MR JENAMO

AFRICAN HISTORY (FORM 4)

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY
Definition of History
History is commonly defined as the study of the story of the past. Some have defined history
as they study of the past so as to understand the present and inform the future.
Interpretations of History
Sources of History
There are two major sources of historical information. These are primary and secondary
sources.
Primary Sources of Historical Information
Primary sources are documents, images or artefacts that provide first-hand information about
a historical topic.

Examples of Primary Sources of Historical Information

• photographs
• audio recordings
• video recordings
• eye witness accounts
• letters
• diaries
Validity/ Accuracy of Primary Sources of Historical Information
1) Oral History/ tradition
This refers to the story of the past that has been passed from one generation to the other by
word of mouth. One example of an oral traditional story of Matsieng.

Even though oral history is a useful piece of historical information/ knowledge, it can be
easily distorted by some people for personal gain. Sometimes the distortion comes from the
fact that people who know oral history are usually old and therefore tend to forget some
useful information. Oral traditions also do not provide exact dates about events.
2) Archaeology refers to the study of material culture, that is, objects that people who
lived years ago left behind. For example, pottery, stone tools, hut floors, iron tools and animal
bones.

Archaeological remains help historians and archaeologists to recreate the lives of societies
that existed before the introduction of writing, especially among African societies.

3) Art is an important primary source of historical knowledge. Forms of art such as

paintings, drawings, engravings and sculptures can provide useful information about beliefs.

Stone Age societies did not keep written records before contact with Europeans. They used
paintings and engravings to preserve their history.
Secondary Sources of Historical Information
These are sources of historical information that contain second- hand information. This
information is mainly interpretations of historical events by authors of history books.
Examples of Secondary Sources of Historical Information
• History books
• journal articles
• published speeches
• book reviews
• research reports

ORIGINS OF HUMANKIND
Traditional/ Indigenous/ Cultural
Explanations
[Objective: Describe the indigenous and cultural explanations of the origins of humankind.]
Origins of the Tswana
The Tswana believed that human beings were descendent from a one legged giant called
Matsieng. Matsieng was believed to have inhabited the underground world. This was a very
long time ago during the time of Lowe when rocks were still soft. This giant later on emerged
out of his underground world. Matsieng was the first person to come out of the underground
world. He was later followed by his people, domesticated animals and plants. As the rocks
were still soft Matsieng’s feet sank into them and the foot prints hardened over time. His
footprints are found at a place called Rasesa in Botswana.
Origins of the Herero
The Herero believed that a very long time ago there was only a tree of life on earth. This tree
was known as “Omuborumbonga” (Motswere). The Herero believed that all living things
were contained in this tree. According to this story a super natural being, Mukuru, at some
point made a hole in the tree of life. Human beings then came out of this hole and thereafter
they were followed by different animals and plants. Mukuru was then given the
responsibility to name all living things.

Origins of the Hambukushu

The Hambukushu believed that a very long time ago there was no life on earth. At some point
a man and his cattle were lowered from the upper sky to the summit of the Tsodilo Hills with
a rope. Humankind is believed to have inhabited the earth for the first time after they were
lowered on the top of the Tsodilo hills. The Hambukushu believed that the grooves in the
rocks at Tsodilo hills were made by the cattle as they were being lowered on earth.
Origins of the Zulu
The Zulu believed that a very long time ago there was no human life on earth. According to
the Zulu myth of the origins of humankind, humankind was created from a reed by a super
natural being,“Unkulunkulu” (the great one). Unkulunkulu had created humankind he
provided him with animals, plants, the sun and the moon so they could see both at night and
during the day . The Zulu therefore believe that Unkulunkulu was the originator of all forms
of life. He then crated cattle and instructed men to eat their flesh and drink their milk.
Weaknesses of the cultural explanations
➢ Events being talked about in cultural explanations do not have specific dates. For
example,Matsieng emerged from his underground world. They instead only indicate that
events occurred “a very long time ago”, “during the time of Lowe” or “at the beginning of
time”. So this makes them hard to believe.
➢ The stories are many and regional. They are mainly specific to particular areas and
communities as for example the Herero, Tswana, Hambukushu and Zulu have their own
explanation. This has therefore resulted in traditional explanations lacking universal appeal.
Religious Explanations
[Objective: Describe the major religious explanations of the origins of humankind.]

Christian Explanation (Christianity)

The creation explanation indicates that god created humankind in his own image. It also
suggests that a man, who was given the name Adam, was created first using clay soil then
god breathed air into him. Then after sometime god realized Adam was lonely. Then his
female companion, Eve, was eventually created out of his rib while god put him in deep
sleep. They were then placed in the garden of Eden and given control over other living things.
Islamic Explanation
Muslims believe that humankind was created by a god called Allah. This explanation states
that the first human being was created from seven (7) soils from different geographic areas.
They also believe that the first man to be created is Adam and that Eve was created from
Adam’s rib. They were then placed in the garden of Eden and given control over all other
living things.
Scientific Explanation
[Objective: Describe major scientific theories of the origins of humankind.]
Key points about Theory of Evolution
Adaptation-. It means living things found in a new environment must undergo changes
themselves if they are to survive in that environment.
Natural selection- Natural selection is a process through which organisms best suited to their
environment become the most likely to survive.
Speciation -. This is a process by which several species develop from one common ancestor
and separate into several populations.
Heredity. This is the process of passing on survival traits by parents to their young ones.
extinction. If organisms fail to adapt to their environment they die and become extinct.

WHY IS THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION A CONVINCING EXPLANATION ON

THE ORIGINS OF HUMANITY?
Archaeological evidence. This theory of evolution has provided us with evidence of remains
of the first tools that were invented by the earliest hominids. Oldowan tools which where
invented by the Homo Habilis were discovered. They were called Oldowan tools because
they were found at a place called Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The remains of these tools is
why the theory of evolution is a convincing explanations on the origins of humankind.
Fossil evidence- This evidence is in the form of the earliest remains of the earliest forms of
human beings. This evidence consists of the skeletal remains of the Australopithecus, Homo
Habilis, Homo Erectus and Homo Sapien. All the four stages of hominids have been
discovered. They have been discovered in different continents to prove that they did exist. So
this is why the theory of evolution is a more convincing theory on the explanations of human
kind.
DNA/Gene patterns- Research has proven that humans and apes share about 99% of their
DNA. So this means that humans evolved from ape like creatures. It also proves that humans
and apes share a common ancestor. So this is why the theory of evolution is a more
convincing theory on the origins of human kind.
IS AFRICA THE CRADLE OF HUMANITY?
Gene patterns After studying genes of human beings, biologists discovered that indigenous
Africans have the oldest gene patterns when compared to Europeans and Asians. So this
means that Europeans and Asians are descendants of Africans. From this evidence, it can
therefore be concluded that Africa is the birthplace of humankind as its indigenous people are
the oldest.
Linguistic evidence.-This evidence is known as the mother- tongue theory. According to this
evidence indigenous African languages are the oldest languages spoken today while
Caucasian and Mongol languages are fairly recent. If indigenous African languages are the
earliest forms of language, then it follows that Africa is the cradle of humanity.
Archaeological evidence -This evidence is in the form of the earliest/ oldest tools ever used
by humankind. The earliest humanmade tools, called Oldowan tools, have only been found in
Africa and nowhere else in the world. These tools were called Oldowan tools because they
were discovered at a place called Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. As these tools have only been
found in Africa, it is reasonable to conclude that human beings developed in Africa before
migrating to other parts of the world.
Fossil evidence -This evidence is in the form of the earliest/ oldest skeletal remains of the
Australopithecus and Homo habilis. The oldest remains of the Australopithecus were found in
Taung, South Africa. The earliest remains of Homo habilis have been found in Olduvai
Gorge. So the first two stages of Human evolution have only been discovered in the African
continent and nowhere else in the world. So this proves that humans originated in Africa
before spreading to other parts of theworld.
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Australopithecines
- The Australopithecus walked on two legs on the open plains during the day and spent the
night on tree tops away from predators.
Australopithecines also had small brain capacities which measured about 400cc. Because of
their small brain size, the Australopithecines could not make tools. They also had large flat
topped teeth and long jaws which were well suited for grinding (chewing) up hard food and
raw meat.
They were scavengers, which means that they usually ate meat left behind by predators. This
is because they did not have the ability to hunt wild animals.
Homo habilis also known as the handy-
This hominid emerged between 2.5 and 1.5 million years ago. The remains of the Homo
habilis were discovered in Olduvai Gorge in 1962 by Jonathan Leakey.
The Homo habilis had a brain capacity of between 500cc and 600cc. Because of his bigger
brain, the Homo habilis could make and use simple tools from stone and wood. He produced
stone tools by knocking off flakes from pebbles to produce sharp edges. The flakes were
probably used as cutting tools.
The Homo habilis walked upright and this freed his arms for activities such as tool making.
He also had a flatter face and smaller teeth. The smaller teeth were adapted to eating meat
scavenged from the kills of other animals.
Homo erectus –
This hominid emerged about 1.8 million years ago. He stood at 180cm and weighed about
65kg- 70kg.
The Homo erectus had a brain capacity of about 900cc. Because of their large brains, the
Homo erectus made more refined tools such as the hand axe. They made various tools for
different purposes. Tools invented by the Homo Erectus were first found in the French village
of St. Acheul and they have since come to be known as Acheulian tools.
The Homo erectus also had the ability to make and use fire. The Homo erectus might have
used fire to keep warm during cold weather conditions. They were also able to use the fire to
roast meat which made it easier to chew as they had very small teeth. The fire also enabled
them to scare away predators at night which made them to stop living up in the trees.
The Homo erectus may have primarily communicated through gestures with the head and
hands. They may also have had communicated by making sounds through their mouth.
Homo sapiens-
The Homo sapiens had a brain capacity of about 1400cc. This enabled them to make a variety
of tools. They made long thin blades which may have been used as knives, scrapping tools,
hammers, small points which may have been used for drilling holes and as spearheads.
The Homo sapiens also knew how to make fire. This can be associated to their bigger brain
capacities.
As the Homo sapiens were extremely intelligent, they constructed their own shelter, mainly
out of grass and tree branches.
Homo sapiens walked on two legs like modern human beings. They like modern people used
the big toe to spring forward from step to step.

TRANSFORMATION FROM STONE AGE TO IRON AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

FEATURES OF THE STONE AGE COMMUNITIES

i. Production of microliths (small refined stone tools)
ii. They smeared their arrow heads with the poison of snakes and insects
iii. Using Ostrich eggshells to store water
iv. Use of animal sinews for sewing
vi. Using weighted sticks to dig for tubers
vii. Rock paintings
viii. Production of bone tools such as needles and fish hooks

THE LATE STONE AGE HUNTER- GATHERERS (THE SAN)

Social Organisation / Way of Life

Marriage- The San practised early marriages. Boys of between 14 and 15 years married girls
of ages 7 and 8 years. This could have been the norm because at these ages boys and girls
could hunt and gather. As hunters and gatherers, the married boys and girls could support
themselves with the wild game meat they hunted and wild fruits they gathered. The San had
no form of bride price. Instead men performed suitor services as a form of bride price before
they could marry. A man was required to hunt for the woman’s family for some time to prove
his capability.
Religion- The San believed in a Supreme Being whom they thought inhabited the upper
skies. This Supreme Being was believed to be responsible for the creation of
the earth, animals and plants. The San offered sacrifices to their Supreme Being
to thank him for providing them with rain, animals to hunt and plants to gather.
Clothing- The San wore clothes made out of the skin of wild animals they hunted. These
clothes helped to keep them warm in harsh weather conditions and also covered their
nakedness. The clothes also gave them a sense of dignity.

