corals need saltwater (salinity almost 27 ppt) to
survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to
water. This is why corals don’t live in areas where rivers
drain fresh water into the ocean (“estuaries”).

PROMINENT FEATURES OF CORAL REEFS

 Coral lives a symbiotic life. Inside the sac of each coral polyp
lives zooxanthellae algae.
o Algae gives off oxygen and other nutrients (for
food) that the coral polyp needs to live and in return
the polyp provides the zooxanthellae with shelter and
nutrients.
o That is why coral reefs grow so near the surface of the
water where it is the sunniest–the algae need sunshine
for photosynthesis.
o Corals also capture food. At night, they stretched out
their stinging tentacles and catch the microscopic
organisms that flow in the water and digest them in
their stomachs.
 Hence, corals have two way of getting food – through
zooxanthellae and capturing microscopic organisms.
  Despite occupying less than 1% of the world’s ocean
surface, they provide a home for 25% of all marine species.
 In addition to providing corals with essential
nutrients, zooxanthellae are responsible for the unique and
beautiful colors of many stony corals.

DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS

 The majority of reef building corals are found within tropical
and subtropical waters. These typically occur between 30º
north and 30º south latitudes.
 The Indonesian/Philippines archipelago has the world’s
greatest concentration of reefs and the greatest coral
diversity. Other area of reef concentration are the Great
Barrier Reef of Australia, the Red Sea and the Caribbean, the
latter having a much lower diversity than all major Indo-
Pacific regions.

CORAL BLEACHING
 Coral bleaching occurs when the relationship between the
coral host and marine algae, which give coral much of their
colour, breaks
 Without the marine algae, the tissue of the coral animal
appears transparent and the coral’s bright white skeleton is
revealed.
 Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of
corals to many of the various disturbances caused by
anthropogenic and natural events.
 When temperature increases, the algae in the corals are
killed and lose their colour. Hence, the process is known as
coral bleaching, which leads to their death
 Hurricanes, Predators, Over Fishing, oil pollution and fishing
methods (Cyanide Fishing and Blast Fishing), climate
change, El Nino, Coral diseases and local factors are
responsible.

Causes of coral bleaching

Temperature
  Rises in seawater temperature as a result of global warming.
 Changes in water heat affect zooxanthellae photosynthesis,
forcing it out of coral polyps and depriving coral of essential
resources.

Solar Irradiance

 During summer months, coral bleaching can occur due to

solar radiation.
 Both photosynthetically active radiation and UV
radiation have been associated with bleaching.

Subaerial Exposure

 Low tides, sea level drops and tectonic uplift can result
in sudden exposure of coral to the atmosphere.
 Whether due to exposure to high/low temperature,
increased solar radiation or desiccation, subaerial exposure
often results in bleaching and consequent coral death due to
sudden changes in atmospheric conditions.

Sedimentation

 Though uncommon, coral bleaching can sometimes be

linked to sediment.
 Activities such as land clearing and coastal construction can
result in high rates of erosion, increasing sediment content
in water and disrupting the natural process of
photosynthesis.

Inorganic Nutrients

 Increases in inorganic nutrients such as ammonia and

nitrate do not deplete coral of zooxanthellae, but rather
cause it to multiply, increasing its content by 2-3 times.
 Though this does not directly cause bleaching, secondary
adverse effects such as lower coral resistance and increased
disease susceptibility can occur.

Xenobiotics

 Exposure of coral to chemical contaminants such as copper,

herbicides and oils can cause zooxanthellae loss.
  Such loss is often highly localised, only occurring where
xenobiotics (foreign substances) come into contact with
coral.

Epizootics

 Epizootics are diseases that are temporarily prevalent, often

becoming widespread through animal populations.
 Pathogen-induced bleaching commonly results in sporadic or
whole-colony death amongst coral populations, leaving
behind a white skeleton (Not to be mistaken for bleaching).

Kelp Forest

 Kelps are the large brown algae seaweedswhich

absorbs carbon emissions.
 It grows in “underwater forests” in shallow oceans and live
further from the tropics than coral reefs, mangrove forests,
and warm-water seagrass beds.
o Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface
waters, a few species have been known to occur
exclusively in tropical deep waterso.
o Kelps and coral reefs are composed of algae that grow
in the shallow parts of the ocean in warm and sunny
waters. However, kelp forest grows in nutrient-rich
waters while corals can develop in low nutrient waters.
o Not present in Antarctica
 Recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic
ecosystems on Earth.
 Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds.

Environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive

 Hard substrate (usually rock)

 High nutrients
 Clear shallow coastal waters
 Light

Importance

 Considered as Keystone Species.

  Provides as an important source of food for many marine
species (up to 60% of carbon found in coastal invertebrates
is attributable to kelp productivity).
 It slows down the flow of the water.
 Natural breakwaters and prevent coastal erosion.
 Can influence coastal oceanographic patterns.
 Iimportant source of potash and iodine.
 Produce algin (complex carbohydrate useful in industries
such as tire manufacturing, ice-cream industry).

Speices classification

 Keystone species refer to species that has a

disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to
its abundance.
 Foundation species refer to species that has a strong role
in structuring a community.
 Indicator species defines a trait or characteristic of the
enviornment.
 Flagship species is a species selected to act as an
ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat, issue,
campaign or environmental cause.
Chapter 6
CLIMATOLOGY: STRUCTURE OF
ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER
PATTERNS, & TEMPERATURE
82 min read

Topics covered
 Climate and weather
 Evolution of atmosphere
 Composition of atmosphere
 Air
 Dust particle
 Green House Gases
 Structure of Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermospher
 xosphere
 Insolation and terrestrial radiation
 Variability of insolation at the surface of the Earth
 Albedo
 Heat Budget
 Temperature Distribution on the Earth
 Controlling factors
 Isotherm
 Air moisture
 Water in the atmosphere
 Humidity
 Temperature lapse rate
 Rising and Falling Air Parcel
 Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 Types of condensation
 Temperature Inversion
 Ground surface inversion
 Upper air inversion
  Frontal or cyclonic inversion
 Surface inversion of temperature
 Valley inversion
 Temperature inversion implications
 Types of precipitation – Rain, Frost, Sleet, Hail
 Rainfall Types
 Atmospheric circulation
 Vertical and horizontal variation
 Coriolis force
 Frictional force
 Pressure gradient force
 Geostrophic wind
 Pressure and wind
 World distribution of isobars
 Pressure Systems of the World (Vertical and horizontal
Pressure Belts)
 El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
 Wind Systems of the World
 Permanent- Planetary Winds
 Variable- Seasonal and Local winds
 Jet Streams
 Air Mass
 Fronts
 Cyclones- Tropical & Temperate Cyclone, their Formation,
their Distribution, their Differences
 Thunderstorm
 Tornados or Twisters
 Rossby Waves
 Polar Vortex
 Ozone Depletion & Hole
 Polar Stratospheric Clouds
 Aurora

Syllabus for GS Paper

 Prelims Paper I
o Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social,
Economic Geography of India and the World.
 Paper 2 (GS-I)
o Salient features of the world’s physical geography.
Climate Weather
Climate is the weather of a It is the mix of events that happen each day
place averaged over a period of time, atmosphere on the Earth but different weat
often 30 years. locations).
Describes what the weather is like over Refers to short-term changes in the atmosp
a long period of time in a specific area.
Its study known as Climatology Its study known as Meteorology

The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere: From Primordial

Gases to Oxygen

 There are three stages in the evolution of the present

atmosphere.
 Loss of primordial atmosphere.
 The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is
supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the solar
winds.
o Evolution of the atmosphere by the hot interior of the
earth.
 During early life of the earth, Nitrogen, Sulphur,
Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapour, and Argon came
out due to the extensive volcanism and
degassing.
o Modification of atmospheric composition by the living
world through the process of photosynthesis.
 Water vapor condensed, which led to the
formation of clouds and hence the rainfall washed
out the bulk of Carbon Dioxide into the Oceans.
 Oxygen was produced from anaerobic respiration
of bacteria like Cyanobacteria (and not from
degassing).
 The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is chiefly
contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.

Properties of Atmospheric Gases

 Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Argon are permanent

gases.
 Water vapour, Carbon Dioxide, Ozone are variable gases.
 Neon, Argon – inert gases
 Atmospheric gases
 No chemical interaction among them
 They don’t lose their properties
 They act as a single unified gas

The Composition and Role of Earth’s Atmosphere

  Atmosphere is a mixture of different odorless, tasteless and
colorless gases, dust and vapour.
 It is a relatively thin layer enveloping the earth all round and
held by the Earth’s gravity. It extends several thousands of
kilometers above the earth surface.
 It is a protective boundary between outer space and the
biosphere.

Air: The Vital Mixture of Gases Surrounding Earth

 Air is mostly gas.

 Air in motion is called wind.
 Atmosphere is an envelope of air composed of numerous
gases. These gases support life over the earth’s surface.
 The air in Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
 Air also has small amounts of lots of other gases, too, such
as carbon dioxide, neon, and hydrogen.

Dust Particles: Origins, Distribution, and Transport in

Earth’s Atmosphere

 Small solid particles originate from different sources.

 It includes sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust
and disintegrated particles of meteors.
 They are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
 They can be transported to great heights by convection air
currents.
 The higher concentration of dust particles is found in
subtropical and temperate regions due to dry winds in
comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions.

Hygroscopic nuclei: They are the dust particles around

which the water vapor condense to form clouds.

Greenhouse Effect: Earth’s Atmospheric Heating

Mechanism

 The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases

in Earth’s atmosphere trap the Sun’s heat.
 This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be
without an atmosphere.
 The greenhouse effect is one of the things that make Earth a
comfortable place to live.
Greenhouse Gases: Earth’s Atmospheric Heat Regulators

 Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere that trap

heat.
 They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but
they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving
the atmosphere.
 GHGs absorb long longwave terrestrial radiation.
 Some of the main greenhouse gases are:
1. Water vapor
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Methane
4. Ozone

Factors Affecting Greenhouse Gases’ Impact on Climate

Change

 How much is in the atmosphere?

o Concentration, or abundance, i.e. the amount of a
particular gas in the air.
o Larger emissions of greenhouse gases lead to higher
concentrations in the atmosphere.
 How long do they stay in the atmosphere?
o Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for
different amounts of time, ranging from a few years to
thousands of years.
 How strongly do they impact the atmosphere?
o Some gases are more effective than others at making
the planet warmer and “thickening the Earth’s
blanket.”

For each greenhouse gas, a Global Warming Potential

(GWP) has been calculated to reflect how long it remains in the
atmosphere, on average, and how strongly it absorbs energy.
Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy than gases with a
lower GWP, and thus contribute more to warming Earth.

Role of Water Vapor in Atmospheric Dynamics

 A variable gas in the atmosphere that decreases with

altitude and on moving from the equator towards the poles.
 Its concentration is higher in warm and wet tropics in
comparison to the dry and cold areas of desert and Polar
Regions.
  It also absorbs parts of the incoming solar radiation
and preserves the radiated heat from the earth (terrestrial
radiation).
 Hence, it acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither to
become too cold nor too hot.
 It also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.

Impact of Carbon Dioxide on Earth’s Radiation Balance

 Meteorologically a very important gas because of

its transparency to the incoming solar radiation but
opaqueness to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
 It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back
some part of it towards the surface of earth.
 It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.

The Significance of Methane as a Greenhouse Gas

 One of the most important greenhouse gases.

 It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes and
biological matter.

Nitrous Oxide: Sources and Implications

 Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial

activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well
as during treatment of wastewater.

Fluorinated Gases: Industrial Sources and Environmental

Impact

 These are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that

are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
 Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes
for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances.
 These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but
because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are
sometimes referred to as High Global Warming
Potentialgases (“High GWP gases”).

Ozone: Atmospheric Shield Against Harmful UV Radiation

 Important component of the atmosphere is found between

10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface.
  Prevents the surface of the earth by absorbing the harmful
ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun.

Ground-Level Ozone vs. Stratospheric Ozone: A

Comparison

Ground-level Ozone Stratospheric Ozone

· Good Ozone
· Bad Ozone
· Act as natural filter
Descriptio · Part of Photochemical Smog
which absorbs the Sun’s
n (We will read about it later)
UV rays
· Found in Troposphere
· Found in Stratosphere
· Forms when Nitrous Oxides (NOx) · Naturally forms when
Sources react with Volatile Organic Oxygen is in the presence
Compounds (VOCs). of UV radiation.
Thinning of ozone shield
leads to
· Eye and respiratory irritation
· Crop damage
Effects · Lung disease
· Aquatic life death
· Corrosion in buildings
· Eye irritation

· Skin cancer

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Thermal Zone Segregation

Troposphere: Earth’s Dynamic Atmospheric Layer

 Lowermost layer of the atmosphere.

 Also known as convective region(all convection occurs till
the Tropopause).
 Tropopause: Zone separating the troposphere from
stratosphere. The temperature here is nearly constant.
o Average height = 13 km
o Highest at equator (18 km) because heat is transported
to great heights by strong convection currents
 o Lowest at poles (8 km)
 The temperature is also lowest at equator (-80ºC) as
compared to poles (-45ºC). This is because convection
currents are strongest at the equator.
 90% of total mass.
 Contains dust particles and water vapor.
 Most clouds appear here as approx 99% of water vapor is
found here.
 All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
 Seasons and jet streams affect the troposphere.
 Most important layer for all biological activity.
 Temperature reduces at 6.5ºC/km or 1ºC▼/165m (normal
lapse rate) as we move up.

Stratosphere: Home to Earth’s Protective Ozone Laye

 Extends from tropopause to 50 km.

 Important Feature = It contains the Ozone Layer (Shields life
on the earth by absorbing intense, harmful ultra-violet
radiation)
 Temperature inversion: Normal Lapse Rate
ends This warming of the stratosphere with altitude is
caused largely due to absorption of solar energy by ozone.
 The air movements are almost horizontal. This is because
the effect of convection currents is almost negligible in
comparison to the troposphere. This in turn prevents vertical
mixing of pollutants from troposphere to stratosphere.
 Ideal region for flying jets as clouds are almost absent
(sometimes layers possess cirrus clouds in lower level).
 Winds blow from west to east.