Initiation ceremonies- The San also initiated their children into adulthood. During this
initiation San boys were taught how to hunt and about medicine while girls were taught how
to gather. This initiation was done to equip San children with skills they needed to survive in
adulthood.
Lifestyle- San also led a nomadic lifestyle. This means that they moved from one camp to the
other in search of wild animals to hunt and plants to gather. This type of lifestyle was thus
dictated by necessity and that is why they built temporary shelter.
Shelter- The San built temporary shelter using tree branches and covered them with grass.
They built this kind of shelter because they lived a normadic lifestyle. Meaning they survived
by moving from one place to another. This kind of settlement was easy to dismantle.
Settlement- In most instances, the San lived in small groups of between 20 to 30 people who
were usually related to each other by blood, assimilation or marriage. These small numbers
allowed groups to be self supporting as food was scarce to find. They lived in such small
groups because they had no steady reliable supply of food.
Economic Organisation / Way of Life
Hunters- The San were hunters. Each clan had its own hunting territory and no other clan
could hunt in it without the permission of its owners. The San hunted animals such as eland
and giraffe among others usings bows and arrows smeared with poison from snakes and
insects. Hunting was a source of food. It was also a source of hides which the San used to
make clothes. The hunting was done by the man and boys and they usually hunted during the
day.
Gatherers- The San were also gatherers. Gathering was mainly done by women. San women
and sometimes men gathered wild plants, tortoise and wild honey. Gathering was thus a
source of food which supplemented the meat they got from the animals they hunted. The
women also used digging sticks to dig for tubers.
Fishing- Some San communities also practised fishing especially those who lived near rivers
or lakes. This was particularly the case with San groups around the Boteti and Okavango
Rivers. Fish supplemented the San’s diet.
Trade- The San also practised bartering. San groups exchanged ostrich eggshells jewellery
and wild game meat for milk, grains and iron tools. Bartering thus enabled the San to obtain
food items with which they could supplement their diet. It was also a source of iron tools
such as spears from the Bantu which enabled them to hunt bigger animals which increased
the amount of meat in the camp.
Political Organisation / Way of Life
Chieftainship among the San was not hereditary. This leadership among the San was
determined by skills an individual possessed. These skills included hunting and medicinal
skills. A San chief therefore had to possess these skills so that he could use them to benefit
the clan.
A San chief could not take important decisions alone. Decisions that affected the clan were
taken after discussions with adult clan members. This may have been done to ensure that
leaders could not impose their will on their subjects. So the leader could not try cases on their
own.
The San did not have a standing (permanent) army. This may have been the case because the
San lived in small numbers. If some of the San men were to only focus on military
responsibilities, a clan’s ability to hunt effectively would have been compromised.
THE LATE STONE AGE PASTORALISTS (KHOEKHOE)

Social Organisation/ Way of life

Marriage- The Khoi usually married after initiation ceremonies. They practiced polygamy.
This means that a man with many herds of cattle was allowed to marry as many wives as he
wanted because he could afford to take care of a large family. They paid bride price in the
form of sheep. The bride price was paid in order to show appreciation to the bride’s family.
Religion- Khoekhoe believed in a Supreme Being called Tsuigoab. This god was represented
by the praying mantis on earth. The Supreme Being was believed to be the provider of rain
and good health. The Khoekhoe offered their Supreme Being sacrifices so that he could
provide them with rain.
Settlement- The Khoekhoe lived in large settlements which could consist of about 600 to
2000 people. The Khoekhoe lived in these large numbers because they could readily obtain
milk and sometimes meat from their livestock. They could afford to feed large groups of
people.
Shelter- The Khoekhoe lived in temporary shelters. These shelters were made out of mats
and wooden poles. The shelters were temporary because the Khoe were semi-nomadic
pastoralists who had to move around in search of pastures for their livestock as seasons
changed.
Clothing- The Khoekhoe wore clothes made out of animal skins. These skins were obtained
from the animals they reared and also from the animals they occasionally hunted. These
animal skins did not only cover their nakedness but also protected them from cold
temperatures.
Economic Organisation
Pastoral farming- Khoekhoe people were nomadic pastoral farmers. This means that they
reared fat tailed sheep and long horned cattle. These animals provided them with milk and
sometimes meat. The milk from these animals provided the Khoekhoe with a reliable source
of food. Cattle was a sign of wealth, a man with many herds of cattle was regarded as rich
and was respected in the community
Hunting- The Khoekhoe also practiced hunting. This activity was done on a part time basis.
The meat from the animals they hunted supplemented their regular diet of milk. The hunting
was done by men who hunted using bows and arrows smeared with the poison from snakes
and insects which usually put the animals to sleep before killing them
Gathering – The Khoe were also gatherers, and this was the responsibility of women. It was
also done on a part time basis. The wild plants and small animals gathered supplemented their
diet. They gathered wild fruits such as wild watermelons and tubers.
Fishing- Some Khoekhoe communities who lived around rivers practised fishing. Although
this was a part time activity, the fish they caught supplemented their diet.
Trade- Bartering was also another economic activity the Khoekhoe practised. Milk and
sometimes livestock were exchanged for grains and iron tools with the Bantu. The grains
obtained through bartering supplemented the Khoe’s diet while the iron tools enabled them to
hunt bigger animals.
Political Organisation
Chieftainship was hereditary. This means that the Khoekhoe chiefs could pass their thrones to
their sons once they were too old to rule or in the event of death. This tradition could have
been practised to reduce competition for rulership/ leadership in a given Khoekhoe village.
The Khoe chiefs were powerful as they were responsible for trying major cases such as
murder and rape. They were also able to sentence someone to death. They usually made such
decisions with the assistance of village elders.
Army- The Khoekhoe had a standing army. This was made possible by the fact that they lived
in large numbers. The purpose of this army was to guard livestock and protect the territory
owned by respective Khoekhoe communities.
Contact Between the Khoesan and other Groups (Bantu and Boers)
Loss of land- the San were pushed out of their land by the Bantu and the Boers. As a result,
the San were forced to flee to the desert areas of the Kalahari and the Namib Deserts. This
exposed them to poverty as animals and plants to hunt and gather were scarce to find. The
loss of land also forced some San groups to attach themselves to the Bantu and the Boers.
This resulted in loss of culture.
Racial discrimination- The Boers treated the San with contempt. They called them belittling
names such as “bushmen”. This eroded their self-esteem. They were also hunted down like
wild animals by the Boers. This greatly reduced their population.
Loss of lives- Many Khoekhoe lost their lives due to the outbreak of diseases such as
smallpox. The Khoe did not have a natural immunity to smallpox hence many of them died.
These deaths reduced their populations hence they could not effectively use their numbers to
resist Boer takeover of their land and livestock.
Loss of Livetock- The Khoekhoe also lost their livestock to the Boers. Boers raided and
captured Khoekhoe livestock easily as they had superior European guns while the Khoe only
had bows and arrows. The loss of livestock impoverished the Khoekhoe. Once the Khoe had
lost their animals, they were forced to attach themselves to the Boers. This eroded their
culture as they were now forced to speak the Dutch language and even acquire their religion.
Trade- both the Khoe and the San traded and or bartered with both the Bantu and the Boers.
The Khoesan may have exchanged ivory and wild game meat for grains, iron, brass and glass
beads. This trade benefited the Khoesan as they would supplement their diet with the grains
they obtained from the Bantu. The iron they obtained from the Bantu was used to make iron
tools which made their hunting to be more effective as they could now kill bigger animals.
Arable farming skills- After losing the land and livestock the Khoesan were forced to work
on the farms of the Boers and the Bantu to plough for them. So the Khoesan were able to
learn the growing of crops. This then enabled them to start growing their own food and this
led to them to stop living a normadic lifestyle and to start living a permanent lifestyle.

IRON AGE TECHNOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

REASONS FOR BANTU MIGRATION INTO SOUTHERN AFRICA

 Search for pastures- The Bantu were pastoral farmers. This means that they
kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. When the land got overgrazed,
they moved to other areas in search of pasture.
 Search for fertile lands- the Bantu were arable farmers. This means that they
grew crops such as sorghum, millet and watermelons. So, when the land lost
fertility they moved in search of places with fertile soil to increase their food
production.
 Population Increase- the Bantu were overpopulation because the population
increased due to abundance of food supply from agriculture, they moved to
other places that had available land to settle and practice agriculture.
 Search for iron ore- The Bantu were iron smelters, they mined and smelted
iron ore to make tools such as spears, hoes, axes and knives. When the iron
ore was finished in that area, they moved to other places that had plenty of
iron ore because these iron tools were important in farming and hunting.

EARLY IRON AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Early iron Age sites in Botswana

 Mochudi
 Kumakwane
 Old Palapye
 Otse
 Matlapaneng
 Molepolole

Lifestyle of the early iron age communities

 Hunting- Bones of wild animals were found, and this suggests that they hunted
wild animals as a way of supplementing their diet. The wild animals provided
them with meat, and they also used the skin of wild animals to make clothes. The
clothes covered their nakedness and kept them warm.
 Permanent settlement- Remains of houses found at early iron age sites were
built with clay soil, poles and thatched with grass. This then suggests that the
Bantu groups lived a permanent lifestyle. This means that they did not move from
one place to another. This was because they now had a steady supply of food due
to practicing arable farming.
 Pastoral Farming- They were pastoral farmers. This means that they kept
livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. These livestock were their man source
of food. They ate their meat and drank their milk. They regarded cattle as a
source of wealth and a man with many heads of cattle was regarded as the
richest in the community.
 Arable farming- They were arable farmers. This means that they grew crops such
as sorghum, millet and watermelons. They used tools such as hoes to cultivate
the soil. These crops were their main source of food. They had a steady supply of
food, and this led them to leave a permanent lifestyle.

LATE IRON AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Late iron age sites in Botswana

 Toutswemogala
 Domboshaba
 Majwaneng
 Kgaswe
 Majojo
 Busutswe

TOUTSWEMOGALA LATE IRON AGE COMMUNITY

 Archaeological artifacts found in Toutswemogala settlements
 Cattle bones
 Iron tools
 Glass beads
 Sea Shells
 Wild animal bones
 Cow dung
 Granaries

LIFESTYLE OF THE PEOPLE OF TOUTSWEMOGALA

Economic lifestyle of people of Toutswemogala

 Arable Farming- They were arable farmers. This means that they grew crops such as
sorghum, millet and watermelons. They used hoes to cultivate the soil for farming. These
crops provided the people with a reliable source of food. As food was abundant, they
tended to have large families. Excess crops could also be bartered within the kingdom or
outside the kingdom for important items such as iron tools, livestock, game meat, furs
and ivory. Abundant food supply ultimately led to a rapid population increase.

 Pastoral farming- They were Pastoralists. This means that they reared goats, sheep and
cattle. These animals provided them with food in the form of meat and milk. They could
also use hides from these animals to make clothes, blankets and mats for protection
against elements of the weather (cold). Cattle were a source of wealth and a man who
had large herds of cattle was regarded as wealthy and he was highly respected.

 Mining- They mined and smelted iron ore. They made tools such as hoes, spears, knives
and axes. Hoes were used to cultivate the soil for crop production which helped increase
their food production. Spears were used for hunting animals for ivory such as elephants
and rhinos which were used to trade withe Asians at the Coast. Knives were used for
harvesting and for skinning animals for meat. Some of the iron tools produced were
exchanged for livestock or even grain.