Mesosphere: Where Meteors Blaze and Noctilucent Clouds

Glow

 Ranges 50-80 km (Stratopause and Mesopause)

 Temperature again starts falling with elevation (because no
GHGs exist here, i.e. no heat absorbing layer nor ozone
layer).
o Temperature decrease from 0 ºC to -90 ºC.
 Meteors burn in this layer.
o Mesospheric or Noctilucent clouds visible at high
latitude during summer season due to the
condensation of moisture around the meteoric dust.
 Mesopause= Upper limit of mesosphere
  Very thin layer causes difficulty in breathing.

Thermosphere: Where Ions Dance and Auroras Illuminate

 It extends from 80-400 km and contains electrically charged

particles known as ions (Region is known as Ionosphere).
 Temperature rises with height again due to proximity to the
sun (Ions absorb heat).
o Even though the temperature is high but because of
the rarified atmosphere the heat could not be felt.
 International Space Station Satellites orbit in this layer
 Aurora Also form in this layer.

The Exosphere: Where Earth’s Atmosphere Fades into

Space

 Uppermost layer of the atmosphere.

 Above the thermosphere.
 Highest layer and extremely rarefied.
 It gradually merges with outer space.

Ozonosphere and Ionosphere: Protective and

Communicative Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere

Ozonosphere

 It spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere and lies at

an altitude between 30 km and 60 km from the earth’s
surface.
 This layer reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation due to
the presence of ozone molecules.
 The ozonosphere is also known as chemosphere because of
immense chemical activity goes on here.
 The temperature increases at a rate of 5°C/km.

Ionosphere

 Where electron density is very high (100-300 km).

 Ions useful for Radio communication(reflects radio waves).

Electromagnetic Spectrum, Sky Coloring, Temperature,

and Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Planck–Einstein relation ( Planck’s energy–frequency

relation)
  Frequency = Number of occurrences of a repeating event
per unit of time.
 Wavelength = Distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform signal.
 Higher the Frequency = High Energy or Short Wavelength

Much of the near infrared radiation absorbed by the water vapor,

ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere (mainly in the
troposphere) while solar radiation passes through it.

Coloring of the sky

 Sunlight reaches Earth’s atmosphere and is scattered in all

directions by all the gases and particles in the troposphere.
 A clear cloudless day-time, sky is blue because molecules in
the air scatter blue light from the sun more than they scatter
red light.
 When we look towards the sun at sunset, we see red and
orange colors because the blue light has been scattered out
and away from the line of sight.

Temperature

An objective measurement of how hot or cold an object is. It can

be measured with a thermometer or a calorimeter.

Heat

It is a form of energy that is transferred between two substances

at different [Link] effects of this energy transfer
usually, but not always, is an increase in the temperature of the
colder body and a decrease in the temperature of the hotter
body.

 A substance may absorb heat without an increase in

temperature by changing from one physical state (known as
phase) to another. This absorbed heat is known as Latent
Heat.

Heat versus Temperature

While heat represents the molecular movement of particles

comprising a substance, the temperature is the measurement in
degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is. The interaction
of incoming solar radiation with the atmosphere and the earth’s
surface creates heat which is measured in terms of temperature.

 Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the more energy it will
radiate and shorter the wavelength of that radiation.
 Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the temperature
of one gram of substance by one Celsius.

Heat Transfer mechanisms

 Conduction– Heat transfer by direct contact of particles of

matter.
 Convection– Transfer of heat by the movement of a heated
fluid (liquids and gases) molecules. Heat transfer by
convection is caused by differences in temperature and
density within a fluid.
 Advection– Heat transfer through horizontal movement of
the air.
 Radiation– The transfer of energy through empty space.
There is no direct contact between the heat source and an
object.

Insolation and Terrestrial Radiation: Earth’s Energy

Balance

 Earth’s surface receives most of its energy in the form

of short wavelengths known as incoming solar radiation
(Insolation).
 The earth absorbs shortwave radiation (Short wavelength =
High Energy) during daytime and reflects back the heat
received into space as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared
radiation) during night. It makes the Earth a radiating body.
 The long wave energy radiated by the Earth known
as Terrestrial Radiation.
 Terrestrial Radiation heats the atmosphere from below as it
is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly the
greenhouse gases.
 The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to
space.
 Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is returned
to space thereby maintaining constant temperature at the
earth’s surface and in the atmosphere.
 This is why earth neither warms up nor does it get cooled
over a period of time.
  The amount of heat received by different parts of the earth
is not equal which causes pressure differences in the
atmosphere.
 This leads to transfer of heat from one region to the other by
winds.

Factors Influencing Variability of Insolation on Earth’s

Surface

The factors that cause these variations in insolation are:

 Rotation of earth on its tilted axis (at 66.5 degree with the
plane of its orbit around the sun).
 Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
1. Area under the insolation increases with increasing
latitude as a result of slant sun rays.
 Length of the day
1. Duration of the day affects the amount of insolation
received.
2. Shorter the duration results in less received insolation.
 Transparency of the atmosphere
1. Affects reflection, absorption or transmission of
insolation.
2. Depends upon the cloud cover and its thickness, dust
particles, water vapor, etc
3. Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation from reaching
the earth’s surface.
4. Water vapor absorbs solar radiation resulting in less
amount of insolation reaching the surface.
5. Slant rays are required to pass through greater
depth of the atmosphere resulting in more absorption,
scattering and diffusion.
 Configuration of land in terms of its topography
1. Sun facing slopes receive more vertical rays of sun.

Sub-solar point and Sun’s declination

 The point on earth where the sun is directly overhead at a

given point of time is called sub-solar point.
 The latitude of the sub-solar point is called the
Sun’s declination.

Albedo

 This is the amount of insolation reflected by the body.

  It is defined as the ratio of the reflected radiation to the total
intercepted radiation.
 It is described in terms of percentage of reflected radiation.
 When the sun is overhead, the albedo is less.
 Albedo commonly refers to the “whiteness” of a surface,
with 0 meaning black and 1 meaning white.
 A value of 0 means the surface is a “perfect
absorber” that absorbs all incoming energy and the object
having this surface is known as Blackbody.

Heat Budget

 The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat.

It maintains its temperature.
 This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the
form of insolation equals the amount lost by the
earth through terrestrial radiation (insolation=terrestrial
radiation).
 35% of insolation is radiated (27% from clouds, 2% from ice)
and 14% of insolation is absorbed by the atmosphere.
 Rest 51% of insolation reaching earth’s surface gets
absorbed by it and later radiated back.
 34% is absorbed by the atmosphere again (19% via latent
heat of condensation).
 17% is radiated directly to space.
 Atmosphere together radiates back 48% to space.

Latitudinal Heat Balance

 Latitudinal Heat Balance is the state of balance which exists

between the latitudinal belts by maintaining net incoming
solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
 The amount of insolation received by the earth surface
varies from latitude to latitude.
o At latitudes below 40º = Insolation ≥ Outgoing
Radiation (surplus of net radiation)
o At latitudes above 40º = Insolation ≤ Outgoing
Radiation(deficit of net radiation)
 Heat transfer takes from the heat surplus zone to the heat
deficit zone by ocean currents (20%) and atmosphere (80%).
 The temperature of the earth as a whole remains
constant due to this equilibrium.
  If there is no latitudinal heat balance, the deficit heat belt
will become extremely cold and the surplus heat belt will
become extremely hot to live in.

Temperature Distribution Factors

Factors controlling the distribution of Temperature (LACTO PAE)

(BHUMIKA BANDHO)

 Latitudes: Intensity of insolation decreases with the

increase in latitude. Maximum temperature is not at the
equator but at 20ºN.
o Major portion is reflected by the clouds and a sizable
amount is lost in evaporation.
o At 45º latitude, insolation is about 75% of that at the
equator.
o At 66.5º latitude, it is about 50% of that at the equator.
o At poles, it is about 40% of that at the equator.
 Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing height at
an average rate of 6.5ºC/km.
o The layers of air are denser at the earth’s surface and
become lighter with increasing altitude.
o The lower layers contain water vapor and dust
particles.
 Distance from the Coast: Temperature is moderated by
marine environments because of sea breeze and land
breeze.
 Terrestrial radiation: Major source of atmospheric heat is
the earth’s surface from where heat is transferred to the
atmosphere.
 Ocean Currents: Warm currents raise temperature
whereas cold current reduces. (We will read Ocean Currents
in detail in Oceanography Chapter)
 Prevailing Winds: Winds transfer heat from one latitude to
another as well as between land and water bodies.
o The oceanic winds bring a moderating effect from the
sea to coastal areas (cool summers and mild winters).
o This effect is pronounced only on the windward side.
The leeward side or the interior experiences extreme
temperature as it does not get a moderating effect of
the sea. (Grammer)
 Air mass: Places having warm air mass experiences higher
temperature than places that come under influence of cold
air mass. (We will read Air Mass in detail ahead)
  Effect of continentality: Daily Range of temperature is
less in marine climate, while extremely high in continental
climate.

Temperature Distribution: Isotherms and Anomalies

 The global distribution of temperature can well be

understood by studying the temperature distribution in
January and July.
 The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map
with the help of isotherms.
 Isotherms: Lines joining places having equal temperature at
a given time or on average over a given period.
o Effects of altitude are not considered while drawing an
isotherm.
 Temperature anomaly: The difference between mean
temperature of a place and the mean temperature of its
latitude is called temperature anomaly.
o Positive Anomaly = Local Temperature > Latitude
Temperature
o Negative Anomaly = Local Temperature < Latitude
Temperature

Above 40º N, continents have Negative Anomaly and oceans have

Positive Anomaly for the year as a whole and vice versa for ocean.

Isotherms and their general characteristics

 Generally, follow the latitude parallels (because all the

points located on the same latitude receive the same
amount of insolation).
 Sudden bends at ocean-continent boundaries even on the
same latitude (because of the differential heating of land
and water).
 High thermal gradient (rapid change in temperature)
indicated by narrow spacing between isotherms.
 Low thermal gradient (small or slow change in
temperatures) indicated by wide spacing between
isotherms.

Global Temperature Distribution Patterns

 Highest temperatures = Tropics and sub-tropics (high

insolation)
 Lowest temperatures = Polar and SubPolar Regions
  The interiors of continents have the highest diurnal and
annual temperature range because of the
continentality effect (No moderating effect of oceans).
 Temperature gradients are usually low over the eastern
margins(because of warm ocean currents) and high over the
western margins (because of cold ocean currents) of
continents.
o The isotherms show a poleward shift while passing
through an area with warm ocean currents.
 An enhanced land-sea contrast makes isotherms
irregular over the northern hemisphere.
o Northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern
o hemisphere due to the predominance of landmass.
 Temperature contrast between continents and oceans
are greater during winters than in summers.
 Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical Deserts
due to less cloudiness.

The cold currents and warm currents would be discussed in detail

in Oceanography.

Global Temperature Distribution Patterns in January

 Summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the

northern hemisphere.
 The thermal equator lies to the south of the geographical
equator (because ITCZ shifts southward with the apparent
southward movement of the sun) and the high temperature
belt runs somewhere along 30°S latitude.
 The western margins of continents are warmer than the
eastern margins due to the Westerlies that carry high
temperatures into the landmasses.
 The eastern margins of continents have a close temperature
gradient.
 The effect of the ocean makes isotherms almost parallel to
the latitudes in the southern hemisphere.
 Land Masses are cooler than the oceans in the northern
hemisphere.
o The isotherms bend towards the poles while crossing
oceans and to the equator while crossing landmasses.
 Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the southern
hemisphere.
 o Isotherms bend towards the equator while crossing
oceans and towards the poles while crossing
landmasses.

Global Temperature Distribution Patterns in July

 Summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the

southern hemisphere.
 The thermal equator lies to the north of the geographical
equator (due to the northward shift of ITCZ with the
apparent northward movement of the sun).
 The southern hemisphere has a regular gradient but shows a
slight bend towards the equator at the continent’s edge.
 The deviation of isotherms is not that much pronounced in
July as in January, especially in the northern hemisphere.
 Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the northern
hemisphere.
o Isotherms bend towards the equator while crossing
oceans and towards the poles while crossing
landmasses.
 Land Masses are cooler than the oceans in the southern
hemisphere.
o The isotherms bend towards the poles while crossing
oceans and to the equator while crossing landmasses.

AIR MOISTURE

Water in the Atmosphere

Hydrological Cycle: The Continuous Exchange of Water

 The water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the

continents continuously exchanges through the processes of
1. Evaporation (Moisture driven from atmosphere by
transforming liquid into gaseous state)
2. Transpiration (Moisture driven from plants)
3. Condensation (In the form of clouds)
4. Precipitation ((In the form of rain)
 The hydrological cycle maintains the balance between these
processes so that the total amount of moisture in the entire
system remains constant.
 Water vapor in air varies from zero to four percent by
volume of the atmosphere and plays an important role in
weather phenomena.
Humidity: Absolute, Specific, and Relative Humidity

Water vapor present in the air is known as humidity.

Absolute humidity

 It is the weight of water vapor per unit volume of moist air.

 It is an actual amount of water vapor present in the
atmosphere.
 It is expressed as grams of moisture per cubic meter of air
(g/m3).
 Change in temperature or pressure may impact volume
hence affects absolute humidity.

Specific Humidity

 It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air.

 Since it is the weight of the air now, it is not impacted by
change in temperature or pressure.

Relative humidity (RH)

 Proportion of actual water vapor present in the air to its

water vapor carrying capacity at a constant temperature.
 Saturated Air parcel = 100% RH (The air is at full moisture
carrying capacity and no further moisture addition is
possible)
 Relative humidity can be affected by two ways
o By adding moisture through evaporation (by increase in
absolute humidity)
 RH = Over Ocean (greater availability of water for
evaporation) > Over Continent
o By changing temperature of air (Change in saturation
point)
 Change in temperature can affect the moisture carrying
capacity of the atmosphere.
 Dew Point = Temperature at which the sample of air
becomes saturated and it cannot hold moisture any further.

Measurement

 Hygrometer is an instrument used to measure humidity.

 Psychrometer is a hygrometer with one dry bulb
thermometer and one wet bulb thermometer. The difference
between the two readings gives the humidity.
Temperature Lapse Rate

 It is the rate of change in temperature observed with rising

altitude.
 Positive = Temperature decreases with altitude (Normal
Lapse Rate)
 Zero = Temperature is constant with altitude
 Negative = Temperature increases with altitude (known as
temperature inversion)

Factors Contributing to Temperature Decrease with

Altitude

 The temperature falls with rising altitude is primarily due to

two reasons.
o Atmospheric pressure falls (Pressure is directly
proportional to Temperature and vice versa)
o Reduced greenhouse gases concentration (leading to
low heat absorption capacity of atmosphere).
 This fall in temperature with altitude is called Temperature
Lapse and the rate at which it falls is known as Temperature
Lapse Rate.

Behavior of Air Parcels in Fluids

 The object sinks or rises in a fluid based on its relative

density with fluid.
 Air parcel density is more than the surrounding environment
= It will fall
 Air parcel density is less than the surrounding environment
= It will rise

Behavior of Rising Air Parcels

 Air parcel heated more than surrounding (Heat exchange

hence non-adiabatic) = Temperature increase à Volume
increase (due to expansion, Charles’s law) à Density
decrease
o At constant Pressure, Change in Volume is directly
proportional to Temperature change (i.e. Increase in
Temperature àIncrease in Volume)
o Since only heat interaction takes place with no addition
of any mass in the air parcel, volume increases at
constant mass.
 o As density is given by mass divided by volume, volume
increment at constant mass causes decrease in
density.
 Rising air parcel à Less pressure above (Atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude) à Volume increases
(Removing pressure from object increases volume, Boyle’s
law) due to decreased pressure à Temperature falls (due to
internal changes rather than heat exchange hence
adiabatic)
 The increased volume causes further decrease in density.
The air parcel keeps rising. As there is no interaction of heat,
only expansion leads to temperature decrease. The rate at
which this temperature fall occurs is called Positive
Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

Behavior of Falling Air Parcels

1. Air parcel at upper level à Heat exchange between the air

parcel and the surrounding environment (hence non-
adiabatic process) à Temperature falls à Volume decreases
(Charles’s law) à Density increases
o This can also occur if an air parcel comes in contact
with cooler surfaces like mountain slopes.
2. Air parcels start falling when its density becomes greater
than surrounding.
3. With fall, internal temperature of a falling air parcel
increases adiabatically due to the increased atmospheric
pressure (Gay-Lussac’s law).
4. The rate at which this temperature rise occurs is
called Negative Adiabatic Lapse Rate.

Adiabatic Lapse rate

 Fall in temperature of a rising air parcel without losing any

internal heat.
 Air expands and cools adiabatically when it rises.
 Rate of cooling depends on the water vapor content of the
air. Hence, ALR is usually differentiated as dry or wet (moist)
air.
 Higher the water vapor = Lower the rate of cooling due to
release of latent heat of condensation.
 Dry adiabatic rate is about twice of the wet adiabatic rate.

Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)

  Saturated air parcel cool down slower than the unsaturated
one due to the release of latent heat of condensation.
 The WALR varies considerably due to the high variability of
water vapor amount in the air.
 High amount of vapor = Low ALR
o More release of internal heat in the form of latent heat
of condensation, hence less temperature reduction
(Phase change occurs at constant temperature).
 Average WALR for the Earth’s atmosphere = 4°C/km.
 WALR is mainly associated with unstable conditions (due to
the high moisture content).

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)

 Dry or unsaturated air parcel cool down early than the

saturated air as there is less release of latent heat of
condensation.
 Low amount of vapor = High ALR
o Less internal heat releases heat in the form of latent
heat of condensation, hence more temperature
reduction.
 Average DALR for the Earth’s atmosphere = 8°C/km
 DALR is mainly associated with stable conditions (because it
has less moisture).

Significance in Meteorology

 The difference between the Normal Adiabatic Lapse Rate

(NALR) in the atmosphere and the DALR & WALR determines
the vertical stability of the atmosphere.

Weather conditions at different Adiabatic Lapse Rates

(ALR)

 ALR = Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere = 6°C/km

o If ALR > 6°C/km = DALR
 Less moisture than normal = more stable than
normal
 If ALR < 6 °C/km = WALR
o More moisture than normal = less stable than normal
or instability

Atmospheric Stability

 Conditional stability: WALR < NALR < DALR

 Normal moisture conditions = It may or may not rain
o
 Absolute stability: NALR < WALR < DALR
o Little moisture in the air parcel = It won’t rain
 Absolute instability: WALR < DALR < NALR
o Excess moisture in the air parcel = It will rain violently

Types of Condensation and Their Outcomes

Place of Condensation Outcome

At height Cloud
At lower level Fog
On the cold surface Dew
On a surface having below freezing point temperature Frost

Cloud Formation and Characteristics

 A cloud is an aggregation of moisture droplets and ice

crystals that are suspended in air.
 They are great enough in volume and density to be visible to
the naked human eye.
 Each cloud particle’s diameter ranges from 20 to 50 mm. It
is formed around a solid matter called condensation nucleus.
 They vary from sea level to 13,700 meters.

Classification of Clouds Based on Altitude and Shape

3 shape division

 Flat or layered
//5466’/
 clouds are developed horizontally
 Puffy and globular
cumuliform
 developed vertically
 Wispy- hair
Cirriform
 smoke- composed of ice crystals

Altitudinal Divisions and Classification of Clouds

 LOW

 Large globular masses

 Bumpy looking
Stratocumulus
 Soft and grey in appearance
 Regular and sometimes wavy pattern

 Low clouds, dark gray with uniform base

 Continuous rain or snow
Nimbostratus
 Nimbus- any cloud from which rain is falling and
dark gray in color

 Convection cloud
 Vertical development but lesser than
Cumulus
cumulonimbus
 Appear like cotton balls

 Dark gray from beneath and white from side

Cumulonimbus  Associated with thunderstorms
 Torrential rain, hail or snow falls

 Uniform layer, resembling fog

Stratus  Dull gray and featureless
 Fractostratus when broken

MEDIUM- 2 TO 6 KM
  Small, relatively thin, globular patches
Altocumulus
 Sheep clouds or wool pack clouds

 Continuous sheet, difficult to see sun or moon

Alto-stratus
 Associated with cyclone

HIGH ALTITUDE- ABOVE 6 KM

 Fibrous or wispy, consisting of tiny particles of ice

Cirrus  Indication of approaching depression
 Do not give precipitation

 Whitish in color
 Solar or lunar halo
Cirrostratus
 Thickening cirrostratus indicates approach of
warm front

 Made of ice crystals

Cirro cumulus
 Mackerel sky- resembles fish

Dew

 It is the condensation of water vapor on a cold surface that

causes formation of water droplets.
 Condition => Clear Sky, calm air, high relative humidity
temperature is above freezing point, long and cold nights.
 Dew point should be above freezing point.
White frost

 When under dew forming conditions, the dew point of the air
is below or at 0º C, water vapor condenses as minute ice.
This is called white frost.

Fog

 Fog is ground level cloud reducing horizontal visibility to less

than 1km.
 It consists of very small water droplets in suspension in the
lower layer of the atmosphere.
 Depending on the temperature, the water may be frozen
which would result in freezing fog.
 Fog is a real danger for general aviation pilots.

Types of Fog and Their Formation Processes

Radiation fog

 When the ground cools rapidly due to radiation and the

adjacent air becomes too cool, its water vapor condenses.
o Such fog is not very thick.

Advection fog

 When moist warm air moves horizontally over a cold surface.

 Such fogs are thick and persistent.

Frontal fog

 Condensation and precipitation take place when warm air

mass is forced to rise over the cold air mass and cools down.
 If the cold air below is near the dew point, its temperature
falls further and excess moisture condenses as fog.
 It is formed at the convergence zone.

Upslope Fog

 This fog forms adiabatically.

 Moist winds up glides while blowing toward a mountain and
this causes the air to rise and cool.
 The cooling of the air from rising causes it to meet up with
the dew point temperature.
 Fog forms on top of the mountains.
Valley Fog

 Valley fog forms in the valley when the soil is moist from
previous rainfall.
 As the skies clear, solar energy exits earth and allows the
temperature to cool near to dew point.
 This forms a deep and dense fog.

Ocean current

 At the meeting point of cold current and warm current.

Mist

 Mist is a phenomenon consisting of a large amount of water

droplets/ice crystals present in a layer of the atmosphere.
o In mist, each nuclei contains a thicker layer of
moisture.
o Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
warm currents of air come in contact with cold
currents.
 Relative humidity is generally between 60% and 100%.
 It contains more moisture than fog.
 Mist does not represent a real danger for commercial
aviation pilots (visibility is between 1 km and 5 km).
 Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up
the slopes meets a cold surface.

Haze

 Contrary to fog and mist, haze is a horizontal visibility

reduction due to non-aqueous particles.
 Particles can be dust, sand grains, pollen grains, chemical
pollution, etc.
 These particles are invisible to the naked eye, but sufficient
to give the air an opalescent appearance.
 There is no condensation in the haze. Smog is similar to
haze but with condensation.

Extra Knowledge

Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants

Primary pollutants
  Primary pollutants are emitted directly from the source.
 They are found in the 9 atmospheres in the form they are
emitted.
 Ash, smoke, dust, oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen are
primary pollutants.

Secondary pollutants

 Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly from the

source but are formed due to chemical reactions.
 They are found as products of chemical reaction between
the atmospheric constituents and primary pollutants.
 SO3.03 ketones and hydrogen cyanide are secondary
pollutants.

Types and Effects of Smog: Sulfurous and Photochemical

Smog

Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the

mixture of smoke and fog in the air.

Types of Smog

 Sulfurous smog or “London smog”

o Sulfurous smog is the result of a high concentration of
sulfur oxides in the atmosphere.
o This is usually caused by the burning of fossil fuels like
coal.
o It is intensified by dampness and a high concentration
of suspended particulate matter in the air.
 Photochemical smog or “Los Angeles smog” or “Summer
smog”
o Photochemical smog is created when sunlight reacts
with nitrogen oxides (PP) and at least one volatile
organic compound (VOC, a PP) in the atmosphere.
o Nitrogen oxides are emitted in the atmosphere from
automobiles, power plants, factory emissions.
o Volatile organic compounds are released in the
atmosphere due to paints, gasoline and cleaning
solvents.
o Occurs most prominently in urban areas or the places
having large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen oxides
are the primary emissions).
o This kind of smog requires neither smoke nor fog.
 o This Ozone forms near the earth’s surface and causes
several ill effects in comparison of stratospheric Ozone

Effect on Visibility = Mist > Haze > Fog > Smog

Temperature Inversion

Temperature Inversion: Reversal of Tropospheric Temperature

Gradient

 It is a phenomenon in which the normal behavior of

temperature in the troposphere gets reversed. There is a
cooler air mass near the ground and warmer air at higher
altitudes. (Temperature usually decreases with altitude
under the normal conditions).
 This happens when earth’s surface is able to radiate solar
energy directly into space.
 Negative Lapse Rate = Increase in temperature with
increasing altitude.

Exploring the Varieties of Temperature Inversions in Atmospheric

Dynamics

Non-advectional Inversion

1. Ground or surface inversion or radiation inversion.

2. Upper air inversion.

Advectional Inversion

 Frontal inversion or cyclonic inversion.

 Valley inversion due to vertical air movement.
 Surface inversion due to horizontal air movement.

Mechanical Inversion

 Subsidence inversion.
 Turbulence and convective inversion.

Non-advectional Inversion

Ground Surface Temperature Inversion: Radiation Phenomenon

 Radiation inversion occurs near the earth’s surface due to

the radiation mechanism.
  It is non-advectional as there is no movement of air either
vertical or horizontal.
 It requires some necessary conditions like
o Long cold winter nights.
o Cloudless and clear sky.
o Presence of dry air near the surface.
o Slow movement of air to avoid mixing.
o Snow covered ground surface.
 Air coming in contact with the cool ground surface also
becomes cold while the air layer lying above is relatively
warm.

The heat of the day is radiated off during the night by the earth.
By early morning, the air near the surface becomes cool due to
conduction and settles. The air above it remains warm as
convection currents are not possible. Over polar areas,
temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.

Dew Formation Due to Temperature Inversion: Mechanism

and Effects

 Temperature inversion results in a cooler surface of earth

than the above air.
 Moisture laden air comes into contact with the cold surface
and releases heat.
 At a certain point, the release of heat becomes unable to
further reduce the temperature of air due to which phase
change occurs.
 The change of phase causes condensation that results in
dew formation leading to low visibility.

Types and Characteristics of Upper Air Inversion: Thermal

Upper Air Inversion

Upper air inversion is of two types

Thermal upper air inversion

 This warming of the stratosphere with altitude.

 It is caused due to the absorption of solar energy by ozone.
 The temperature of this layer becomes much higher than the
air layers lying above and below the ozone layer.
  Occurs only when there is no vertical movement of
air (either ascent or descent of air).
o This creates stability condition hence discouraging
rainfall.

Mechanical upper air inversion

 At higher heights in the atmosphere due to subsidence of

air.
 This inversion also relates to anti-cyclones.
 Inversion results when the upper layer of air moves down
during an initial anti-cyclone.

Advectional Inversion: Characteristics and Causes

 Also called as dynamic inversion because it is always caused

due to either horizontal or vertical movements of air.
 Strong wind movement and unstable conditions of the
atmosphere are prerequisite conditions for advectional
inversion of temperature.

Frontal Inversion: Formation and Characteristics

 It is caused in the temperate zones due to temperate

cyclones.
o Temperate Cyclones = Formed due to the convergence
of warm westerlies and cold polar winds in the northern
hemisphere.
 The warm air is pushed up by the cold polar air and thus the
warm air overlies the cold air because it is lighter than the
cold air.
 The existence of warm air above and cold air below reverses
the normal lapse rate and inversion of temperature occurs.
 It is important to note that air moisture increases upward in
frontal inversion of temperature while it decreases upward
in other types of temperature inversion.