 Trade- They practiced both local and long-distance trade with the Asians and Persians.
The long-distance trade was controlled by the chiefs and enabled them to acquire exotic
goods such as glass beads, cloth and sea shells. The acquisition of exotic goods made
chiefs very wealthy and powerful. In exchange for these goods, the coastal traders were
given ivory and furs. The acquisition of exotic goods generated more wealth for the
Toutswe people especially the ruling elites who controlled it. Local trade was practiced
by the locals where they bartered items such as tools in exchange of grain.
Social lifestyle of the people of Toutswemogala

 Marriage- They practiced polygamy, which means that a man with many herds of
cattle was allowed to marry more than one wife because he was able to take care of
a large family. They usually got married after completing Initiation schools. They paid
bride price in the form of cattle. Bride price was paid to show appreciation to the
girl’s family for having raised a wife for the groom.

 Religion- They believed in ancestors. Ancestors were viewed as a link between the
living and God. As a result, they were offered sacrifices in the form of livestock
regularly so as to appease/ please them. It was believed that if ancestors were
angered by not being offered sacrifices, they would not send the people’s messages
to God.

 Initiation Ceremonies- Boys and girls who reached puberty were sent to initiation
schools. They were taught about the culture and traditions of their society. After
completing initiation ceremonies, they were allowed to get married. Women were
taught duties such as being good mothers and household chores. Men were taught
how to hunt and defend the tribe.

 Rain making ceremonies- They were also a common practice among the Toutswe
people. The rain making ceremonies were done to ensure prosperity. These
ceremonies were led by the chief as he was believed to possess divine powers.

 Settlement- They lived a permanent lifestyle. This means that they did not live a
nomadic lifestyle by moving from one place to another. As such they built permanent
structures by using clay soil, poles and thatched using grass.

Political lifestyle of the people of Toutswemogala

 They were ruled by powerful chiefs who were usually rich as they owned
large herds of cattle and controlled long distance trade. They became rich
because they were able to acquire exotic goods from the Persians from the
East coast such as cloth, glass beads and sea shells.
 Chieftainship was usually hereditary. This means that once the chief died or
became too ill to lead the son would take over the throne. The son of the
eldest wife would usually take over from the father. This was done in order to
avoid succession disputes in the tribe.
 The chiefs were responsible for taking care of their people, protecting them,
allocation of land and settling disputes. He was responsibly for solving major
 crimes such as murder and rape. He had the power to sentence someone to
death.
 The chiefs usually collected tribute from their subjects and tribes they
defeated. Tribute was usually paid as a sign of show loyalty and respect.
Tribute was usually paid in the form of grain, livestock, fur and ivory. The
tribute usually made the chief and his kingdom more powerful and wealthy.

REASONS WHY TOUTSWEMOGALA COLLAPSED

 The rise of Mapungubgwe- This was a settlement that was established between
Toutswemogala and the East Coast. Mapungubgwe was able to cut trade links
between Toutswemogala and the East Coast. Toutswemogala no longer became the
trade center for exotic goods such as sea shells, glass beads and cloth. This then led
to the ruliing class losing their wealth and power as they could no longer access
exotic goods. So the people of Totswemogala decided to move to areas closer to the
East Coast and this led to its collapse.
 Drought- Toutswemogala experienced a long period of unreliable rainfall. This then
affected their food production as they produced low yields. As such this led to
shortage of food which ultimately led to hunger and starvation. There were also
fewer pastures which could not sustain their livestock. So many people decided to
relocate to areas, and this led to the collapse of Toutswemogala.
 Diminished natural resources- Toutswe people were pastoral farmers. This means
that they kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats in large numbers. This then
led to the land being overgrazed and this may have also led to the soil losing its
fertility. So the Toutswe people had to move to areas with enough grazing pasture for
their livestock and to find fertile soils in order to practice arable. So their relocation
then led to the collapse of Toutswemogala.

DOMBOSHABA LATE IRON AGE COMMUNITY

Economic lifestyle of the people of Domboshaba

 Arable Farming- They were arable farmers. This means that they grew crops such as
sorghum, millet and watermelons. They used hoes to cultivate the soil for farming. These
crops provided the people with a reliable source of food. As food was abundant, they
tended to have large families. Excess crops could also be bartered within the kingdom or
outside the kingdom for important items such as iron tools, livestock, game meat, furs
and ivory. Abundant food supply ultimately led to a rapid population increase.

 Pastoral farming- They were Pastoralists. This means that they reared goats, sheep and
cattle. These animals provided them with food in the form of meat and milk. They could
also use hides from these animals to make clothes, blankets and mats for protection
 against elements of the weather (cold). Cattle were a source of wealth and a man who
had large herds of cattle was regarded as wealthy and he was highly respected.

 Mining- They mined and smelted iron ore. They made tools such as hoes, spears, knives
and axes. Hoes were used to cultivate the soil for crop production which helped increase
their food production. Spears were used for hunting animals for ivory such as elephants
and rhinos which were used to trade withe Asians at the Coast. Knives were used for
harvesting and for skinning animals for meat. Some of the iron tools produced were
exchanged for livestock or even grain.

 Trade- They practiced both local and long-distance trade with the Asians and Persians.
The long-distance trade was controlled by the chiefs and enabled them to acquire exotic
goods such as glass beads, cloth and sea shells. The acquisition of exotic goods made
chiefs very wealthy and powerful. In exchange for these goods, the coastal traders were
given ivory and furs. The acquisition of exotic goods generated more wealth for the
Domboshaba people especially the ruling elites who controlled it. Local trade was
practiced by the locals where they bartered items such as tools in exchange of grain.

Social lifestyle of the people of Domboshaba

 Marriage- They practiced polygamy, which means that a man with many herds of
cattle was allowed to marry more than one wife because he was able to take care of
a large family. They usually got married after completing initiation schools. They paid
bride price in the form of cattle. Bride price was paid to show appreciation to the
girl’s family for having raised a wife for the groom.

 Religion- They believed in ancestors. Ancestors were viewed as a link between the
living and God. As a result, they were offered sacrifices in the form of livestock
regularly so as to appease/ please them. It was believed that if ancestors were
angered by not being offered sacrifices, they would not send the people’s messages
to God.

 Initiation Ceremonies- Boys and girls who reached puberty were sent to initiation
schools. They were taught about the culture and traditions of their society. After
completing initiation ceremonies, they were allowed to get married. Women were
taught duties such as being good mothers and household chores. Men were taught
how to hunt and defend the tribe.
  Rain making ceremonies- They were also a common practice among the
Domboshaba people. The rain making ceremonies were done to ensure prosperity.
These ceremonies were led by the chief as he was believed to possess divine powers.

 Settlement- They lived a permanent lifestyle. This means that they did not live a
nomadic lifestyle by moving from one place to another. As such they built permanent
structures by using clay soil, poles and thatched using grass.

Political lifestyle of the people of Domboshaba

 They were ruled by powerful chiefs who were usually rich as they owned
large herds of cattle and controlled long distance trade. They became rich
because they were able to acquire exotic goods from the Persians from the
East coast such as cloth, glass beads and sea shells.
 Chieftainship was usually hereditary. This means that once the chief died or
became too ill to lead the son would take over the throne. The son of the
eldest wife would usually take over from the father. This was done in order to
avoid succession disputes in the tribe.
 The chiefs were responsible for taking care of their people, protecting them,
allocation of land and settling disputes. He was responsibly for solving major
crimes such as murder and rape. He had the power to sentence someone to
death.
 The chiefs usually collected tribute from their subjects and tribes they
defeated. Tribute was usually paid as a sign of show loyalty and respect.
Tribute was usually paid in the form of grain, livestock, fur and ivory. The
tribute usually made the chief and his kingdom more powerful and wealthy.

THE MAIN BANTU GROUPS

SHONA, SOTHO- TSWANA & SOUTH- CENTRAL BANTU GROUPS

1800: BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE

Social lifestyle of the Sotho Tswana before 1800

 Marriage- They practiced polygamy, which means that a man with many herds of
cattle was allowed to marry more than one wife because he was able to take care of
a large family. They paid bride price in the form of cattle. Bride price was done to
show appreciation to the girl’s family for having raised a wife for the groom.
  Religion- The Sotho- Tswana believed in ancestors. Ancestors were viewed as a link
between the living and God. As a result, they were offered sacrifices in the form of
livestock regularly so as to appease/ please them. It was believed that if ancestors
were angered by not being offered sacrifices, they would not send the people’s
messages to God.
 Initiation Ceremonies- Boys and girls who reached puberty were sent to initiation
schools. They were taught about the culture and traditions of their society. After
completing initiation ceremonies they were allowed to get married. Women were
taught duties such as being good mothers and household chores. Men were taught
how to hunt and defend the tribe.

 Rain making ceremonies- they were also a common practice among the Sotho-
Tswana. The rain making ceremonies were done to ensure prosperity. These
ceremonies were led by the chief as he was believed to possess divine powers.

Economic Organization
 Arable Farming- the Sotho- Tswana were arable farmers who grew sorghum, millet,
watermelons among other crops. These crops provided the people with a reliable source
of food. As food was abundant, the Sotho- Tswana tended to have large families. Excess
crops could also be bartered within the kingdom/ chiefdom or outside the kingdom for
important items such as iron tools, livestock, game meat, furs and ivory.

 Pastoral farming- The Sotho Tswana were Pastoralists. This means that they reared
goats, sheep and cattle. These animals provided them with food in the form of meat and
milk. They could also use hides from these animals to make clothes, blankets and mats
for protection against elements of the weather (cold).

 Mining- Sotho- Tswana were also miners and metal workers. After mining iron and
copper, they smelted them to produce tools and ornaments respectively. The smelted
iron was used to produce tools and weapons. Iron hoes and axes were used to clear
large pieces of land for crop production. From these large fields, a variety of crops were
grown thus ensuring that enough food was produced. As food was now abundant, the
Sotho- Tswana could afford to have large families. Some of the iron tools produced were
exchanged for livestock or even grain.

 Trade- They practiced both local and long-distance trade with the Asians and Persians.
The long-distance trade was controlled by the chiefs and enabled them to acquire exotic
goods such as glass beads, cloth and sea shells. The acquisition of exotic goods made
chiefs very wealthy and powerful. In exchange for these goods, the coastal traders were
given ivory and furs. The acquisition of exotic goods generated more wealth for the
 Sotho- Tswana especially the ruling elites who controlled it. Local trade was practiced by
the locals were they bartered items such as tools in exchange of grain.

 The Sotho- Tswana also practised hunting on a part time basis. Hunting provided the
people with wild game meat, ivory and furs. The meat supplemented the people’s diet
and it was communally shared. The furs and ivory were used as commodities of trade
with coastal peoples.

Political Organization
 Hereditary- Chieftainship among the Sotho- Tswana was hereditary. When the
incumbent chief died or was unable to lead his people due to sickness or ill health, his
eldest son (usually from the first wife) took over the throne. This system of rulership
may have been used to reduce competition between members of the ruling family.

 Sotho- Tswana chiefs ruled with the assistance of a council of advisors. These advisors
were drawn from both members of the royal family and important members of the
tribe. The council gave advise to the chief although he could sometimes disregard it.
However, most of the times the chief took decisions based on the advice that was
offered by his advisors.