Surface Temperature Inversion: Causes and Impacts

 It is caused by horizontal movement of air occurs in several

situations.
 Such inversion is caused when warm air invades the area of
cold air or cold air moves into the area of warm air.
o Warm air being lighter is pushed upward by relatively
denser cold air.
 o When the warm air moves, such inversion is caused
over the continents during winter and over the oceans
during summer.
o When the cold air becomes active and invades the
areas of warm air, such inversion occurs over the
continents during summer and over the oceans during
winter.
 Such surface inversion occurs generally in the low latitudes.
 The convergence of cold and warm ocean currents also
causes such inversion of temperature.

Valley Inversion and Its Impact on Local Climate

 Inversion takes place in hills and mountains due

to katabatically air drainage.
o A katabatic wind (or fall/downslope/gravity wind) is
the technical name for a drainage wind.
o Katabatic wind carries high-density air from a higher
elevation down a slope under the force of gravity.
 The temperature of the upper parts of the mountains
becomes cold because of rapid rate of loss of heat whereas
the valley temperature does not reduce because of slow loss
of heat.
 The warmer valley air ascends and the cooler air descends.
o This situation is responsible for severe frost in the
valley floors leading great damage to fruit orchards and
agricultural crops whereas the upper parts of the
valleys are free from frost.
o This is why the valley floors are avoided for human
settlements while the upper parts are inhabited in the
mountainous valleys of middle latitudes.

Theories of Precipitation

Precipitation Theories: Collision-Coalescence and Ice

Crystal Hypotheses

 Collision-Coalescence hypothesis of precipitation: This

explains precipitation in tropical areas where
the temperature in clouds is too high for the formation of
ice. So water droplets condense, positive charge attracts
negative charge, they come together, become big and fall.
  Ice crystal hypothesis / Bergeron-Findesein hypothesis:
Saturation vapor pressure is lower over ice than over water
surface. Initially a cloud may contain both ice and water.
Since vapor pressure is lower over ice, it attracts more water
vapor in the cloud. Thus the vapor present in the cloud
begins to decrease and the water droplets evaporate to
replenish the diminishing vapor. So ice crystals grow at the
expense of water droplets. As they descend, they may melt
and form as rain or snow.

Types of Precipitation: Rain, Drizzle, Virga, Sleet, and Hail

Rain

 This is the wet stuff that nourishes plants and for which
umbrellas were invented.
 It occurs when both the cloud temperature and ground
temperature are above freezing.
 It can take three forms.
1. Simple rain = When the drops are about 0.5 mm (0.02
in) in diameter.
2. Drizzle = When the drops are smaller than Simple Rain.
3. Virga = When the drops are so small they don’t reach
the ground (Evaporated).

Sleet

 They are refrozen ice.

Hail

 Precipitation in the form of hard round pellets.

 Strong ascending currents take water vapor to great heights
where it condenses and precipitates as snow.
 As it comes down, it melts but strong currents push them up
again increasing the size. Thus size keeps on increasing until
it becomes very hard and big.

Classification of Rainfall: Convectional, Orographic

(Relief), and Cyclonic (Frontal)

Rainfall has been classified into three main types based on their
origin
  Convectional Rainfall
 Orographic or Relief Rainfall
 Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

Convectional Rainfall

 Occurs mostly in tropics where it is hot.

 Air naturally rises up in convection current when it heats up.
o It cools and condenses due to the expansion while
moving higher altitude leading cumulus
clouds formation.
 Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes place which
does not last long.
o If the air is hot enough, it rises very quickly and can
cause thunderstorms.
 Such rain is usual in the summer or in the hotter session of
the day.
 This can happen over land or water as long as moisture is
present.
 When it happens over tropical oceans (where the air is
saturated with water), the combination of wind and moisture
can create a tropical cyclone or hurricane.

Orographic or Relief Rainfall

 Relief rainfall occurs very frequently near mountains beside

the sea.
 The moisture-laden air is forced to rise on encountering a
mountain range. As it rises upwards, it is cooled and cloud is
formed.
 The cloud becomes saturated with water vapor and it begins
to precipitate on the side of the mountain facing the sea
(known as windward side)
o The cloud precipitates the most on the windward
side of the mountain.
 The cloud becomes almost exhausted by the time they
reach another side (known as leeward side) so it rains very
little there.
o This makes leeward sides of a mountain very sheltered
from rain and they hardly ever get much rain.

Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

 Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air is forced to rise over

cold air.
  The moisture in the warm air condenses as it cools which
causes clouds and rain.

Atmospheric Circulation

Atmospheric Pressure and Its Characteristics

 The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from

the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is called the
atmospheric pressure.
 It is expressed in units of milibar (mb).
 Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has
higher pressure.
 Wind = It is horizontal movement of air which flows from
high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
 Air current = The vertical or nearly vertical movement of
air is called air current.

Air Pressure at ground surface

 The atmospheric pressure = 1013.25 mb = 76 cm of

Mercury (Hg) column.
 It normally falls at a rate of 34 mb per 300 meters of ascent.

Vertical Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere

 The pressure decreases rapidly with height in the lower

atmosphere.
o It does not always decrease at the same rate due to
the variations in the factors controlling air density
(temperature, amount of water vapor and gravity).
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that
of the horizontal pressure gradient.
 We do not experience these strong upward winds as they
are generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite
gravitational force.
 A rising pressure indicates stable weather whereas a falling
pressure indicates cloudy and unstable weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure and Isobars

 It is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels.

o Isobars are lines connecting places having equal
pressure after being reduced to sea level.
  Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars
with the lowest pressure in the centre.
 High pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars
with the highest pressure in the centre.

Pressure and wind

Important Laws of atmospheric circulation

 Buys Ballot Law: If you stand with your back to the wind in
the Northern Hemisphere, air pressure is lower on your left
than on your right.
 Winds are strong where isobars are crowded and weak
where they are spread.
 Pressure distribution affects wind speed in high and mid
latitudes. Between 10 N and 10 S, it is difficult to relate
winds to pressure distribution.
 Near Earth’s surface, wind direction is influenced by surface
features.
 Maximum speed of wind at noon and minimum just before
sunrise.
 Winds are named after the direction they come from.
 The wind circulation around a low pressure is called cyclonic
circulation. Around a high pressure it is called anticyclonic
circulation.
 Generally, over a low pressure area the air will converge and
rise. Over high pressure areas the air will subside from
above and diverge at the surface.

Forces Affecting Wind Velocity and Direction: Coriolis,

Frictional, and Pressure Gradient Forces

 Horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to

the combined effect of three forces in addition with
downward gravitational force
o Frictional Force
o Coriolis Force
o Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Coriolis Force

It is given by the formula 2vw sinX (v = Wind velocity; w = Earth’s

particular point angular speed, X = Angle of latitude)
  It is not a force, but an effect causes due to rotation of the
earth.
 It turns the object to right or clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left or anti-clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.
 It affects wind direction and not the speed.
 Higher the wind speed greater is the coriolis effect.
 Maximum at poles as poles rotate slow and becomes zero at
the equator.
 It always acts at right angle to the direction of the wind.

Frictional Force

 Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving

relative to another.
 The friction force drags the wind as it moves across
surfaces.
 As the surface friction decrease wind speed, it reduces the
effect of Coriolis force.

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

 The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is

the pressure gradient.
 Pressure Gradient is denoted by the spacing of isobars that
expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes
o Close spacing = Steep or strong pressure gradient
o Wide spacing = Weak gradient
 PGF is produced by the differences in atmospheric pressure.
 It operates from the high pressure area to a low pressure
area.
 The Pressure Gradient Force acts perpendicular to the
Coriolis force and to an isobar.
 The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the
velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in the
direction of wind.

Geostrophic Wind and Pressure Belts

 Geostrophic winds come about because pressure gradient

force and Coriolis force come into balance after the air
begins to move.
o Under the influence of both the Pressure Gradient
Force and Coriolis Force, air tends to move parallel to
isobars in conditions where friction is low (1000 meters
 above the surface of the Earth) and isobars are
straight.
 At the surface level wind blows at an angle, but above it
becomes parallel to isobars.

Pressure Belts

 There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous

horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’.
 On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure belts.
o equatorial low
o 2 sub-tropical highs
o 2 sub-polar lows
o 2 polar highs

Two Main Factors Controlling Pressure Systems: Thermal

and Dynamic Factors in Pressure Systems

Thermal Factors

 Heating and cooling of air causes expansion (density

decreases hence pressure reduces) and contraction (density
increases hence pressure increases) respectively.

Dynamic Factors

 Arising out of Pressure Gradient Forces and rotation of the

earth (Coriolis Force).

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: The Doldrums and ITCZ

 These winds are roughly in between 5° N and S.

 The belt is generally known as doldrums (zone of calm and
weak winds).
o Doldrums = Characterized by convergence, rising air,
and heavy rainfall
 This area is called the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) or the thermal equator or the “equatorial belt of
variable winds and calms”.
 The trade winds converge in the equatorial trough (or
tropical low).

The Dynamics of Weather in the Equatorial Low Pressure

Belt
  A very moist air heated by the sun tends to expand and rise
creating the area of low pressure.
 Due to the convergence of trade winds, only vertical current
creates and the moisture laden air rises upward. This forms
cumulonimbus clouds leading to thunderstorms.
 This region coincides with the world’s latitudinal belt of
heaviest precipitation and most persistent cloud cover.
 Old sailing ships often remained becalmed in the doldrums
for days at a time.

Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt: Exploring the Horse

Latitudes

 Areas of sinking and settling air from higher altitudes.

o Winds blow poleward to become the westerlies and
equator-ward as the trade winds.
 These areas located between latitudes 25° N and S.
 Often called the subtropical belts of variable winds, or the
“horse latitudes.”
o Name comes from the occasional need by the Spanish
sea captains to throw their horses overboard in order to
conserve drinking water and lighten the weight when
their ships were becalmed in these latitudes.
 The subtropical highs are areas like the doldrums in which
there are no strong prevailing winds.

Clear Skies and Arid Conditions: Sub-Tropical High

Pressure Belt Characteristics

 Weather conditions are typically clear, sunny, and

rainless, especially over the eastern portions of the
oceans where the high pressure cells are strongest.
 As the subsiding air is warm and dry, most of the deserts are
present along this belt.
 Tropical and extra-tropical disturbances are frequent in this
belt.

Formation of the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt: Coriolis

Effect and Air Descent

 The warm air rises from the low pressure equator and starts
cooling. It begins to move towards poles after reaching the
upper layers. It further cools down, becomes dense and by
25-35º latitude it begins to subside.
  Due to Coriolis Effect, the movement of air becomes
effectively west to east instead of going north in these
latitudes. This produces a blocking effect and the dense air
begins to subside
 Hence, sub-tropical high belt is dynamically produced
Pressure Belt due to
o Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the earth on its
axis).
o Descent of air (due to the convergence of Trade winds
and Westerlies).

Exploring the Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt: Dynamics and

Jet Stream Formation

 Located between 45° N&S latitudes and the Arctic and the
Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes)
 This is dynamically produced Pressure Beltdue to
o Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the earth on its
axis).
o Ascent of air (due to the convergence of Westerlies and
polar easterlies).
 Polar Jet Streams are formed due to the contrasting areas
between cold and warm air masses.

Emperate Cyclones: Weather Phenomena in the Sub-Polar

Low Pressure Belt

 Temperate cyclones are produced in this region due to a

great contrast between the temperatures of the winds from
sub-tropical and polar source regions.

Polar High Pressure Belt: Atmospheric Dynamics at the

Poles

 These are small areas that extend around the poles (lie
around poles between 80°-90° North and South latitudes).
 The saturated dry air from the sub-polar low pressure belts
becomes cold while moving towards poles through the upper
troposphere. This air subsides and diverge near the
pole creating a high pressure belt at the surface of earth.
 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.

Seasonal Shift of Pressure Belts: Hemisphere Variances

and Latitudinal Effects
  The shift is less in the Southern hemisphere due to abundant
water.
 The shift of the pressure belts is also higher in lower
latitudes than in higher ones.
 The ITCZ can shift about 20º N and only 10º S of the
equator.

Global Distribution of Sea Level Pressure: Influence of

Land-Ocean Contrasts on Seasonal Variations

 The continents and oceans distribution influence the

distribution of pressure.
 In winter, the continents are cooler than the oceans causing
development of high pressure (reverse with the oceans).
 In summer, continents are relatively warmer causing
development of low pressure (reverse with the oceans).

July: Seasonal Pressure Distribution and Equatorial Shifts

 The equatorial low pressure belt shifts towards the

north (Apparent northward movement of the sun). This shift
is maximum in Asia.
 The landmasses of the northern hemisphere become
excessively hot and low pressure areas develop over them.
 The sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern
hemisphere extends continuously. In contrast, it is broken
over the continents and remains confined to the North
Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans in the northern
hemisphere.
 Sub-polar low is deep and continuous in the southern
hemisphere, while there is only a faint oceanic low in the
northern hemisphere.

January: Seasonal Pressure Distribution and Equatorial

Shifts

 The equatorial low pressure belt shifts a little south of its

mean equatorial position (due to the apparent southward
movement of the sun).
 The lowest pressure pockets occur on the land masses of
Southern Hemisphere (because land masses become much
hotter than the adjoining oceans).
 Sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere
is broken over the continents and remains confined to the
oceans only.
Models of Atmospheric Circulation: Headley’s and Ferrel’s
Perspectives

Headley’s Model

 His model assumed only one cell in each hemisphere.

 Low pressure at equator and high pressure at pole with air
from pole flowing towards equator.
 It assumed a non-rotating earth and uniform earth surface.

Ferrel’s Model

 The cell between equator low pressure belt and sub-tropical

highs.
 The one between sub-tropical high and sub-polar low is
called Ferrel cell and the one between sub-polar low and
poles is called polar cell.
 It assumes a rotating earth, uniform surface (i.e. either land
or water throughout) and sun being stationary overhead at
equator.