 Army- The Sotho- Tswana also had a standing army which consisted of graduates from
the initiation school. This army was led by the chief. The primary duty of this army was
to defend the kingdom/ chiefdom from external threats. It also went out on hunting
parties on behalf of the chief. Because of their large populations, the Sotho- Tswana
could afford to have a standing army.

 Tribute- Sotho- Tswana chiefs collected tribute from their subjects. This could be in the
form of game meat, ivory, furs or even grains. Subject peoples were required to pay
tribute as a sign of loyalty to the king. Although the tribute could be distributed to the
subject peoples, it in most instances was used to further increase the wealth of the
king/ chief.

Way of life of the Shona before 1800

Social way of life

 Marriage- They usually married after initiation ceremonies. They practiced polygamy,
which means that a man with many heads of cattle was allowed to marry more than
on wife because he could take care of a large family. They usually paid bride price in
the form of cattle. Bride price was paid as a way to show appreciation to the bride’s
family for raising a good daughter.
 The Shona also believed in “Shave” and “Vadzimu” spirits. The Shave spirits were
associated with people living outside Shona society or even animals. Vadzimu spirits
were associated with the ancestors. Vadzimu spirits protected the society. They could
however withdraw such protection if Shona morals were not respected. This explains
why sacrifices were made to these spirits.

 Traditionally, the Shona used music as a medium of instruction. Through music,

young people were taught values and expectations of adulthood. Music was also
used to seal and bond social relations in society in general, for example, an aggrieved
daughter in law could use music to express her unhappiness towards her mother in
law.

 Clothing- The Shona wore clothes made out of the skin of wild animals and their
livestock. These clothes kept them warm during harsh weather conditions and also
covered their nakedness

Economic Way of life

 Arable Farming- the Shona were arable farmers who grew sorghum, millet,
watermelons among other crops. These crops provided the people with a reliable
source of food. As food was abundant, the Sotho- Tswana tended to have large families.
Excess crops could also be bartered within the kingdom/ chiefdom or outside the
kingdom for important items such as iron tools, livestock, game meat, furs and ivory.
 Pastoral farming- The Shona were Pastoralists. This means that they reared goats,
sheep and cattle. These animals provided them with food in the form of meat and milk.
They could also use hides from these animals to make clothes, blankets and mats for
protection against elements of the weather (cold). Cattle was also regarded as a sign of
wealth and a man with many heads of cattle was regarded as the richest in society.

 Hunting- Hunting was also practised by the Shona. They hunted to obtain meat
which they used to supplement their diet. They also hunted so that they could obtain
ivory and furs from elephants and lions which were important commodities of trade
especially with traders at the east African coast.

 Mining- The Shona were also metal workers. Iron was smelted and used to make
weapons and tools. Hoes and axes were used on the crop fields to till the land so that
a lot of crops could be produced. Arable farming was therefore efficiently carried out
as the people had suitable tools for the activity. Iron tools were also used during
bartering. Blacksmiths exchanged iron tools for grains and even livestock. This helped
them to acquire wealth.
 Political Way of life
 Political power- Among the Shona power was centralised and was all in the hands of
the chief/ king. The king had absolute authority as he made and took decisions on all
important matters in his kingdom. He also assumed a leading role in religious
ceremonies. This could have been because the chief was believed to possess divine
powers.

 Although Shona chiefs had absolute authority, they ruled with the assistance of a
council of advisors. These advisors gave advisor on all important matters in the
kingdom. This council served as a checks and balances- it ensured that the chief did
not oppress or misrule his people.

 Tribute- Shona chiefs before 1800 obtained tribute from their subjects. The tribute
could be paid in the form of ivory. Subjects people paid this tribute to show
appreciation for the protection they were given.

South Central Bantu groups before 1800

 Wayei/ Bayei
 Herero/ Baherero
 Basubiya
 Hambukushu/ Bambukushu

BASUBIYA
Social Way of life
Marriage- They usually married after initiation ceremonies. They practiced polygamy,
which means that a man with many heads of cattle was allowed to marry more than
on wife because he could take care of a large family. They usually paid bride price in
the form of cattle. Bride price was paid as a way to show appreciation to the bride’s
family for raising a good daughter.

 Lifestyle- They lived a semi-nomadic lifestyle. This is because they only moved during
drought in search of pastures and water for their livestock. They built huts using reeds
and thatched with grass.

 Clothing- They wore clothes made from animal skins which they got from their
livestock and wild animals. The clothes helped them to stay warm in harsh weather
conditions and also covered their nakedness.
 Economic Way of Life
 Pastoral farming- The Basubiya were pastoralists. This means that they reared livestock
such as cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock provided these people were a reliable supply
of food in the form of milk. They would also occasionally slaughter them for meat. As
food was readily available the South Central Bantu could afford to have large families.
Livestock was also a source of hides/ skins. These skins were used to make clothes,
blankets and mats which protected them from cold temperatures.

 Hunting- Hunting was another important activity among Basubiya. Wild animals were
hunted for meat, ivory and fur for example elephants and hippos. The meat was used to
supplement the people’s diet while the ivory and fur were used as trade commodities.

 Fishing- Since the Basubiya mainly lived nearly rivers they practiced fishing. They
caught fish to supplement their diet and used some for trade with other tribes. They
caught fish using nets and baskets made out of reeds.

 Arable farming- The Basubiya were arable farmers. These people grew crops such as
sorghum, millet, groundnuts and pumpkins among others. The various crops they grew
provided them with a reliable source of food and hence they had large families. The
crops they produced could sometimes be exchanged for livestock or iron tools.

Political Way of Life

 They had a loose political system as each village in the chiefdom was allowed
autonomy. Chiefs in the several villages that made up the chiefdom had the freedom
to make laws in their villages for example. This autonomy promoted and maintained
peaceful relations between the different villages in the chiefdom.

 The Basubiya may had a standing army. Their large numbers could have allowed
them to set aside a number of men whose primary concern was to defend the
chiefdom from external threats.

Lifestyle of the Baherero

Economic lifestyle

Pastoral farming- The Baherero were pastoralists. This means that they reared livestock such
as cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock provided these people were a reliable supply of food in
the form of milk. They would also occasionally slaughter them for meat. As food was readily
available the South Central Bantu could afford to have large families.

 Arable farming- The Baherero were arable farmers. These people grew crops such as
sorghum, millet, groundnuts and pumpkins among others. The various crops they grew
 provided them with a reliable source of food and hence they had large families. The
crops they produced could sometimes be exchanged for livestock or iron tools.
 Hunting- Hunting was another important activity among Baherero. Wild animals were
hunted for meat, ivory and fur for example elephants and hippos. The meat was used to
supplement the people’s diet while the ivory and fur were used as trade commodities.

 Fishing- Since the Basubiya mainly lived nearly rivers they practiced fishing. They caught
fish to supplement their diet and used some for trade with other tribes. They caught fish
using nets and baskets made out of reeds.

 Trade- They were trading with other tribes especially the Tswana groups in order to
acquire items such as grain and iron spears in exchange for cattle, sheep and fur. The
iron spears helped them to kill larger animals and this helped them to increase their
food production.

 Social Lifestyle

 Lifestyle- They lived a semi-nomadic lifestyle because they moved from one place to
another in search of pasture and water for their livestock. As such they built semi-
permanent houses with large branches with thick ends buried in a circle in the ground
and the ends were tied. The structure was then coated with mud and clay.

 Religion- The Baherero worshipped ancestors and believed that trouble was caused by
dead relatives. The priest/leader was the only person who could perform sacrifices to
the ancestors as they were believed to have define power.

 Clans- The Herero lived in religious clans called the Oruzo headed by a religious priest.
Within the Oruzo they further belonged to another blood related group called the
Aenda. No man could marry a wife who belonged to the same Aenda as himself as they
were related.

 Holy Fire- The Herero had a holy fire and the priest was the only person who could light
the holy fire. His oldest daughter was the only person who could look after the holy fire.
This fire was a gift from their ancestor Mukuru and had to be kept burning.

 Political lifestyle

 The Oruzo clan was headed by a leader who was the wealthiest from owning cattle. This
shows that wealth abd religion played an important role in the political life of the
Herero. The role of the priest/leader was to make sacrifices to the ancestors.
  The Herero also had a holy fire which also had political significance and had to be
kept burning all the time and important decisions were made around that fire. If a man
wanted to start his own village he had to take a live coal from the holy fire in order to go
start a new fire at his new village. When the leader died they abandoned the village and
carried the fire with them to start a new village.

Lifestyle of the Hambukushu

Economic lifestyle

 Arable farming- The Hambukushu were arable farmers. These people grew crops such as
sorghum, millet, groundnuts and pumpkins among others. The various crops they grew
provided them with a reliable source of food and hence they had large families. The
crops they produced could sometimes be exchanged for livestock or iron tools.

 Fishing- Since the Hambukushu mainly lived nearly rivers they practiced fishing. They
caught fish to supplement their diet and used some for trade with other tribes. They
caught fish using nets and baskets made out of reeds. Fish was their staple food.

 Hunting- Hunting was another important activity among Baherero. Wild animals were
hunted for meat, ivory and fur for example elephants and hippos. The meat was used to
supplement the people’s diet while the ivory and fur were used as trade commodities.
 Pastoral farming- The Hambukushu were pastoralists. This means that they reared
livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock provided these people were a
reliable supply of food in the form of milk. They would also occasionally slaughter them
for meat. Cattle was also a sign of wealth as a man with many herds of cattle was
regarded as rich in the society and was highly respected.

Social lifestyle

Rain Making- They were well known and respected rainmakers. They say that one of
their great leaders Mashango was the first rainmaker. This is why their neighbours
believed once the Hambukushu were offended there would be no floods in the
Okavango Delta.

Marriage- They married only within their own group. They practiced polygamy. This
means that men were allowed to marry more than one wife. However they did not pay
bride price like other Bantu groups instead the son in law temporarily moved to the
bride’s family as a form of bride service.
 Spirituality- The King possessed all the collective powers of Mbukushu doctors. He alone
could make it rain and allow medicine men to practice in his village. Medicine man
healed, smelt out witches and drove away troublesome spirits during the ritual dance
ceremonies.

Political lifestyle

.[Link] were led by a king (Fumu) who was based in Andra. The king commanded the
loyalty of all his people and he was also a spiritual leader. The king was so powerful that
he was never addressed directly and he was rarely seen in public.

2. A future king had to possess the rain making medicine container that had been
handed down from previous kings. On the death bed the king’s maternal niece could
allow the favorite maternal nephew to seize the scared medicine and thus claim kingship

Lifestyle of the Bayei

Economic lifestyle

 Pastoral farming- The Bayei were pastoralists. This means that they reared livestock
such as cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock provided these people were a reliable supply
of food in the form of milk. They would also occasionally slaughter them for meat. Cattle
was also a sign of wealth as a man with many herds of cattle was regarded as rich in the
society and was highly respected.

 Arable farming- Then Bayei were arable farmers. These people grew crops such as
sorghum, millet, groundnuts and pumpkins among others. The various crops they grew
provided them with a reliable source of food and hence they had large families. The
crops they produced could sometimes be exchanged for livestock or iron tools.

 Fishing- Since the Hambukushu mainly lived nearly rivers they practiced fishing. They
caught fish to supplement their diet and used some for trade with other tribes. They
caught fish using nets and baskets made out of reeds. Fish was their staple food.

 Hunting- Hunting was another important activity among Bayei. Wild animals were
hunted for meat, ivory and fur for example elephants and hippos. The meat was used to
supplement the people’s diet while the ivory and fur were used as trade commodities.

Social lifestyle
 1. They lived in temporary villages because they were semi-nomadic people who only
moved following fish and wild animals. They built huts using few poles and reeds, the
roof consisted of a number of woven mats.

Marriage- They usually married after initiation ceremonies. They practiced polygamy,
which means that a man with many heads of cattle was allowed to marry more than
on wife because he could take care of a large family. They usually paid bride price in
the form of cattle. Bride price was paid as a way to show appreciation to the bride’s
family for raising a good daughter.

Political Lifestyle

1. They lacked centralized leadership that could keep them in one place. Therefore,
they had minor leaders, each of whom had a number of villages under jis control.
This then made them weak and this is primarily the reason why they were easily
defeated by different groups.

COLONIZATION

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

Colonialism- It is a system of political and economic control in which the land, resources and
profits of labour are transferred from the colonized country to the mother country. The
colonized country loses its independence.

Colony-It is a country in which its political and economic resources are controlled by another
country.

Colonization- it is a process of acquiring colonies.

REASONS FOR EUROPEAN COLONIZATION OF SOUTHEREN AFRICA FROM 1500 TO 1800

Need for raw materials- European countries colonized countries in Southern Africa to have
access to raw materials, skins, and ivory. They needed raw materials to process them into
finished goods in their industries and trade them off as finished goods.

Desire to spread Christianity- Some European countries wanted to spread Christianity in

order convert Africans into their religion and also to contain the spread of Islam. Christianity
helped to spread European culture, for example countries that were colonized by Britain use
English as their official language.
Need for new markets- European countries colonized other countries to use them as
markets for their finished goods which they processed in their industries. These new
markets helped them to accumulate wealth for their home countries.

Need for Land- European population was increasing which led to shortage of land,
Europeans colonized African countries to acquire land to settle their people in. Europeans
grabbed African land and sometimes established big farms leaving Africans homeless.

Need for labour- Some European countries colonized African countries because they
needed slaves to work in their plantations in Africa and abroad. For example, the Portuguese
colonized Kongo and Angola to acquire slaves who were transported to Brazil and the
Americas to work in sugar and coffee plantations.

METHODS USED BY EUROPEANS TO COLONIZE SOUTHERN AFRICA

Force/Conquest- Some Africans resisted European colonization but then Europeans used
force to colonize them by fighting and defeating Africans. This was because Europeans were
militarily more powerful than Africans as they used guns while Africans only used spears.

Treaty/Trickery system- Africans were tricked into signing treaties or agreements by

Europeans even though they did not know how to read and write. By putting a cross on a
piece of paper the Africans were signing off their land to the Europeans.

The Protectorate method- Some African leaders were persuaded by missionaries to ask
Europeans for protection from external threats and sometimes it was the African leaders
themselves who as ked for that protection. Then later the protection was followed by
colonization.

PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION OF KONGO (1482- 1700)

Kongo Kingdom before Contact with the Portuguese

Reasons why the Portuguese colonized Kongo

1. They wanted to spread Christianity

2. They wanted to acquire raw materials such as ivory, silver and copper
3. They wanted to establish trade links with the Bakongo
4. They wanted slaves to work in their plantations in Brazil and Sao Thome.
5. They wanted to find the rich kingdom of Presto John

The early relations between the Portuguese and Bakongo/Portuguese Policy in Kongo

 It was friendly as shown by the exchange of ambassadors between the two countries.
 There was exchange of culture as Bakongo were sent to schools in Portugal
 Christianity dominated the relations in Kongo as shown by the baptism of Mani
Kongo and the royal family.
 It was also friendly because Portugal sent teachers and missionaries to westernize
Bakongo. In exchange the Bakongo paid with ivory, furs and slaves.
 Later on relations became sour because the Portuguese started enslaving Kongo
people and disrespecting Mani Kongo

THE REGIMENTO

This was a document that was issued by King Manuel I of Portugal to be used to
westernize the Bakongo. This document was given to Samao Da Silva to facilitate
westernization in Kongo.

Details of the Regimento

 The two kings of Portugal and Kongo shall be Christian brothers

 The Portuguese king was to assist his Kongo brother to spread Christianity in Kongo.
 Da Silva was to be ambassador in Kongo and to advice the king on military matters.
He was also to be judge to all Portuguese living in Kongo
 Some Bakongo would be sent to Portugal to be converted into Christianity and to
learn how to read and write.
 Kongo kingdom would adopt the Portuguese legal system.
 The Portuguese services in Kongo would be paid for with slaves, copper and ivory.

Reasons for the failure of Westernisation of Kongo Kingdom

 The slave trade contributed to the failure of westernization of the Kongo. The
Portuguese in the Kongo treated the Bakongo with contempt. They soon began to
sell the Bakongo into slavery, instead of modernising the Kongo kingdom. Portuguese
officials and missionaries looked to profit from the now lucrative slave trade business
and neglected their duties. The involvement of Portuguese officials in the slave trade
led to the failure of the westernization of Kongo

 The failure of the regimento also contributed to the failure of westernization of the
Kongo kingdom. The regimento was a document which contained instructions on
how westernization was to be achieved in the Kongo. King Manuel of Portugal sent
Simao da Silva to the Kongo to implement the regimento. However, not all contents
of the regimento were accepted by Affonso who was the king of the Kongo kingdom.
The regimento could therefore not bring about westernization as it was overly
ambitious. It also could not bring about westernization because Simao da Silva, the
man who was to implement it died before he could implement it.
 Portuguese interest in Ndongo (Angola) especially during the reign of John III of
Portugal also contributed to the failure of the modernization of the Kongo kingdom.
 The Portuguese believed that Ndongo had enormous mineral deposits. The
Portuguese therefore abandoned the Kongo so that they could colonise Ndongo and
exploit its natural resources especially minerals such as silver.
 Communication breakdown between Kongo and Portugal also contributed to the
failure of westernization. Affonso wrote several letters to his counterpart, John III,
complaining about the slave trading activities of the Portuguese in Kongo. John III’s
replies were usually very late and unhelpful. Sometimes Affonso’s.
 The attitude of the Bakongo also contributed to the failure of westernization of
Kongo. They sabotaged the Portuguese as many of them went back to their
traditional and abandoned western culture.

REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE KONGO KINGDOM

Political/Succession disputes- There was conflict in the royal family for the throne after the
death of Mani Kongo. The son’s fought to rule the kingdom, for example Affonso fought with
Mpanzi. This civil war brought disunity among the people and that brought about the
collapse of the Kongo Kingdom.

Slavery/Slave trade- The Portuguese such as missionaries and teachers who were sent to
Kongo to facilitate westernization were involved in the slave trade. They captured the Kongo
people and sold them to work in plantations in Sao Thome and Brazil. Slavery led to the
collapse of the Kongo kingdom as many people ran away from being captured as slaves.

Christianity- Some Kongo people were converted into Christianity by Portuguese

missionaries. The Kongo people were divided between the Christians and the traditionalists.
This brought disunity between the Kongo people as they were now fighting between each
other and did not want to cooperate. This disunity ultimately led to the collapse of the
Kongo kingdom.

The Jaga Invasion- The Jaga were fierce warriors who fought using spears and swords and
rode on horses. They invaded the Kongo kingdom and managed to kill the king and the royal
family which led to a succession crisis. They also and killed many people which resulted in
many people losing their lives which led to instability. This massive loss of lives ultimately led
to the collapse of the Kongo Kingdom.

THE PORTUGUESE IN ANGOLA (1575-1836)

Reasons for the Portuguese colonization of Angola

 They wanted to spread Christianity

 They wanted minerals such as gold and silver
 They wanted to establish trade links with Angola
 They wanted slaves to work in plantations in Sao Thome and Brazil
Details of the Donatario
The donatario was a document given to De Novaes by the king of Portugal which gave him
the rights to colonize Angola.

 De Novaes was given the Southern part of Angola as his own property
 He had to settle with 100 Portuguese families which were provided with seeds and
farm implements
 He was to take 400 soldiers with him to conquer Angola
 He had to ensure that Angola was captured and colonized

METHODS USED BY QUEEN NDZINGA TO RESIST THE PORTUGUESE/CAREER OF QUEEN

NDZINGA

The Career of Queen Anna Nzinga of Angola

 After she assumed power, Queen Nzinga entered into anti Portuguese alliances with
neighbouring groups such as the Jaga and Kissama. These alliances strengthened
Nzinga’s army as when they joined her they brought soldiers and more weapons.
This then helped her to intensify her resistance against Portuguese colonization.
 Queen Nzinga also encouraged the African soldiers (Kimbares) in the Portuguese
armies to rebel against the Portuguese and join her army. This move significantly
weakened the Portuguese. The Kimbares made her army stronger as they brought
weapons with them. This then successfully helped her fight off Portuguese invasion.
 Slaves who had run away from their Portuguese masters were also admitted into the
kingdom. Queen Ndzinga herself encouraged slaves to run away and she offered
them protection. The loss of slave labour weakened the Portuguese economy as it
was dependent of free labour. Once the economy was weakened the intensity of
Portuguese attacks on the Angolans somewhat went down. This helped her to fight
Portuguese invasion.
 Queen Nzinga also encouraged vassal chiefs to rebel against their Portuguese rulers.
She encouraged such chiefs to join Ndongo in the war of resistance against
Portuguese colonization. This clearly boosted the military strength Ndongo. This was
because more soldiers and weapons brought by the Vassal chiefs strengthened her
army. This then helped her to fight off Portuguese invasion.

METHODS USED BY THE PORTUGUESE TO OBTAIN SLAVES IN ANGOLA

 Vassal chiefs- These were chiefs under the control of the Portuguese. They raided for
slaves on behalf of the Portuguese. Once these slaves were captured, they were sold
to the Portuguese. They also sold criminals and prisoners of war to the Pombeiros.
They would then get exotic items such as cloth, tobacco and alcohol in exchange for
the slaves.
  Pombeiros – These were slave trading agents who were also used by the Portuguese
to capture slaves from the interior. They usually bought slaves from chiefs, Kuata and
other Portuguese. They usually paid for the slaves with cloth, spirits (alcohol) and
metal instruments.
 Kuata Kuata- These were slave raiders who used guns to attack groups and raid for
slaves in the interior. These were organised slave raiding parties who went into the
interior of Angola to raid for slaves on behalf of the Portuguese.
 Sobaba owners- These were densely populated areas which were owned by priests,
soldiers and government officials. The owners of the sobabas demanded slaves from
people living in their land. So they encouraged slave trade amongst people living in
their land.

EFFECTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN ANGOLA

Positive Effects
 Some Africans especially vassal chiefs became wealthy. This is because they would
capture slaves, prisoners of war and criminals and sell them as slaves to the
Portuguese. They would in exchange get exotic goods such as cloth, tobacco and
alcohol which them made them very wealthy
 Slave trade brought about infrastructural development in Angola. This is because
slaves were used to construct roads, offices, bridges and ports in Angola. This then
enabled Angolan’s to access services easier as now they could travel easier by road
or sea.
 The port of Luanda which was used to transport slaves from Angola to Brazil and Sao
Thome was used as trade links for Angola. Its is now used to import and export
goods. This has helped improve and enrich the economy of Angola as they charge
countries that use their ports to transport goods.