Pressure Cells

The Hadley Cell: Dynamics of Equatorial Circulation

Occurs between ITCZ and 30° N&S

 Ground is intensely heated by the sun. This leads to the rise

of air which creates a low-pressure zone on the Earth’s
surface.
 The air separates and starts moving towards poles in both
north and south hemispheres.
 The air cools and sinks towards the ground after reaching
about 30° north and south forming the subtropical high-
pressure zone.
 The sinking air becomes warmer and drier. This creates a
region of little cloud and low rainfall (where deserts are
found).
 The air completes the cycle by flowing back to the equator
as the trade winds.

The Ferrel Cell: Mid-Latitude Atmospheric Dynamics

Occurs between 30° to 60° N and S

  Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles forming
o warm south-westerly winds in the northern hemisphere
o north-westerly winds in the southern hemisphere
 These winds gain moisture while travelling through the
oceans.
 They meet cold air (drifting from the poles) at around 60°
N& S.
 Due to the relative light weight of warm air mass from the
tropics in comparison to cold air mass, it rises as the two air
masses meet. This air upliftment causes low pressure at the
surface.
o The unstable weather conditions are associated with
this mid-latitude depression.

The Polar Cell: Polar Atmospheric Circulation

Occurs between 60° N and S to the pole.

 At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the ground

forming high pressure known as the Polar high. It then flows
towards the lower latitudes.
 At about 60° degrees N&S, the cold polar air mixes with
warmer tropical air and rises upwards, creating a zone of low
pressure called the sub-polar low.
 The boundary between the warm and cold air is called
the polar front.
o It accounts for a great deal of the unstable weather
experienced in these latitudes.

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Walker

Circulation: Normal Year Conditions

Normal year condition and the Horizontal Pressure Belt

(Walker Cell)

 The easterly trade winds move water and warmed air

towards the west.
 The western side of the equatorial Pacific is characterized
by low pressure weather with warm and wet air.
o The Walker circulation leads to movement of warm and
wet air from western side of the equatorial Pacific to
the Eastern side of the Equatorial Pacific.
 The oceanic cycle develops below the water surface.
 o Warm water starts moving from Western side of the
Equatorial Pacific to the Eastern side of the Equatorial
Pacific.
 Cold water upwelling brings nutrients to the surface at Peru
which helps in Plankton development and pisciculture.
 This is how water and air are returned to the east. Both are
now much cooler, and the air is much drier.

El Niño Phenomenon: Oceanic and Atmospheric Anomalies

 El Nino means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish.

 El Nino is an Oceanic and Atmospheric phenomenon that
leads to reversal of normal year conditions by unusual
warming of water in the Peru coast.
 Prevailing conditions
o Warm water as well as low pressure condition develops
in the Eastern Pacific (Peru)
o Cold conditions as well as high pressure in Western
Pacific (Australia).
 Due to the inverse relationship (increase of one causes
decrease in another) between Pressure and amount of
rainfall, El Nino creates drought situations in Australia and
South East Asia.

La Niña Phenomenon: Intensification of Normal Climate

Conditions

 La Nina means The Little Girl in Spanish.

 It is a climate pattern that intensifies the normal year
conditions.
 It creates a cooling effect on surface ocean waters along the
tropical west coast of South America.
 Effect of La Nina year on winter temperatures
o Warmer than normal in the Southeast
o Cooler than normal in the Northwest

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): Understanding the

Dynamics of Climate Variability

 The El-Nino event is closely associated with the pressure

variations in the Eastern and Western Pacific. This change in
pressure condition over the Pacific is known as the southern
oscillation.
 The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El
Nino is known as ENSO.
 o Only El-Nino = Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Cold
water in Western Pacific
o Only SO = Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific + High
Pressure over Western Pacific
o ENSO = Warm water and Low Pressure near Eastern
Pacific + Cold water and High Pressure near Western
Pacific
 El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is known as
the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
o La-Nina is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of
ENSO and El-Nino as the warm phase of ENSO.
o The ENSO cycle is a scientific term that describes the
fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.
 This deviation from normal surface temperatures causes
large-scale impacts not only on ocean processes, but also on
global weather and climate.
 While their frequency can be quite irregular, El-Nino and La-
Nina events occur on average every two to seven years.
Typically, El-Nino occurs more frequently than La-Nina.

Wind Types

Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds or Permanent Winds or

Planetary Winds

 Prevailing as they prevail throughout the year.

 Planetary because they are almost global in nature.

Trade Winds: Steady Winds of the Subtropical Highs

 Occur is in the vicinity of the subtropical highs.

 Can be identified between latitudes 5° and 25° North and
South latitudes.
 On Earth’s surface, it blows out of the subtropical highs
toward the equatorial trough in both the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres
 Because of the Coriolis effect, the
o Northern trades move in a clockwise direction out of
the northeast.
o Southern trades move in a counterclockwise direction
out of the southeast.
 Also known as the tropical easterlies (Because the trades
tend to blow out of the east)
  It tends to be constant, steady winds, consistent in their
direction. This is most true when they cross the eastern
sides of the oceans (near the eastern portion of the
subtropical high).
 The area of the trades varies during the solar year. It moves
north and south a few degrees of latitude with the sun.
 The weather of the trades is clear and dry near their source
in the subtropical highs, but the trades have a high potential
for stormy weather after crossing large expanses of ocean.
 Early Spanish sea captains depended on the northeast trade
winds to drive their galleons to destinations in Central and
South America in search of gold, spices, and new lands.
 Going eastward toward home, navigators usually tried to
plot a course using the westerlies to the north.

Westerlies: Prevailing Winds of the Mid-Latitudes

 Occur between about 35° and 65° North and South latitudes.
 Winds flow poleward out of the subtropical high pressure
cells deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
o Northern Hemisphere = Blow from the southwest
o Southern Hemisphere = Blow out of the northwest
 Tend to be less consistent in direction than the trades.
 Usually stronger winds may be associated with stormy
weather.
 Westerlies of the Southern hemisphere are stronger (known
as Roaring forties, Furious fifties, and Screaming sixties)
and more consistent in direction due to predominance of
water.
 The westerlies attain their greatest consistency and strength
in the Southern Hemisphere due to the less land than in the
Northern Hemisphere.

Polar Easterlies: Cold Winds from the Poles

 Dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure

areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles
towards low-pressure areas.
 Cold air subsides at the poles creating the high pressure,
forcing an equator-ward outflow of air that deflects
westward by the Coriolis Effect.
 There are extremely cold winds as they blow from the
Tundra and Icecap regions.
  More regular in the southern hemisphere than in the
northern hemisphere.
 Unlike the westerlies in the middle latitudes, the polar
easterlies are often weak and irregular.

Local Winds

 Differences in the heating and cooling of earth

surfaces creates local differences of temperature and
pressure. This develops daily or annual cycles that can
create several common, local or regional winds.
Name Nature of wind Place
Chinook (Snow eaters) Hot, dry wind The Rockies mountains
Foehn Hot, dry wind The Alps
Khamsin Hot, dry wind Egypt
Siroco Hot, moist wind Sahara to the Mediterranean Sea
Solano Hot, moist wind Sahara to the Iberian Peninsula
Harmattan (Guinea
Hot, dry wind West Africa
Doctor)
Bora Cold, dry wind Blows from Hungary to North Italy
Mistral Cold wind The Alps and France
Punas Cold dry wind Western side of Andes Mountain
Blizzard Cold wind Tundra region
Purga Cold wind Russia
Levanter Cold wind Spain
Norwester Hot wind New Zealand
Santa Ana Hot wind South California
Karaburun (black
Hot dusty wind Central Asia
storm)
Saharan Air Layer across the Canary
Calima Dust-laden dry wind
Islands
Moist wind in
Elephanta Malabar coast
monsoon

Periodic Winds: Sea and Land Breezes

Sea and Land Breeze

Due to differential heating of land surface and sea water.

Sea Breeze
  Day time = Land gets heated à Warm air rises up à Low
pressure develops
 Sea being less warm à High pressure develops at sea
à Winds blow from sea to land causing sea breeze

Land Breeze

 Night time = Land cools faster than sea à High pressure over
land (Low pressure over ocean)
 Winds blow from land towards sea.

Diurnal Mountain Wind Systems: Katabatic and Anabatic

Winds

Katabatic Wind (Mountain Breeze)

 During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air
descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
 This cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into
the valley is called Katabatic wind.

Anabatic Wind (Valley Breeze)

 In mountainous regions, the slopes get heated up during the

day and air moves upslope.
 The air from the valley blows up the valley to fill the
resulting gap.
 This air flow travelling up on an orographic surface is known
as anabatic wind.

Seasonal Wind Patterns: Monsoons in South and

Southeast Asia

 The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different

seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating,
pressure and wind belts.
 The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the
monsoons, especially over Southeast Asia.

Monsoon

 A seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South and South-

East Asia.
  It arises due to a difference in temperatures between a land
mass and the adjacent ocean.
 It blows from the south-west between May and
September and brings rain (the wet monsoon), or from the
north-east between October and April (the dry monsoon).
 The rainy season in SE Asia accompanied the wet monsoon.
 The winds reverse again at the end of the monsoon season.

Air Masses: Homogeneous Atmospheric Entities

Air mass

 It is a large mass of air that has similar characteristics of

temperature and humidity within it along with little
horizontal variations.
 It forms an integral part of the global planetary wind system.

Source Regions: Origins of Air Mass Characteristics

 The area (land or water) above which air mass lies and
acquires its characteristics.
 Air mass picks up the distinct temperature and humidity
characteristics of the region over which it sits for several
days.
 Ideal Source Regions = High pressure areas with little
pressure difference (pressure gradient)
o subtropics (the source for tropical air masses)
o poles (the source for polar air masses)
 Mid-latitudes have no major source regions due to the
dominance of cyclonic and other disturbances.

Geographical Classification of Air Masses: Characteristics

and Origins

 They are classified based on the source region and air mass
modification.
 Types of air masses are recognized:
o Maritime tropical (mT) = Warm tropical and subtropical
oceans
 Warm, humid and unstable
 Weather
 Winter = Mild temperatures, overcast skies
with fog
 Summer = High temperatures and humidity,
cumulous clouds, and convectional rainfall.
  Continental tropical (cT) = The subtropical hot deserts
o Dry, hot and stable
o Do not extend beyond the source
o Dry throughout the year
 Maritime polar (mP) = The relatively cold high latitude
oceans
o Cool, moist and unstable
o These are the regions which cannot lie stagnant for
long.
o Weather
 Winters = High humidity, overcast skies, and
occasional fog and precipitation.
 Summer = Clear and stable
 Continental polar (cP) = The very cold snow covered
continents in high latitudes
o Dry, cold and stable conditions
o Weather
o Winter = Frigid, clear, and stable
o Summer = less stable
 Continental arctic (cA) = Permanently ice covered continents
in the Arctic and Antarctica
 Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.

Thermodynamic Modification of Air Masses: Influence of

Surface Heating and Cooling

 When the air mass is heated or cooled from the surface

below, it is a thermodynamic change.
o A warm air moves over a cold surface leads to
temperature inversion. It inhibits further vertical
cooling.
o A cold air mass moving over a warm
surface creates convection currents. This leads to
formation of vertical clouds (cumulus) and air
turbulence.
o Addition or loss of latent heat also is an example of
thermodynamic modification.

Dynamic Modification of Air Masses: Influences Beyond

Surface Heating or Cooling

 These modifications are independent of surface heating or

cooling.
  Examples are subsidence caused by anti-cyclones or
cyclones.
 Surface friction adds to the turbulence of air flow aiding the
upward transfer of the effect of thermodynamic
modifications.

Fronts and Frontogenesis: Dynamics of Air Mass

Boundaries

 Front is that slopping boundary which separates two

opposing air masses having contrasting characteristics.
 The frontal activities are invariably associated with
cloudiness and precipitation due to the ascent of warm air
which cools down adiabatically, condenses and causes
rainfall.
 Frontal zone is neither parallel nor vertical to the ground
surface, rather it is inclined at a low angle.
 The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope of ascent
and amount of water vapor present in ascending air.
 Frontogenesis: The process associated with creation of new
fronts or the regeneration of decaying fronts already in
existence.
o Requires certain necessary conditions:
1. Temperature Difference
2. Opposite directions of Air Masses
o Frontolysis: The process of destruction or dying of
existing fronts.

Cold Fronts: Dynamics and Weather Characteristics

 When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its
contact zone is called the cold front.
 As the cold front nears your region, the barometer falls.
 The cold air behind the front wedges under the warm air and
lifts it sharply off the ground.
 Large cumulonimbus clouds appear (often bring
thunderstorms and rain showers).
 As the cold front passes, the wind changes direction.
 The weather becomes clear and colder and the barometer
rises again.
 Cold front moves up at about double the speed than warm
fronts.

Warm Fronts: Characteristics and Weather Effects

  If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the
contact zone is a warm front.
 The warm air behind the front rises up over the cold air.
 The barometer falls leading to a long, steady rain.
 The front passes gradually and the sky clears.
 As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and
causes precipitation.
 Unlike a cold front, the changes in temperature and wind
direction are gradual.
 Such fronts bring moderate to gentle precipitation over a
large area for several hours.
 Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo
around the sun and moon.

Occluded Fronts: Weather Phenomena and Formation

 It results when a cold air front overtakes a warm front

and lifts the warm air mass completely off the ground.
 Steady rain falls at an occluded front.
 The occluded front causes complex weather – a mix of cold
and warm front type weather. These fronts are common in
west Europe.
 A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm front.
 The formation of Mid-latitude cyclones involve the formation
of an occluded front.

Stationary Fronts: Characteristics and Behavior

 A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front

stops moving.
 The surface position of a front does not change.
 This happens when two masses of air are pushing against
each other but neither is powerful enough to move the
other.
 Winds blowing parallel to the front instead of perpendicular
can help it stay in place.

Jet Stream: High-Speed Upper Atmospheric Wind Patterns

 The Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind which meanders with

high velocity in the upper layers of the troposphere and
encircles the globe.
o The meandering or the whirl movement of the Jet
Stream is called ‘Rossby Wave’. (We will read about
Rossby wave ahead)
  Reason that causes high velocity
o Low friction at upper troposphere due to less air
density.
o Higher air temperature difference enhances speed (The
Jet stream has high velocity in winter in comparison to
summer).
 These slim strips of strong winds are like rivers of wind high
above in the atmosphere.
 Generally, blow from west to east near the tropopause
at very high speeds (120 kmph in winters and 50 kmph in
summers). That is why it is also referred to as westerlies
or upper level westerlies.
 Polar jet streams flows 6-9 km above the ground.
o It flows from the temperate region towards the polar
region and gets deflected right in the northern
hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere due to
the Coriolis Effect.
 Sub-tropical jet streams flows 10-16 km above the ground.
o It flows from sub-tropical region towards temperate
regions and gets deflected right in the northern
hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere due to
the Coriolis Effect.

Sub-Tropical Jet Stream: Dynamics and Characteristics

 They prevail over the lower latitudes of westerlies.

 It is produced by the rotation of earth and its spherical
shape (dynamically induced).
 The air over the equator has the highest velocity.
 As it rises and moves towards north, it has a higher velocity
than the air at lower altitude prevailing at the same latitude.
So it begins to flow from west to east around 30º latitude.
 It flows all-round the year.
 They flow to conserve angular momentum in the upper
atmosphere.
 The sub-tropical westerly jet does not seem to affect surface
weather as much as the polar fronts jets do.

Mid-Latitude or Polar Front Jet Stream: Dynamics and

Seasonal Variations

 It is more variable and is produced by a temperature

difference (thermally induced).
  Its position shifts towards poles in summers and towards
equator in winters.

Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ): Seasonal East-to-West High-

Altitude Winds

 They are seasonal jet streams flowing east to west.

 These are found only in the northern hemisphere and
generate only in the summer season.
 These are also thermally induced.
 The reason for the establishment and maintenance of the
TEJ is still not clear.
o It is believed that these jets may be developing due to
uniquely high temperatures and heights over the
Tibetan Plateau during summer.
 The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the strong
southwest monsoon.

Weather system of mid-latitudes and high latitudes

 The weather of mid and high latitude regions is more

complex than the equatorial or tropical regions.
 The heat surplus areas of equatorial or tropical
regions create thermally induced weather systems.
 The higher latitudes weather systems are dynamically
induced. They consist of localised and upper troposphere
circulations known as Jet Streams.
o Jet Streams have a huge influence on climate as it can
push air masses around and affect weather patterns.
 These differences of thermally and dynamically induced
weather system create convectional and frontal rainfall
system

Extra-Tropical / Middle-Latitude / Temperate Cyclones

 The system develops in the mid and high latitude (beyond

the tropics).
 The passage of the front causes abrupt changes in the
weather conditions over the area in the middle and high
latitudes.

Formation and Dissipation of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

 Front is stationary initially.

 o Warm air blows through the northern hemisphere from
the south.
o Cold air blows from the north of the front
 Pressure drops along the front lead movement of the warm
air northwards and the cold air southward.
o Results in counter-clockwise cyclonic circulation.
 The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed extra
tropical cyclone (consisting of a warm front and a cold front).
 There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged
between the forward and the rear cold air or cold sector.
o The warm air glides over the cold air. A sequence of
clouds appears over the sky ahead of the warm front
and causes precipitation.
o The cold front approaches the warm air from behind
and pushes the warm air up. As a result, cumulus
clouds develop along the cold front.
 The cold front moves faster than the warm front,
ultimately overtaking the warm front.
 The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is
occluded. Ultimately the cyclone dissipates.

Path of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

Distribution of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

Tropical Cyclones: Formation, Characteristics, and Impact

 Violent storms that originate and intensify over warm

tropical oceans.
 It moves towards the coastal areas and causes large-scale
destruction due to violent winds, very heavy rainfall and
storm surges.
 This is one of the most devastating natural calamities.
 Favorable conditions for the formation and intensification
tropical cyclone are:
o Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
o Presence of the Coriolis force.
o Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
o A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area or low-level-
cyclonic circulation.
o Upper divergence above the sea level system.
 The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is
called the landfall of the cyclone.
  Cyclones that cross 20° N latitude generally recurve and
they are more destructive.
 A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong
spirally circulating wind around the centre. This centre is
called the eye.
 The diameter of the circulating system can vary between
150 and 250 km.

Cyclone Formation: Dynamics of Low Pressure Systems

 Warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward leaving less air
near the surface. This causes a low air pressure area below.
 Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes
into the low pressure areaand undergoes deflection due to
Coriolis force creating a cyclonic vortex (spiraling air
column).
 The new “cool” air becomes warm and moist and rises too
and the cycle continues.
 The condensation of the rising, warmed, moist air leads to
the formation of clouds.
 Heat is emitted during this process and a reaction between
the moisture from the evaporation of water takes place that
produces Thunderstorms.
 The whole system of clouds as well as wind spins and grows,
fed by the ocean’s heat and water evaporating from the
ocean surface.

Eye and Eye-wall in Cyclones: Calm Center and Violent

Surroundings

 The air in the vortex is forced to form a region of calmness

called an eyeat the center of the cyclone due to the
centripetal acceleration.
 Higher pressure air from above flows down into the eye.
 The inner surface of the vortex forms the eye wall. It is the
most violent region of the cyclone.

Regional names of Tropical Cyclone

Path of Tropical Cyclones: Factors Influencing Trajectory

and Movement

 Start with a westward movement because of

o Earth rotation from west to east
 o Zone of cyclone formation is under the influence of
easterlies
 Turn northwards around 20° latitude and further north-
eastwards around 25° latitude (Deflection towards right due
to the Coriolis force).
 Eastwards turn around 30° latitude because of westerly
winds.
 Loss of energy and subsidence because of
o Ocean water at 30° latitude is not warm enough to
sustain a cyclone.
o Increasing wind shear due to westerlies doesn’t
facilitate the formation of cyclonic vortexes.

Differences between Tropical and Extra-Tropical Cyclone

Dimension Tropical Extra-Tropical

Dynamic (Air
masses
Origin Thermal
movement and
Coriolis Force)
Confined to 10°- Confined to
Latitude 30° N&S of 35°-65° N&S of
Equator Equator
Only on seas
having
temperature
more than 26°-
27° C (On Land as well as
Formation
reaching the land seas
the moisture
supply is cut off
and the storm
dissipates)
Irregular (Few
Late summers
Season in summers and
(August-October)
more in winters)
Shape Elliptical Inverted ‘V’
Slow and
Heavy but does continues for
Rainfall not last beyond a many days,
few hours sometimes
even weeks
Limited to small Cover a large
Size
area area
Path East à West West à East
Wind velocity and destruction Much greater Comparatively
low (Flood
 causes more
destruction
than winds)
The temperature All the sectors
at the centre is of the cyclone
Temperature distribution
almost equally have different
distributed temperatures
No single place
The centre (Eye)
where winds
Calm region that have no
and rain is
rainfall
inactive
Latent heat of Densities of air
Driving force
condensation masses
Bring rain to
Both coasts
North-West
are
India
Influence affected
(Associated
on India but eastern
instability is
is more
called ‘Western
vulnerable
Disturbance’)

Thunderstorms: Dynamics and Characteristics

 It is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud which produces

thunder and lightning.
 It is caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
 Since thunder comes from lightning, all thunderstorms have
lightning.
 When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero
temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down
as hailstorms.
 If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can
generate dust storms.

Essential Ingredients for Thunderstorm Formation

 Moisture
 Rising unstable air (air that keeps rising when given a
nudge)
 Lifting mechanism to provide the “nudge”

Formation of Thunderstorms: Atmospheric Processes and

Dynamics
  The sun heats the surface of the earth, which warms the air
above it.
 This warm surface air is forced to rise—
o Hills or mountains (Orographic thunderstorm)
o Areas where warm/cold or wet/dry air bump together
can cause rising motion (Frontal thunderstorm)
 It will continue to rise as long as it weighs less and stays
warmer than the air around it.
 The rising air transfers heat from the surface of the earth to
the upper levels of the atmosphere (the process of
convection).
 The water vapor it contains begins to cool, releases the heat,
condenses and forms a cloud.
 The cloud eventually grows upward into areas where the
temperature is below freezing.
 As a storm rises into freezing air, different types of ice
particles can be created from freezing liquid drops.
 The ice particles can grow by condensing vapor (like frost)
and by collecting smaller liquid drops that haven’t frozen yet
(a state called “supercooled”).
 When two ice particles collide, they usually bounce off each
other. During this the particle can rip off a little bit of ice
from each other and grab some electric charge.
 Lots of these collisions build up big regions of electric
charges to cause a bolt of lightning, which creates the sound
waves we hear as thunder.

Thunderstorm Life Cycle Stages: Developing, Mature,

Dissipating

Developing stage

 Marked by a cumulus cloud that is being pushed upward by

a rising column of air (updraft).
 The cumulus cloud soon looks like a tower (called towering
cumulus) as the updraft continues to develop.
 There is little to no rain during this stage but occasional
lightning.

Mature stage

 The updraft continues to feed the storm, but precipitation

begins to fall out of the storm, creating a downdraft (a
column of air pushing downward).
  The downdraft and rain-cooled air spreads out along the
ground and forms a gust front, or a line of gusty winds.
 The mature stage is the most likely time for hail, heavy rain,
frequent lightning, strong winds, and tornadoes.

Dissipating stage

 Eventually, a large amount of precipitation is produced and

the updraft is overcome by the downdraft beginning the
dissipating stage.
 At the ground, the gust front moves out a long distance from
the storm and cuts off the warm moist air that was feeding
the thunderstorm.
 Rainfall decreases in intensity, but lightning remains a
danger.

Types of Thunderstorms: Single Cell Storms, Multicell

Cluster Storms, Multicell Line Storms, Supercells

Single Cell Storms

 Typically last 20-30 minutes.

 Pulse storms can produce severe weather elements such as
downbursts, hail, some heavy rainfall and occasionally weak
tornadoes.

Multicell Cluster Storms

 A group of cells moving as a single unit, with each cell in a

different stage of the thunderstorm life cycle.
 Multicell storms can produce moderate size hail, flash floods
and weak tornadoes.

Multicell Line Storms

 Multicell line storms consist of a line of storms with a

continuous, well developed gust front at the leading edge of
the line.
 Also known as squall lines.
 These storms can produce small to moderate size hail,
occasional flash floods and weak tornadoes.

Supercells

 Defined as a thunderstorm with a rotating updraft.

  These storms can produce strong downbursts, large hail,
occasional flash floods and weak to violent tornadoes.

Tornadoes: Characteristics and Occurrence

 Much about tornadoes remains a mystery. They are rare,

unpredictable and deadly.
 Tornado is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that
extends from a thunderstorm to the ground.
 Because wind is invisible, it is hard to see a tornado unless it
forms a condensation funnel made up of water droplets, dust
and debris.
 Tornadoes can be among the most violent phenomena of all
atmospheric storms we experience.
 The U.S. typically has more tornadoes than anywhere else in
the world, though they can occur almost anywhere.
 Most tornadoes come from rotating thunderstorms,
called supercells.
 Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
 The tornado over the sea is called Water Sprouts.

Gyanbazi

Rossby Waves: Oceanic and Atmospheric Impacts

 Rossby waves are naturally occurring planetary waves in

rotating fluids.
 They are of two types – Oceanic and Atmospheric Rossby
waves
 These waves affect the planet’s weather and climate.

Atmospheric Rossby Waves: Role in Weather Patterns

 It forms primarily as a result of the Earth’s geography.

 Rossby waves help transfer heat from the tropics toward the
poles and cold air toward the tropics in an attempt to return
atmosphere to balance.
 They also help locate the jet stream and mark out the track
of surface low pressure systems.
 The slow motion of these waves often results in fairly long,
persistent weather patterns.

Polar Vortex: Definition and Characteristics

  The term “vortex” refers to the counter-clockwise flow of air
that helps keep the colder air near the Poles.
 The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold
air surrounding both of the Earth’s poles.
 It develops in the upper troposphere or stratosphere.
 It always exists near the poles, but weakens in summer and
strengthens in winter.

Disruption of Polar Vortex: Causes and Effects

 Rossby Waves can disrupt the circulation around the polar

vortex.
 It originated during winters due to the sharp temperature
differential created between poles and equator.
 Many times during winter in the northern hemisphere, the
polar vortex will expand, sending cold air southward with the
jet stream.
 This occurs fairly regularly during wintertime and is often
associated with large outbreaks of Arctic air in the United
States.

Ozone Hole: Causes and Characteristics

 It is an area of depleted layers of ozone above the Antarctic

region.
 Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer.
 Atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical processes in
each spring over Antarctica.
 This creates the ozone hole, which occurs because of special
meteorological and chemical conditions that exist in that
region.

Causes of Ozone Depletion: CFCs and Other Factors

 Depletion of ozone is due to many factors. The most

dominant of which is the release of chlorine from CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbons) which destroys the ozone.
 CFCs are released by products such as hairsprays, old
refrigerators etc.

Vienna Convention: Multilateral Environmental Agreement

for Protecting the Ozone Layer

 A Multilateral Environmental Agreement.

  It was agreed upon at the 1985 Vienna Conference and
entered into force in 1988.
 It is one of the most successful treaties of all time.
 It has been ratified by 197 states.
 It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect
the ozone layer.
 These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.
 It is not legally binding.

Montreal Protocol: International treaty under the Vienna

Convention aimed at phasing out ozone-depleting
substances

 It is a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of

Ozone Layer.
 It was the first treaty in history to achieve universal
ratification (i.e. ratified by every member state of the United
Nations).
 It is an international treaty and aims to protect the ozone
layer by phasing out ozone depleting gases.