Negative Effects

 Slave trade led to a decline in agriculture. This is because able bodied men and
women who were productive in Africa were usually taken and sold as slaves. This
then left only old people and children who failed to take care of agricultural
activities. This then led to poverty and starvation as they had no food to eat.
 Population decrease- Slave trade led to a massive population decline in Angola. This
was because many people were taken away as slaves and sent off to plantations in
Brazil and Sao Thome. this led to communities breaking up and becoming unstable as
some lost their chiefs to slave trade.
 Family breakdowns- Slavery led to family breakdowns because families were
separated from one another. Men, women and children were usually captured and
 sent to different places as slaves. This separated husbands and wives and children
were mostly left as orphans.

EFFECTS OF PORTUGUESE COLONIZATION IN ANGOLA

Positive effects
 Colonization brought about formal education to Angola. Some Africans learnt how to
read and write and became literate due to formal education. This western education
enabled them to gain employment in offices which provided them with an income
that helped them to take care of their families.
 Vassal chiefs became very wealthy as a result of practicing slave trade. The Vassal
chiefs usually traded prisoners and criminals to the Pombeiros. The chiefs then got
exotic goods in exchange for the slaves such as cloth, tobacco and alcohol and this
made them very wealthy.
 The Portuguese built infrastructure such as sea ports in places such
as Luanda. These ports facilitated the movements of goods into the
interior of Angola. Thus the Angolans now had access to various
exotic goods which they could use to enhance their wealth and
status.
 Colonization enabled the Angolans to acquire guns from the Portuguese. These guns
later enabled them to fight and defend themselves against attacks from their
enemies. This enabled them to build stronger kingdoms as they were now able to
protect themselves from defeats.

Negative effects

 Colonization led to a decline in agriculture. This is because able bodied men and
women who were productive in Africa were usually taken and sold as slaves. This
then left only old people and children who failed to take care of agricultural
activities. This then led to poverty and starvation as they had no food to eat.
 Many Angolans were killed in the wars they fought against the
Portuguese. As a result of these wars, the Angolans became
depopulated. A reduction in population weakened Angola militarily
as the military strength of the kingdom depended on its large
population.
 Angola’s natural resources were left undeveloped during the colonial
period. This was because the Portuguese were mainly focused on
the lucrative slave trade business. As a result, Angola stagnated
economically during the colonial period.

THE DUTCH AT THE CAPE: 1652-1800

 Reasons for the Dutch occupation of the Cape/Why the Dutch settled at the Cape in
1652

 The Cape had fertile soils which could be used to produce vegetables.
 There was availability of the Khoi who could supply them with fresh meat.
 The Cape could be used as a place to fix their damaged ships before continuing to the
East.
 The Cape was halfway from Holland to the Far East and they could use it as a
refreshment station

Instructions given to Van Riebeck when the Dutch settled at the Cape

 To treat the Khoi with kindness so that they can get fresh meat from them through
trading.
 To build a fort to defend the refreshment station.
 To build a hospital to attend to sick soldiers
 To establish a vegetable garden to supply the new settlement and the passing ships.

Problems faced by the Dutch when they settled at the cape in 1652

 There was a drought at the Cape when Jan van Riebeeck arrived. As a result of
this drought Jan van Riebeeck was unable to grow fruits and vegetables.
 There was also shortage of labour as some company servants refused to work
because of low wages. This shortage of labour negatively affected the production
of fruits and vegetables in the new settlement.
 The Khoi had moved away from the cape due to drought. This resulted in the
Dutch experiencing shortage of meat.
 They were attacked by diseases such as dysentery due to floods and a lot of
people died.
 Their first wheat crops were destroyed by high winds.

How Jan Van Riebeck contributed to the expansion of the Cape

Slavery- Slavery was also introduced to solve the problem of shortage of labour. Slaves
also brought in from Madagascar, Mozambique and Indonesia. They brought about 2500
slaves by 1790 to the Cape. Jan van Riebeeck could not enslave the Khoekhoe as it was
feared that they would resist enslavement, and such resistance would be too costly to
the Dutch East India Company. The Khoekhoe also refused to work on Dutch farms
regularly as they still had their livestock to depend on. Slavery also increased production
as many worked in the farms. Slavery also improved infrastructure at the Cape as they
were used to build roads.

Mixed marriages- Jan van Riebeeck introduced the policy of intermarriages between the
company servants and Khoekhoe women. This policy was intended to solve the problem
of shortage of women. This policy also intended to increase labour in the Cape. This was
because children born out of the union between the settlers and Khoekhoe women
would be made to also work on Dutch farms. Children of mixed blood were born and
they were referred to as coloureds. The coloured community increased population at the
Cape as many white men had children with African women. They also increased
production in the farms because coloureds were turned into slaves.

Free farmers (Free Burghers)- The company could not produce enough food to supply
passing ships due to shortage of labour. Van Riebeck released 9 company servants to
produce food for the station. The farmers were given 30 acres of land, farm implements
and seeds. They grew vegetables such as wheat, barley and vegetables. They sold the
produce to passing ships. More sailors arrived to be free burghers and more land was
allocated The Cape boarders also increased as more free burghers were given farms to
produce food.

How Simon Van Der Stel contributed to the expansion of the Cape

Trek Boers- Trek Boers also contributed to the expansion of the Cape
settlement. Trekboers lived on the frontiers of the colony. They led a
nomadic lifestyle as they were predominantly pastoral farmers. Trekboers had large
families and adult male children considered it a birth right to go out and acquire land on
their own. The nomadic lifestyle of the Trekboers and the desire by their male children to
have farms of their own resulted in more land being occupied by whites. The Cape
government kept on expanding its official boundaries so that it could keep up with the
Trekboers. This contributed to the expansion of the Cape Colony.

The Policy of immigration- Simon encouraged Europeans to come

and settle at the Cape in order to increase white population. The
immigrants were promised to be given free land, farm implements and
seeds to be self sufficient. As more white settlers arrived more land
was allocated and the Cape expanded As example of this group was
the French Protestants who were fleeing persecution in France.

Establishment of large farms- Simon established large farms to produce grapes and
wheat. The Cape became a flourishing center for wine production because the French
had skills for making wine. So Simon acquired more land for himself and his friends.
 Acquiring land for grape and wheat production greatly led to the expansion of the Cape
Colony as more land was needed.

Effects of the Dutch on the Khoisan (Indegenous people) at the Cape

Negative effects

Loss of Land- Dutch expansion into the interior drove the San and the
Khoe away from their ancestral lands. As the Dutch had superior weapons,
they easily defeated and drove the Khoesan into the desert areas of the Kalahari and Namib
deserts. The Dutch used superior weapions like guns while the Khoisan only used bows and
arrows. While in the deserts, the Khoesan struggled to survive as food and water were
scarce to find. The Khoesan were then exposed to long periods of hunger and they
eventually died because of starvation.

Loss of Livestock- The Dutch also stole the livestock of the Khoekhoe they came into contact
with. The Khoe pastoralists thus lost an important source of their livelihood and source of
food. The loss of livestock forced the Khoe to work on Boer farms or become migrant
labourers in order to survive. Livestock was a source of wealth for the Khoi and losing them
lead them into poverty and starvation.

Loss of Life- The Khoisan lost their lives during wars between them and the Dutch. This is
because the Dutch used superior weapons such as guns while the Khoisan only used bows
and arrows. These wars usually took place due to the Dutch wanting more land and livestock
from the Khoisan. This led to the depopulation of the Khoisan communities

Positive effects

Trade- To some extent Dutch expansion benefited some indigenous

people of the Cape such as the Khoisan. The Dutch for example
exchanged tobacco and brass for Khoekhoe livestock and ivory from the San.
The Khoesan derived pleasure out of the tobacco they got and used the brass to make
jewelery which they used to enhance their beauty.

Arable farming skills- After losing the land and livestock the Khoesan were forced to work on
the farms of the Dutch to plough for them. So the Khoesan were able to learn the growing of
crops. This then enabled them to start growing their own food and this led to them to stop
living a normadic lifestyle and to start living a permanent lifestyle.

Reasons for the collapse of the Dutch East India Company

 After the Seven year war (1756- 1763) between Britain and France,
Britain became the most dominant trade power. Britain’s control of
 trade therefore contributed to the collapse of the Dutch East India
Company as it was starved of trade.
 Corruption in the company also contributed to its collapse. Company
officials were more interested in pursuing their personal interests
and not those of the company. For example, during the control by
Simon corruption became widespread. Senior company officials
allocated themselves large tracts of land.
 The company collapsed also because of problems in Holland. As
revenue from foreign trade went down, the Netherlands did not
have money to bail the company out of the financial problems it was
experiencing.
 The DEIC also collapsed because it became bankrupt. Because of bankruptcy the
company did not have funds which it could use to administer the Cape Colony. This
led to it failing to pay its debts.

THE BRITISH OCCUPATION OF THE CAPE: 1806-1836 AND THE BOER TREK

Why the British took over the Cape Colony in 1806

 The British wanted to use it as a halfway station for its trading ships as it was halfway
between Britain and the East Indies
 Britain had lost some of her colonies in the America and so she shifted towards the
East
 The Dutch East India Company had gone bankrupt and this made it easier for the
British to take over
 The British wanted to block the French from taking over the Cape after French
defeated Holland

British Legal reforms at the Cape

Abolition of Slave Trade Act of 1807- This law officially stopped trade in slaves. Slaves could
not be imported into the Cape Colony. The introduction of this act resulted in shortage of
labour especially in agricultural activities. The British offered the Boers who had lost slaves a
small compensation but the compensation had to be collected in London which was far and
expensive. This reform benefitted Africans as it protected them from being abused by
Whites at the Cape. This reform was hated by the Boers since it took away their free labour
and it caused the Boer trek.

Khoikhoi Ordinance/ First Hottentot Code (1809)- This reform required Africans working in
the farms of the Whites at the Cape to carry a pass which stated where they lived and who
they worked for. Those who did not have a pass were charged for loitering. This code
befitted the Whites because it restricted the movement of Africans at the Cape. The Boers
liked this reform because it helped them to control the movements of their farm servants
and provided them with cheap labour.

Circuit Courts of 1811- These were mobile courts which were used by the British to solve
disputes between African workers and their masters. Africans were allowed take their
masters to court for abuse or mill-treatment. These courts benefitted Africans at the Cape
because they protected them from abuse by Whites at the Cape. The Boers hated these
courts since they always favoured Africans. This reform was one of the causes of the Boer
trek.

The Apprenticeship Act of 1812- The act stated that children of Africans who worked in the
farms and homes of whites must be attached to and assist their parents after they reach the
age of 8 to 10 years old. The act was introduced because the Whites complained that
children of the Africans working in their farms and homes were eating food for free. This law
benefited the Whites at the Cape because it provided them with free labour.

The 50th Ordinance of 1828- This reform was introduced to abolish the Hottentots code and
the Apprenticeship Act. It gave Africans freedom of movement at the Cape and the right to
own land. Africans were free to move around the Cape and to work anyone they wanted for
better wages. This reform benefitted Africans because it protected them from abuse by the
Whites at the Cape. The reform was hated by the Boers as they felt it took away their
servants and this was one of the causes of the Boer trek.

British Administrative reforms

Introduction of English language at the Cape- English was introduced as the official
language at the cape. English was to be used as a medium of communication in school’s,
courts and government offices. This reform angered the Boers as they felt this was away to
erode their culture. This reform was one of the causes of the Boer Trek.