Kigali Agreement

 The Kigali Agreement amends 1987 Montreal Protocol to

phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a family of potent
greenhouse gases by the late 2040s.
o Montreal Protocol conceived only to phasing out
gases that were destroying the ozone
o This move will help to prevent a potential 0.5 degree
Celsius rise in global temperature by the end of the
century.

Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) Characteristics and Role

in Ozone Depletion

 Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that form in the polar

regions during the winter.
 Type-I PSCs
o Form when the stratospheric temperature drops below
-78°C.
o They are primarily composed of nitric acid, water, and
sulfuric acid.
 Type-II PSCs
o Form when the stratospheric temperature drops below
-83°C.
 o They are composed of crystals of water ice.
 They are referred to as nacre clouds or mother-of-pearl
clouds due to their iridescence.
o Only Type-II clouds are necessarily nacreous whereas
Type-I clouds can be iridescent under certain
conditions, just as any other cloud.
 PSCs play a critical role in facilitating ozone depletion during
the polar spring and summer.
o Type I clouds are now known as sites of harmful
destruction of stratospheric ozone over the Antarctic
and Arctic.
o Their surfaces act as catalysts that convert human-
made chlorine into active free radicals (for example
ClO, chlorine monoxide).
o These radicals destroy many ozone molecules in a
series of chain reactions during the return of spring
sunlight.
o Cloud formation is doubly harmful because it also
removes gaseous nitric acid from the stratosphere that
can combine with ClO to form less reactive forms of
chlorine.

Aurora: Natural Light Display in the Sky and Its

Characteristics

 An Aurora is a display of light in the sky which is

predominantly seen in the higher latitude of northern and
southern regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Due to this, it is also
known as a Polar Light.
 It is less frequent at mid-latitudes and seldom seen near the
equator.
 2 Types
o Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights)
o Aurora Australis (Southern Lights)
 It is usually milky greenish in color but can also be seen in
red, blue, violet, pink, and white colors.
 Auroras affect communication lines, radio lines and power
lines.

Cause of Aurora Occurrence: Interaction between Solar

Wind and Earth’s Magnetic Field
 These light shows are the result of interaction between sun
energy (in the form of solar wind) and electrically charged
particles trapped in Earth’s magnetic field.
 It is an outcome of collisions between the oxygen and
nitrogen in Earth’s upper atmosphere with the fast-moving
electrons from space.
o The electrons coming from the Earth’s
magnetosphere (a region of space controlled by Earth’s
magnetic field) enhances the energy of oxygen and
nitrogen atoms and makes them “excited”.
 During returning to their normal state, these gases emit
photons and small bursts of energy in the form of light.
 The color of the aurora depends on
o Which gas – oxygen or nitrogen – is being excited by
the electrons, and on how excited it becomes and by
what extent.
o How fast the electrons are moving, or how much
energy they possess at the time of their collisions.
Chapter 7
TYPES OF CLIMATE:
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EQUATORIAL, TROPICAL
MONSOON REGIONS
23 min read

Types of Climate: Characteristics of

Equatorial, Tropical Monsoon
Regions

Topics to be covered
1. Equatorial Climate
2. Tropical Monsoon Climate
3. Tropical Marine Climate
4. Desert Climate
5. Tropical Savanna / Sudan Climate
6. Warm Temperate / Mediterranean Climate
7. Temperate Continental Grasslands / Steppe Climate
8. Warm Temperate / China Climate / Natal Type / Gulf Type
9. Cool Temperate Western Margin / British Climate
10. Cool Temperate Eastern / Laurentian Climate
11. Boreal Climate / Taiga Climate / Siberian Climate / Cool
Temperate Continental Climate / Continental Sub-Polar
Climate
12. Tundra Climate / Polar Climate / Arctic Climate
Also Read: CLIMATOLOGY: STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER PATTERNS

Equatorial Climate: Characteristics and

Impacts
Distribution of Equatorial Climate
  Main regions are Amazon belt, Congo-Zaire basin, South-
East Asia between 10º N-S.
 Further away from the equator, the influence of trade winds
leads to monsoonal influences.

Temperature of Equatorial Climate

 Consistently high and uniform throughout the year with
annual range of less than 2ºC.
o Even on highlands the annual range of temperature <
2ºC
 Due to great heat in equatorial belts, mornings are brighter
and sunny.

Rainfall of Equatorial Climate

 This region experiences convectional rainfall (4 pm
rainfall) through cumulonimbus clouds which come with a
thunderstorm.
 No month is without rain.
 Rainfall has twin monthly peaks (equinoxes) – in March and
September
o Because the sun is directly overhead during these
times and rainfall is convectional.
o Rainfall is least on solstices.
 As one goes north from the equatorial regions, the rainfall
pattern starts to get disturbed by monsoon winds.
 Not good for habitation due to hot and moist climate (High
incidents of malaria and other tropical diseases).

Vegetation of Equatorial Climate

 Dense tropical rain forests (called selvas in Amazon) are
found.
o Trees compete for the sunlight because of the huge
density and closeness.
o Epiphytes
o Forest is arranged in 3 canopy layers
o Growing season is the entire year.
o No distinct season of seeding, flowering, shedding of
leaves.
 Many species of trees are intermixed, and hardwood logs
sink in water so that commercial logging is not feasible.g.
mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
 o Cutting and transportation of the hardwood is a difficult
task.
o Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been
cleared either for lumbering or shifting cultivation.
 In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests

Epiphytes: They are plants that grow upon other plants non-
parasitically. They usually derive only physical support and not
nutrition from their host. They use photosynthesis for energy to
obtain moisture from the air or from dampness on the surface of
their hosts.

Economic activities of Equatorial Climate

 Main crops are plantation crops like rubber (SE Asia), cocoa
(W Africa – Ghana & Nigeria), coconuts, sugar, coffee,
tobacco, spices, and bananas.
 Belukar is the secondary forest growing as a result of
shifting cultivation activities in Malaysia.
 Agriculture and developmental activities are difficult
because thick grass and undergrowth grows as soon as the
forest is cut.
Also Read: GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENON: VOLCANISM, EARTHQUAKE

Tropical Monsoon Climate: Characteristics

and Distribution
Distribution of Tropical Monsoon Climate
 South and South-East Asia and North Australia.
o Outside this zone the climate is modified by the
onshore trade winds and rainfall is distributed more
evenly throughout the year (tropical marine climate).

Temperature of Tropical Monsoon Climate

 It experiences warm to hot summers due to the region’s
proximity to the tropics.
 Average monthly temperature is above 18 ºC, but in
summers the maximum temperature can reach as high as
45 ºC.
 The average temperature in the summer is around 30 ºC,
with an overall temperature range of 30-45 ºC.
  Mean temperature during winters is around 25 ºC with a
temperature range of 15-30 ºC.

Seasons of Tropical Monsoon Climate

Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.

 Cool, dry winters (October – February).

 Hot, dry summers (March – June).
 Rainy season (June-September).
o Orographic rainfall

The cool, dry season (October to February)

 The North-East Monsoon (Out blowing dry winds) brings little
or no rain to the Indian sub-continent.
o However, a small amount of rain falls in Punjab from
cyclonic sources (Western Disturbances)
 North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of Bengal
acquires moisture and brings rains to the south-eastern
regions of Indian peninsula during Nov-Dec of the year.

The hot dry season (March to mid-June)

 The sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer causes a
sharp rise in temperature.
 Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes and little
rain.

The rainy season (mid-June to September)

 Torrential downpours sweep across the country with the
‘burst’ of the South-West
 Almost all the rain for the year falls within this rainy season
(this concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a chief
characteristic of the Tropical Monsoon Climate).
Also Read: GEOMORPHOLOGY: EARTH’S STRUCTURE, TECTONICS, AND

Vegetation of Tropical Monsoon Climate

 Deciduous due to the marked dry season during which
leaves are shed.
 Forests are generally logged but the vegetation differs with
the rainfall.
  Broad-leaved hardwood trees.
 The forests are more open and less luxuriant than the
equatorial region forest and there are far fewer species.

Economic activities of Tropical Monsoon

Climate
 The region supports high population density.
 Subsistence farming is the main occupation (crops grown
with an intention to secure food for the season and not sold
as the production is very low).
 Intensive cultivation is common in regions with irrigational
facilities.
 Shifting cultivation is prevalent in North-East India and
South-East countries.
 Main crops are rice, sugar, jute (hemp in Manilla), and
cotton. Coffee is grown in Brazil. Tea requires modest
temperatures (15 – 20ºC), heavy rainfall (150 cm) and well
drained slopes.
 Cattle and sheep rearing are carried out for domestic and
commercial purposes, but the livestock industry is not as
profitable as in temperate regions.

Shifting Cultivation: Slash and Burn

Agriculture
It is slash and burn agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and
produce cereals and other food crops to sustain their family.
When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a
fresh patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural
processes; land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as
the farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern inputs. It is
known by different names in different parts of the country.

Region Name of Shifting Cultivation

Malaysia Lacking
Burma Taungya
Thailand Tamrai
 Philippines Caingin
Java Humah
Sri Lanka Chena
Africa and Central America Milpa
North-east India Jhum

Tropical Marine Climate Characteristics

Distribution of Tropical Marine Climate
 Occurs on the eastern coasts in tropics under the influence
of trade winds. Philippines, Central America, NE Australia,
Madagascar, East Africa and East Brazil.

Rainfall of Tropical Marine Climate

 It is both orographic and convectional. It is maximum in the
summer season but without any distinct dry season.
 It is prone to severe tropical storms and typhoons.

Desert Climate Characteristics

Distribution of Desert Climate
 Areas having less than 25 cm of annual precipitation known
as deserts (whether hot or cold).
 Major hot deserts are located on the western side of
tropics (i.e. on 15º-30º latitude range of the continent).
 Factors Contributing to Aridity in Hot Deserts
o Aridity of hot deserts is mainly due to offshore trade
winds.
o Lie in the horse latitude belt where the air is
subsiding – a condition least favorable to precipitation.
Further winds blow from cooler to hotter regions, hence
the lack of water content.
 Factors Contributing to Aridity in Cold Deserts
o Aridity of cold deserts is because of offshore westerlies
or leeward side effects.
o Cold deserts are also generally located on high
plateaus.
 o Atacama/Peruvian desert (driest place on earth) is the
driest of all deserts (< 1.25 cm p.a.).
 Cold currents have the effect of cooling the air. When this
comes in contact with the hot air on the land mass, relative
humidity drops further.

Rainfall Patterns in Desert Regions

 Whatever occurs, occurs mostly because of convectional
rainfall and with thunderstorms.
 In cold deserts in Asia, whatever rainfall happens occurs
because of occasional western disturbances and in the form
of snow.

Temperature Characteristics of Hot and Cold

Deserts
 Temperature is high throughout the year (due to clear
cloudless sky, intense insolation, high rate of evaporation).
No winter.
 Average temperature is around 30-35°C.
 Diurnal and annual range is high.
 Coastal deserts generally have less temperature than
interiors due to cold currents. Ranges are also high in
interiors.
 Annual range of temperature is higher in cold
deserts compared to hot deserts (because they are mostly
located in mid-latitudes where variation in insolation is
highest and because they are located deep inside
continents)

Xerophytic Vegetation Adaptations in Arid

Environments
 Vegetation is xerophytes / drought resistant scrubs (like
cactus)
 Shrubs remain dormant for years waiting for rainfall. They
also have long roots, modified leaves and stems. Seeds have
thick tough skins and lie dormant until it rains.
 High evaporation means salts are brought upwards and they
accumulate on the surface forming hard pans. Soil is
also deficient in humus.

Mineral Resources in Various Desert Regions

  Gold is mined in Australia, diamonds and copper in Kalahari
Desert, copper and nitrates in Atacama Desert.
Also Read: BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY

Tropical Savanna Climate: Characteristics

and Features
Distribution of Tropical Savanna Climate
 It is found between equatorial forests and the trade wind hot
deserts.
 The grasses are called llanos in the Orinoco basin
and campos in Brazil.

Seasons of Tropical Savanna Climate

 Distinct wet and dry season with extreme diurnal range of
temperature.
o Hot, rainy season (May-September in Northern
hemisphere, October-March in Southern hemisphere).
o The amount of rainfall and the length of the rainy
season decreases from equator to pole-wards towards
the desert fringes.
o Trade winds bring rains to the eastern coasts but
become dry by the time they reach the interiors of the
continents.
 Cool, dry season.
 Annual range of temperature is about 10ºC and the range
increases as we move polewards.
o Highest temperatures don’t coincide with the period of
highest sun but fall just below the onset of rains.
 These conditions are best developed in Sudan hence it is
called Sudan type of climate.

Local Winds of Tropical Savanna Climate

Harmattan (the doctor) are the north east trades which blow from
interior Africa to the Atlantic coast in Guinea. They come from
deserts and humidity rarely exceeds 30%. It is called the doctor
because it gives relief from moist sea winds.

Vegetation of Tropical Savanna Climate

  Tall savanna grasses (elephant grass). Grasses have deep
roots. It lays dormant during the cool, dry season.
 Trees decrease in height and density polewards.
 Some trees are deciduous shedding their leaves in cool, dry
season to prevent water loss.
 Some trees have broad trunks with water storing
devices (like Acacia tree).
 Many trees are umbrella shaped exposing only a narrow
edge to the winds.
 Heavy rainfall in hot, wet seasons lead to intense leaching of
the soil and all the nutrients are washed away.
 Domestication of animals is popular in Australia.
 Grass fires occur during the dry season that also burn the
seeds of trees which are ready to germinate.

Animal Life of the Savanna

 The savanna is home to a large variety of animals and
known as the ‘big game country’ due to the prevalence of
hunting.
 There are mainly two groups of animals in the savanna, one
is the grass-eating herbivorous animals and second is the
fleshing-eating carnivorous animals.
o Herbivorous = zebra, antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle,
elephant etc.
o Carnivorous = lion, tiger, leopard, hyena, panther,
jaguar, jackal etc.