Introduction of the British Pound- The British replaced the Dutch mark with the British
Pound at the Cape. This change angered the Boers as they saw the mark as Dutch pride.
They also felt it was a way to erode their culture. So most Boers decided to go on the Boer
trek.
Policy of Anglicization- This was an attempt by the British to make the
Cape more English. So they did this by encouraging British families to
move to the Cape. Money was made available to assist anyone who
wanted to travel and settle at the Cape. By 1820 the British had settled
5000 British at the Cape who were given 40 hectares of land each. Their
duty was to farm the land and to secure the Eastern Cape. The soils were
not that fertile for wheat and eventually most moved and settled at the
Cape and other towns. The increase in number of the British angered the
Boers and this caused the Boer trek.

CAUSES OF THE BOER TREK OTHER THAN THE BRITISH REFORMS

 There was a belief that the Boers had a nomadic culture which encouraged them to
move in search of pastures and water for their livestock. It is believed that the Boer
trek was caused by the migrating factor of the Boers. So they ended up living outside
the boundaries of the Cape.
 There were rumours that the British would take all land occupied by the Boers at the
Cape and give it to Africans. So the Boers moved out of the Cape because they
feared that they would be homeless. This resulted in the Boer trek as they had to
search for land to settle.
 There is a belief that the Boers were adventurous people. They moved out of the
Cape to explore new places. This look for adventure caused the Boer trek because
Boers migrated to see other places and ultimately settled outside the Cape which
resulted in the Boer trek.
 There were rumours that the British were going to introduce mixed marriages at the
Cape. The Boers did not want to marry Africans because they referred to them as an
inferior race. The Boers moved out of the Cape to protect the purity of Boer blood.

THE BOER TREK/ THE GREAT TREK: 1836-1854

The Boer trek was the massive movement of the Boers from the Cape into the interior of
Southern Africa during the 1830’s.

Leaders of the Boer Trek

 Louis Trichardt
 Jan van Rensburg
 Andries Potgieter
 Sarel Cilliers
 Gerrit Maritz
 Piet Retief
  Andries Pretorius
 Piet Uys

Impact of Boer Invasion on the Indigenous Peoples

Loss of land- As the number of Boers who moved into the interior
increased so did their demand for land. As pastoralists the Boers needed
land on which they could rear livestock. This land could only be obtained
through conquest as the Africans also needed it for settlement, pasture
and arable farming. The Boers used guns and horses to drive Africans out
of their land. The emptied land was immediately occupied by the
victorious Boers. This loss of land disturbed the economic activities of the
Africans especially arable and pastoral farming. This resulted in poverty
and starvation for African tribes.

Loss of Lives- Although the Boers were fewer in number compared to the Africans, Boers
killed thousands of Africans during wars over land and cattle. This was because Boers used
modern guns and horses while Africans fought on foot and used spears. During the Battle of
Blood River in 1838, 3000 Zulu warriors were killed while only 3 Boers were injured. The
huge loss in human life depopulated African groups. This immense loss in life also
contributed to the weakening of African groups as their military strength.

Loss of Livestock- Defeated African groups had their livestock especially cattle taken away by
the Boers. In 1837 the Boers attacked and defeated the Ndebele. The Boers captured 7000
Ndebele cattle. This enormous loss of cattle reduced the Ndebele to poverty and this
explains why the Ndebele resorted to raiding their neighbours such as the Tswana for cattle.
They primarily wanted to replace the cattle they lost to the Boers.

Exotic goods- During the journey into the interior Boers traded with
some local communities they came into contact with. During the Boer Trek
the trekking Boers had no time to grow crops. They therefore bartered
with Africans. Africans were given alcohol, tobacco, iron tools and cotton
clothes in exchange for grains. From the alcohol and tobacco Africans derived pleasure.

Arable farming skills- Africans acquired new farming skills from the Boers which
helped them to improve agriculture. This enabled them to now start producing new crops
that also increased their food supply. This led to groups such as the Khoisan to stop living a
nomadic lifestyle and to start living a permanent lifestyle coz they had learnt how to grow
their own crops.

Boer republics established during/after the Boer trek

 Transvaal
 Orange Free State
  Natalia
 Maritzburg
 Lyndernberg

Relations between the Boer Trekkers and the British

The Sand River Convention- In 1852 the British signed an agreement with the Boer
republics north of the Vaal. The British agreed to recognize the independence of Transvaal.
The Boers agreed with the British that they would practice slavery on Africans. The British
also agreed to sell guns to the Boers and promised the Boers that they would not sell guns
to the Africans.

The Bloemfontein Convention- In 1854 the British had a meeting with Boers to resolve the
conflicts between the Boers and the British in Bloemfontein. During the meeting the British
agreed to withdraw from the Orange River and hand it back to the Boers. After the meeting
the Boer republic was renamed the Orange Free State.

Trade- The British traded with the Boer trekkers by selling guns to them. This made the
Boers to be militarily powerful. They then used these guns to attack African groups for land
and livestock.

The Relations between the Boers and Africans

 The Boer Trek resulted in the establishment of the new Republic of Natalia in 1839.
The new republic was independent from British control. Africans living within the
Borders of the republic were required to provide free labour on the large farms the
Boer government had allocated to the Boers. African children were even captured as
slaves by the Boer farms. Even though this was the case, there were restrictions on
the numbers of African families that could settle on Boer farms. The establishment of
new republics reduced Africans to squatters on their land. It finally resulted in the
enslavement of the Africans.
 The Boer Trek also resulted in Tswana groups such as the Kgatla and
Kwena developing close ties with missionaries from the 1840s. The
Tswana knew that once missionaries had set up missions in their
states traders from the Cape would follow. Missionaries were also
seen as allies against Boers. These Boers intended to force the
Tswana to provide them with free labour on their farms. During the
Battle of Dimawe on 30 August 1852, the Kwena successfully
defended themselves against a Boer attack. The close relationship
with missionaries enabled the Tswana to acquire guns which they
successfully used to stop the Voortrekkers from completely taking
over their land.
 Another effect of the Boer Trek was the Sand River Convention of
1852. These Boer republics had the freedom to treat their African
 subjects and neighbours anyhow. The British in other words were
not to interfere in the affairs of the Boer republics. It was also
agreed that the British would not sell arms and ammunition to the
Africans. However, the Boers were not to enslave the Africans. As
Africans could not buy guns and ammunitions, they were weakened militarily
hence they could not challenge Boer military superiority.

MFECANE/DIFAQANE

The Mfecane means a series of tribal wars amongst the Nguni peoples of Southern Africa
during the early 19th century.

Nguni groups that started Mfecane

 Ndwandwe of Zwide
 Mthethwa of Dingwiswayo
 Ngwane of Sobhuza
 Hlubi of Mpangazita

Causes of Mfecane according to the old school of thought

Population Explosion/ Increase

Due to population increase in Nguni land, there was constant friction between the different
ethnic groups in the area. This population growth was caused by an abundance of food
supplies, favourable climatic and environmental conditions. The introduction of the high
yield crops like maize also led to population increase. So tribes needed more land to settle
their people and for arable farming purposes and as such this led to wars.

Competition for fertile land

The Nguni competed for fertile soils because they were arable farmers. So this means that
more land for crop production by different tribes. This competition for land led to wars
between Nguni groups.

Madlatule drought of 1802

A prolonged drought occurred in Nguniland which was caused by lack of unreliable rainfall.
It then led to competition for over natural resources such as pasture, water and fertile land.
Groups also raided each other for cattle and grain. This competition for natural resources led
to war among the Nguni groups.

Age regiments

Some leaders like Dingwisayo introduced age regiments which formed a permanent army.
The permanent armies were used to raid and conquer other groups. This then led to wars as
weaker groups defended themselves from these powerful groups.

The rise of Shaka Zulu

Shaka introduced new fighting techniques which he used to defeat and conquer other
groups. His aim at creating a large Zulu kingdom resulted in him attacking many groups to
make them part of the Zulu kingdom. Some groups were forced to run away from Shaka to
find new settlements. As they were running away they attacked other tribes and this led to
Mfecane wars.

Causes of Mfecane according to the new school of thought by Julian Cobbing

 Cobbing argues that the idea that the Mfecane was caused by Shaka Zulu was not
only wrong but also a deliberate falsification. According to Cobbing the wars which
took place during the 1820s were caused by the expansion of European colonial
settlements and commerce in Southern Africa.
 Julian Cobbing argues that the increasing labour needs of the Cape
Colony destabilized many kingdoms in Nguni land. During the 1820s
there was shortage of labour in the Cape Colony. This was as a
result of the abolition of slavery at the Cape Colony. Europeans
opted to hiring the Griqua and Kora to capture slaves for them from
the interior (Nguni land). These slave raiders attacked the Sotho-
Tswana and captured their women and children and sold them as
labourers to the Europeans.
  Age regiments could have not caused the Mfecane wars because
they had always been in existence. Besides this, Cobbing argues,
age regiments played an important socio- political role in African
societies. They had never before led to wars of the magnitude of the
Mfecane.
 The issue of population explosion according to Cobbing could not be
used to explain the causes of the Mfecane. He argues that there
was no empirical evidence to support the argument. No census was
carried out to show convincingly that population explosion had
reached such intolerable levels to cause the Mfecane.

THE ZULU KINGDON UNDER SHAKA ZULU

Shaka’s aims when he became leader of the Zulu Kingdom

 To build a strong army for conquest and for defense.
 To bring together different ethnic groups under a united Zulu
kingdom.
 To make himself a dictator by centralizing all power on himself
 To revenge for all the humiliation he suffered during his upbringing.

Shaka’s military reforms

 He introduced the short stabbing spear. Nguni warriors used long thrown
spears which usually left a soldier defenceless. The Short stabbing spear
changed warfare in Nguni land. Once the enemy had thrown all its spears,
the Zulu warriors moved in and stabbed them to death with their short
spears. He also introduced the long shield which protected the entire body
to replace the short shield which only covered half the body leaving the
soldier exposed. This method promoted bravery from his soldiers.
 He also introduced the cow horn formation. Under this
formation, one or two regiments engaged the enemy while
other regiments cycled round at each side to enclose it. The
Loins and the Chest were to engage the enemy and the
 horns encircle the enemy for total defeat while the chest was
the reserve army. So the enemy had nowhere to escape and
as such the enemy was killed easily.

 Shaka further introduced the scotched earth policy. Enemies

were totally defeated and their property taken away from
them. Shaka at times poisoned their food sources and water
sources. Their homes were burnt down. Defeated chiefs were
murdered and their places were taken by Shaka's trusted headman.
 The element of surprise was yet another military reform
introduced by Shaka. Spies, smoke signals and runners were
used. Shaka would also surprise his enemies by attacking
them early in the morning while they least expected it. As
such the enemy had no time to prepare themselves nor to
defend themselves from an attack.
 Sandals were also abolished as Shaka believed that they
reduced the speed of the warriors. So his soldiers fought
barefooted and this increased the speed of his soldiers
during war. So enemies could never outrun Shaka’s soldiers.

Organization of the Zulu kingdom

[Link] organization
 Shaka had total power. He controlled the political, economic and
social activities of the Zulu Kingdom.
 Chiefs of conquered groups lost their power and independence.
They became headman and were closely monitored by Shaka.
 Shaka controlled all regiments in the army. He became the army
commander. This weakened the power of the headman because
they could not call on their men to rebel against Shaka.