Warm Temperate/Mediterranean Climate:

Characteristics and Influences
Distribution of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean
Climate
 It is confined between 30 – 45º latitudes on the western
margins of the continents.
 It is caused by shifting of pressure belts and comes under
the effect of trade winds during summers (continental trades
and hence dry) and westerlies during winters (onshore winds
and hence wet).

Temperature of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean

Climate
  Highest temperatures are experienced as we move inland
away from maritime influence.
 Climate is not extreme because of the cooling effect by
water bodies.

Rainfall of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean

Climate
 Cyclonic rainfall is prevalent from westerlies. The rain comes
as heavy showers and only on a few days with bright sunny
intervening days.
 The region experiences dry warm summers and wet cold
winters.

Dry, warm summers with offshore Tradewinds

 The sun is overhead between the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn during the summer months.
 The belt of influence of the Westerlies is shifted a little
polewards. Rain bearing winds are therefore not likely to
reach the Mediterranean lands.
 Hence the regions are practically rainless in summers and
remain dry.
 The heat is intense, and the days are excessively warm.
 In the interiors, prolonged droughts are common. The
relative humidity is generally low.

Wet, cold winters with on-shore Westerlies

 The Westerlies belt shifts equator wards in the winter and
the Mediterranean regions are under the influence of on-
shore Westerlies.
 Hence, these lands receive almost all of their precipitation
during the winter months.
 The rain comes in heavy downpours and causes floods in the
months of September and October in Mediterranean Europe.

Local Winds of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean

Climate
 Sirocco: They are the south-westerlies blowing from the
Sahara Desert into the Mediterranean climate. They are hot
and dry and remain dry even after passing above the
 Mediterranean Sea. It is most frequent during spring and is
bad for crops.
 Mistral: It is a cold wind from north in the Alps region which
rushes down in winter into the valleys to fill the low pressure
towards the [Link] is fast and may take the temperature
below the freezing point.
 Bora: In the Adriatic coast, the cold winds blowing from the
continent to the sea in winters are called Bora. They are very
fast.

Vegetation of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean

Climate
 Mediterranean evergreen forests: They are found in regions
of high rainfall. Cork oak trees are common in Europe while
eucalyptus are grown in Australia.
 Evergreen coniferous forests: They are found in highlands.
 Mediterranean shrubs: They are the dominant vegetation.
 Orchard farming: Fruit trees have long roots enabling them
to fetch water in the hot summer season as well. The thick
leathery skin of the fruits also prevents transpiration.

Agriculture of Warm Temperate/Mediterranean

Climate
 Summer is dry hence monsoon crops are not grown.
 This region is not suitable for agriculture, but some regions
are cultivated using irrigation methods.
 Citrus fruits are mostly grown and viticulture (wine making)
is mostly done here.

Temperate Continental Grasslands/Steppe

Climate: Characteristics and Regions
Name of the
Region
Temperate Grassland
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
North America (between the foothills of the Rockies
Prairies
and the Great Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect)]
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
HighVeld (more
Southern South Africa
temperate)
Downs Australia (Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia)
Canterbury New Zealand

Distribution (30° – 45°) in Temperate Continental

Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 They border the deserts and lie in the interiors of the
continents in the Northern hemisphere and near the oceans
in the Southern hemisphere. Though they lie in the westerly
belt, they are far removed from the maritime influence.
 Mostly they are grassland / treeless because of absence of
maritime influence. They are extensive in northern
hemisphere.
 Grasslands in Southern hemisphere are less continental due
to proximity to oceans. They have less extreme
temperatures (milder winters and less annual range) and
rainfall is higher as well.

Temperature (Continental Climate) of Temperate

Continental Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 Warm summers and cold winters. Extreme variation of
temperature.
 Wetter and cooler than Savannah.
 Annual range is very high in northern hemisphere.
 Southern hemisphere climate is never severe (effect of
ocean).

Rainfall of Temperate Continental

Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 Annual precipitation (conventional sources) is light with
maximum rainfall in summers. Winters get occasional rains
from western disturbances and in the form of snow.
 Annual precipitation is higher in Southern hemisphere due to
proximity to ocean and warm ocean currents.

Local Winds in Temperate Continental

Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 Chinooks: They are south-westerly winds pulled over from
the Rockies. They are hot winds and can raise the
temperatures by 20º C in 20 minutes.
Vegetation of Temperate Continental
Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 Nutritious grasses (No trees).
 Complete grasslands are converted into agricultural lands.
o Truck farming is done (mostly in prairies).
 Heavily mechanised farming (Aeroplane used for dropping
fertilizers).
 Per person productivity is high, per acre productivity is
low (because of absence of intensive farming).
 The grasses lie dormant in the winters and become active in
the spring when the temperature is hot enough. In summers
they get scorched but in autumn they grow again.
 Polewards, an increase in precipitation gives way
to coniferous trees while equatorward they merge with
desert shrubs.

Economic Development of Temperate Continental

Grasslands/Steppe Climate
 Prairies would have wheat, cotton, maize cultivation
 Steppes are one of the major producers of wheat
 Pampas region would have wheat cultivation, animal
husbandry, livestock ranching (alfa-alfa, a nutritious grass is
found here).
 Downs of Australia would have sheep rearing (Merino sheep
famous for wool).
 Veldts are famous for sheep rearing (angora goats are
famous for wool production).
Also Read: MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN INDIA: CLASSIFICATIONS, LOCATION & E

Warm Temperate Climate Variations: China,

Gulf, and Natal Types
Distribution– Eastern margin in warm temperate
zone (30°- 45°)
 China type Warm Temperate Climate
o East and central China.
o Rainfall throughout the year.
o Trade winds take the warm current moist air inside and
cause rain in summers. Typhoons are carried in by the
trades in late summers.
 o In winters, however, there is a reversal of wind
direction due to cooling of Asian landmass and
temperatures plummet (rain through moisture gained
by Siberian plateau wind while passing yellow). So the
annual range of temperature is high.
 Gulf type Warm Temperate Climate

o SE USA, Gulf of Mexico.
o The monsoonal characteristics are less here as the
pressure gradient between continental North America
and the Atlantic Ocean is never high enough to reverse
the wind direction completely.
o Rainfall in summer is maximum.
o In the winter season this type will
experience temperate cyclones while in late summers
they experience tropical cyclones (hurricanes).
 Natal type Warm Temperate Climate

o In the southern hemisphere like South Africa (Natal
province), Eastern Australia, Southern Brazil.
o These lands have no monsoonal climate due to
thinness of the land masses which is not sufficient to
cause any wind change.
o More dominance of maritime climate. So annual range
of temperature is less, rainfall is more and distributed
throughout the year.

Rainfall & Temperature of Warm Temperate

Climate
 It has more rainfall than Mediterranean climates for the
same latitude because of the influence of warm currents.
They are under the influence of trade winds.
 Summers are warm and winters are cool. Rainfall varies from
60-150 cm.

Natural Vegetation in Warm Temperate Climate

 The region supports luxurious vegetation due to heavier
rainfall.
 There are perennial plants, a well-suited condition for the
rich variety of plant life.
 The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and
deciduous trees, like tropical monsoon forests.
  The highlands carry various important softwood species of
conifers such as pines and cypresses.
 Eastern Australia = Eucalyptus
 South-Eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern
Argentina = Parana pine, the quebracho, wild yerba mate
trees.
 Natal = palm trees

Economic Development of Warm Temperate

Climate
 These regions are the most productive part of the middle
latitudes due to the adequate rainfall; no prolonged drought
and the cold season is warm.
 This shows an almost continuous growing season.
 The temperate monsoon regions are the most intensively
tilled parts of the world.

Agriculture Development of Warm Temperate

Climate
Country Economic Activity
China Rice, Tea, Cotton, Maize, Mulberry
Natal Sugarcane
South America Coffee and Maize
USA Maize Region- Cotton- Tobacco (Virginia Tobacco)

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate:

British Climate Characteristics
Distribution in Cool Temperate Western Margin
Climate
 Located to the western margin in a cool temperate zone
(45°-65°) North and South.
 They are under the influence of westerlies all through the
year, but westerly influence is blocked by Rockies and Andes
in N and S America, respectively.
 Britain, Northern France, Northern Germany, Norway,
Western Canada (Vancouver provinces) Tasmania and New
Zealand, Southern Chile.
 British types will experience four seasons.
Temperature & Precipitation in Cool Temperate
Western Margin Climate
 Cool moderate climate.
 Low annual range of temperature. Moderate temperature
best suited for human habitation. Summers are never very
warm.
 Rainfall is throughout the year with winter or autumn
maximum because of cyclonic conditions.
o Rainfall from westerlies in summer.
o Western coast receives most rainfall and rain
decreases towards the interior.
 Temperature have much oceanic influence, mostly warm
ocean currents

Natural Vegetation in Cool Temperate Western

Margin Climate
 Deciduous forests are found, and they shed their leaves in
autumn to prepare for the cold season.
 Tall trees with good canopy cover, mostly give softwood.
 Trees are social species and are in pure stand, multiple
species are not found (hence commercially viable).
 Example – Oak, Birch, Beech, Elm

Economic activities in Cool Temperate Western

Margin Climate
 Lumbering (cutting of trees for commercial purpose) in a
systematic way. Winter cutting is done where they would
make wood logs float on frozen river.
 Market gardening is a type of agricultural practice.

Cool Temperate Eastern Margin Climate:

Laurentian Climate Characteristics
Distribution of Cool Temperate Eastern Margin
Climate
 It is the intermediate type and has both maritime and
continental traits.
 It is extended in the cool temperate eastern margin (45°-
65°) of the northern hemisphere.
  It extends in eastern Canada (Newfoundland), North-East
USA (New England states) regions, Korea, Northern Japan
present beyond 40° latitude).
 It also extends in Eastern Siberia, North China, Manchurian
regions.
 In the southern hemisphere this climatic type is absent (land
is not present beyond 40°latitude).

Rainfall and Temperature of Cool Temperate

Eastern Margin Climate
 Winters are cold and dry while summers are warm and
wet. Summers would be warmer but for the cold continental
winds.
 Rainfall throughout the year.
o In summer, westerlies bring rainfall in the North
America region because they catch moisture from
great lakes. In winter, the gulf stream increases
moisture content which results in rainfall from polar
easterly wind.
o In China, we have summer maximum rainfall because
of intense heating of land leading to wind penetration
from the pacific (south-east monsoon). In winter,
anticyclonic conditions in central Asia exist, hence cold
wind blows out and creates some rainfall (Borrowing
moisture from Yellow Sea).

Natural Vegetation of Cool Temperate Eastern

Margin Climate
 Mixed forestry (coniferous and deciduous).
o Deciduous would spread below 50° latitude, Coniferous
would spread above 50° latitude.
 Oak, birch beech maple are principle trees.
 Agriculture: potatoes, oats, barley, soya beans (mostly
china) are grown.
 Nova Scotia of Canada is famous for apple farming.

Economic activities of Cool Temperate Eastern

Margin Climate
 Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp
industries are the most important economic activity.
  Fishing is also an important economic activity.
 Agriculture is less important because of long and severe
winters.
 Farmers are engaged in dairy farming in the North American
region.

Boreal Climate / Taiga Climate / Siberian

Climate / Cool Temperate Continental
Climate / Continental Sub-Polar Climate
Distribution of Boreal/Taiga Climate
 It has tundra towards the north and steppes towards the
south. Taiga is the Russian name.
 It stretches along a continuous belt across central Canada,
some parts of Scandinavian Europe and most of central and
southern Russian (50° to 70° N).
 Found only in the northern hemisphere (due to great east-
west extent).
 Absent in the southern hemisphere (Because of the
narrowness in the high latitudes. Also, the strong oceanic
influence reduces the severity of the winter).

Temperature of Boreal/Taiga Climate

 Summers are brief and warm reaching whereas winters are
long and brutally cold.
 Annual temperature range of the Siberian Climate is the
greatest (Almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).
 In North America, the extremes are less severe, because of
the continent’s lesser east-west stretch.
 Occasionally cold, northerly polar local winds such as
the Blizzards of Canada and Buran of Eurasia blow violently.
 Permafrost (a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains
below freezing throughout the year) are generally absent
as snow is a poor conductor of heat and protects the ground
from the severe cold above.

Precipitation in Boreal/Taiga Climate

 Rainfall annually is not high as maritime influence in the
interiors is absent.
 Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
  It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a
summer maximum (convectional rain in mid-summer – 15 °C
to 24 °C).
 In winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow as mean
temperatures are well below freezing all the time.

Natural Vegetation in Boreal/Taiga Climate

 The predominant type of vegetation is evergreen coniferous
forest.
 The conifers are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic climate
as they require little moisture
o Juniper, spruce, fir, pine are example species of
coniferous
 The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is
the taiga(a Russian word for coniferous forest) in Siberia.
 These coniferous belts are a rich source of softwood (used in
furniture, construction, paper making industries).

Tundra Climate / Polar Climate / Arctic

Climate Characteristics
Distribution in Tundra/ Polar Climate
 Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of the
Antarctic Circle.
 The icecaps are confined to highlands and high latitude
regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
 In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single
stretch of ice-cap.
 The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren
grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the Arctic
seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.

Temperature in Tundra/ Polar Climate

 The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean
annual temperature (most of the year below freezing point).
o Temperatures are as low as 40-50 °C below freezing in
mid-winter whereas summers are relatively warmer.

Precipitation in Tundra/ Polar Climate

 Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.
  Frequent blizzards reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour.
 Convectional rainfall is generally absent.

Natural Vegetation in Tundra/ Polar Climate

 There are no trees in the tundra.
 Lowest forms of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are
found in patches.
 Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little
favorable.
 Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and the reindeer
moss which provide the only pasturage for reindeers.
 Berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom in the brief
summer.
 In the summer, Birds migrate north to prey on the numerous
insects which emerge when the snow thaws.
 ResidingMammals = Wolves, foxes, muskox, Arctic hare and
lemmings.
 Penguins live only in Antarctic

Human Activities in Tundra/ Polar Climate

 People live a semi-nomadic life and are largely confined to
the coast.
 In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the sEskimos.
 During winter they live in igloos.
 Fish, seals, walruses, and polar bears are their major food.