Economic organization
 Shaka gave permission for ploughing and harvesting the first crops.
Breaking the law was punishable by death. An annual first harvest
 ceremony was held. Everyone in the kingdom attended and this
created a sense of unity within the kingdom.
 Regiments of unmarried women lived in military towns. They grew
crops that fed the people in those towns. Each town had its own
cattle to provide them with meat and milk. This promoted self
suffiency in the kingdom.
 Most of the Zulu wealth came from rearing cattle raided from
weaker groups. All cattle captured during raids belonged to Shaka.
Refusal to hand over these cattle was punishable by death. These
cattle handed to Shaka after raids made him very wealthy.

Social Organization
 Boys and girls that reached puberty were organized into age
regiments. The boys were not circumcised because it would delay
their military training. The boys regiments became part of the Zulu
Military.
 Men and women remained single until Shaka gave them permission
to marry. He released a regiment of men and women at the same
time for men to choose their wives from their age regiments. A
man was only allowed to marry after the age of 40 and having
proven himself in battle.
 Shaka insisted that everyone in his kingdom should speak the Zulu
language, even those people from captured tribes. This promoted
Zulu culture. It also brought a sense of belonging and unity
amongst all those living in the Zulu kingdom.
THE KOLOLO OF SEBETWANE

Sebetwane’s aims after coming to power

 To save his people from frequent attacks by Mfecane warriors who
fled Zululand.
 To find a home for his people
 To build a powerful multi-tribal kingdom
 To build a powerful army which could defend the kingdom
Sebetwane’s economic reforms
 He raided cattle from his neighbours. This helped him to create
wealth for the kingdom
 He encouraged his people to grow to grow crops to produce food
for the kingdom. This helped the kingdom to be self sufficient.
 He collected tribute of various kinds from his subjects. Tribute was
usually paid in the form of grain, ivory and cattle. Tribute was paid
as a form of loyalty or respect. This tribute made him very wealthy
and powerful.
 He moved his capital to Linyanti which was a very good cattle
rearing area. It was alson an easy route that was accessible to
trade.

Sebetwane’s social reforms

 The Kololo language was made the official language of the kingdom.
This served to unify the kingdom. There was now a feeling of
understanding and oneness between the Lozi and the Kololo. In the
fullness of time both groups started to consider themselves as
Kololo and gradually the Lozi indigenous language died.
 He married Lozi wives and encouraged his men to follow his
example. This then made the Lozi to feel accepted into the
kingdom. This then strengthened the Kololo kingdom as it brought
a sense of belonging and unity amongst the Kololo and the Lozi.
 Sebetwane mixed freely with his people, that is both the Kololo and
the Lozi. This made everyone feel accepted in the kingdom. This
also helped him to tolerate and accept the Lozi religious beliefs
whose chiefs isolated themselves from their people. So the Lozi
people related with him well and accepted him as their leader.
 Sebetwane further allowed the Lozi to practice their traditional
culture. For example, he allowed them to practice their matrilineal
system alongside the patrilineal system of the Kololo. This won him
the respect of all his people, both Lozi and Kololo.
  Sebetwane discouraged the Kololo from adopting the attitudes of
being dominant over the Lozi. He wanted them to stop treating the
other subject groups as inferior. He therefore worked hard towards
bringing the diverse groups together. Both the Kololo and Lozi subjects were
appointed into leadership positions, that is, they all could be appointed as headmen.

Sebetwane’s political reforms

 He organized the kingdom into levels, the kingdom, provinces,
villages and wards. This helped him to run his administration easily
and also to be well informed about everything taking place in the
kingdom.
 He formed a standing army to protect the kingdom. The army was
also use to raid cattle from their neighbours. The army also
attacked these groups so he could have authority over them.
 He had an open door policy. This means that his subjects could see
him whenever they wanted. He was accessible to both the Kololo
and the Lozi. So people loved him as he did not force his authority
over them.
 Conquered groups paid tribute to Sebetwane. Tribute was paid as a
form of loyalty and respect. Tribute was usually paid in the form of
grain, cattle and ivory. Tribute enabled Sebetwane to amass wealth
which made him very powerful.

Reasons why the Kololo kingdom collapsed

 Sebetwane died in 1851. He was succeded by his son Sekeletu. He
lacked courage, ability, vision and military intelligence. So this
made him a very weak and incapable leader.
 Sekeletu destroyed the kingdom by killing the Lozi whom he
suspected of bewitching him. This then brought mustrust between
him and the Lozi and this weakened the kingdom.
  The Kololo were killed by malaria in large numbers because they di
not have immunity to the disease.
 The Lozi overthrew the Kololo rule in 1864 which weakened the
kingdom. This then marked an end of Kololo kingdom.

The Ndebele of Mzilikazi

Mzilikazi’s aims when he came to power

 To find a homeland for his people far from Zululand.
 To establish as a powerful leader.
 To create and sustain his own wealth and power as a leader.
 To establish a powerful Ndebele kingdom

Social Reforms
The Ndebele society was divided into classes. At the top were the original Nguni people and
these were known as the ‘Zansi’. Next in line were the Sotho- Tswana groups which were
incorporated during the time spent in the Transvaal and these were known as the ‘Enhla’. At
the bottom of the ladder were the Shona tribes who were known as the ‘Hole’. These
divisions were mainly for purposes of preserving the Ndebele language and culture.

Mzilikazi also adopted the religion of the Shona. The priests of this cult were given a lot of
respect not only by the Shona but also by Mzilikazi himself. He also placed great confidence
in their prophecies. Mzilikazi probably did this to strengthen his control over the newly
conquered Shona groups.

Different tribes in the Ndebele kingdom were encouraged to speak the Ndebele language.
This brought about unity in the kingdom and it brought a sense of belonging to all these
groups.
Economic Reforms
Individuals were allowed to own cattle. However, their use was controlled by the king. No
one could slaughter a beast without the permission of Mzilikazi. This was mainly done to
show the belief that all cattle belonged to the king.

King Mzilikazi maintained a strict control of the ivory trade. Only the king could trade in ivory
and as such, all ivory in the kingdom belonged to him. So this means that only Mzilikazi
controlled the long distance trade in his kingdom. The sale of ivory to Europeans increased
Mzilikazi’s personal wealth as he gained exotic goods such as guns and alcohol.

The Ndebele were mixed farmers. This means that they grew crops such as maize, sorghum
and watermelons. They also kept livestock such as cattle and goats. These were their main
source of food. This made them to be self sufficient in food production.

Conquered groups paid tribute to Mzilikazi. Tribute was paid as a form of

loyalty and respect. Tribute was usually paid in the form of grain, cattle
and ivory. Tribute enabled Mzilikazi to accumulate wealth which made
him very powerful.

Political organization
The kingdom was divided into four, the kingdom, districts, villages and
wards. This helped to rule the kingdom with the assistance of the
provincial leaders, chiefs and headman.

Power was also centralized. Only Mzilikazi could choose his headman. These were chosen
from amongst the commoners rather than from the traditional chiefs. These commoners
were given these important positions because Mzilikazi believed that they posed no threat
to his position.

Young men in the Ndebele state remained permanently in military

settlements and were not allowed to marry. This was probably done to
ensure that they
only focused on their military duties. Once these soldiers had proven themselves in battle,
they could marry. This therefore shows that the Ndebele state had a permanent standing
army and a reserve force.

Basotho of Moshoeshoe

Political organization of Moshoeshoe

 He accommodated many groups that ran away from Mfecane wars into his
kingdom. This then helped him to expand his kingdom as population increased.
 His daughters were married to some of the conquered groups. These inter-
marriages strengthened ties between Basotho and the conquered groups. So this
means that the conquered groups became loyal to Moshoeshoe.
 He used diplomacy to deal with some powerful groups. For example, in 1831 he
defeated Mzilikazi and gave him cattle so that he could not attack the Basotho
again. He also often sent livestock to Shaka as presents to avoid war with him and
this worked.
 He introduced the Pitso system whereby subject chiefs were often attended
meetings to discuss national matters. This then promoted unity and democracy in
his kingdom.
 He used the policy of killing with kindness. For example, when The
Basotho were relocating to Thaba Busiu his grandfather was killed
and eaten by cannibals. Instead of killing them he offered them
cattle and grain because he believed that they killed his
grandfather due to starvation.

Economic organization
 The Basotho were mixed farmers. This means that they grew crops such as maize,
sorghum and watermelons. They also kept livestock such as cattle and goats. These
were their main source of food. This made them to be self sufficient in food
production.
 Conquered groups paid tribute to Moshoeshoe. Tribute was paid as
a form of loyalty and respect. Tribute was usually paid in the form
 of grain, cattle and ivory. Tribute enabled Moshoeshoe to
accumulate wealth which made him very powerful.
 Moshoeshoe also raided neighbouring tribes of their cattle using his
army. So this helped him to accumulate more wealth which made
him more powerful.

Social organization
 Moshoeshoe made it a point that everyone in his kingdom spoke
the Sotho language. This brought a sense of unity and belonging.
 He abolished initiation ceremonies and introduced constant military
training. This was done to protect the kingdom from attacks
against their enemies during Mfecane.
 Moshoeshoe allowed the conquered groups to practice certain
cultural ceremonies alongside those of the Basotho. This created a
sense of unity and sense of belonging to these groups.

Bagwaketse of Sebego

Sebogo’s political career

 He acquired guns from the cape Traders which helped him to defeat powerful
groups such as the Kololo at the battle of Dithubaruba in 1826. He also defeated
the Ndebele at Dutlwe in 1832.
 He became a hero during Mfecane wars because he was a brilliant military leader.
Some groups joined the Ngwaketse to seek protection from Sebego.
 The kgotla was used as a forum for open discussion and decision on issues
affecting the community. This will promote democracy and cooperation in his
kingdom.

 He organized regiments for military training and perform public duties such as
Lestsholo. This helped defend the kingdom against enemies and to hunt for the
community.
 Sebego’s economic organization
 The Bangwaketsi were mixed farmers. This means that they grew crops such as
maize, sorghum and watermelons. They also kept livestock such as cattle and goats.
These were their main source of food as they ate their meat and drank their milk.
This made them to be self sufficient in food production.
 Conquered groups paid tribute to Sebego. Tribute was paid as a
form of loyalty and respect. Tribute was usually paid in the form of
grain, cattle and ivory. Tribute enabled Sebego to accumulate
wealth which made him very powerful.
 Sebego also raided neighbouring tribes of their cattle using his
army. So this helped him to accumulate more wealth which made
him more powerful.
 Bangwaketsi traded with Europeans to acquire exotic goods such
as guns and clothes in echange for ivory and ostrich feathers. The
guns enabled them to protect themselves from enemies such as
the Ndebele.

Sebego’s social organization

 Bangwaketsi worshipped modimo whom they believed created all life. They also
believed in their ancestors. They usually performed sacrifices in the form of
livestock to appease them.
 Bangwaketsi used a crocodile as their symbol of identity and totem. So the
Bangwaketsi did not kill nor eat crocodile meat.
 The family was an important institution among Bangwaketsi. It taught the young
ones good lessons for morality.
 Servitude (Bolata) was common among the Bangwaketsi. The poor or those from
the lower class worked as servants for the rich/upper class. The servants were
responsible for performing duties such as hearding cattle, household chores,
ploughing and weeding.
 EFFECTS OF MFECANE ON THE PEOPLE OF SOUTHERN
AFRICA

Negative effects
 Depopulation There was widespread warfare during the
Mfecane. These wars forced thousands of people to flee
from their homes. Thousands of people also lost their lives
during this period. The great losses in human life led to
depopulation. In other words, the demography of
Nguniland was adversely affected by the Mfecane.
 Collapse of agriculture- The horrific Mfecane wars negatively
affected agriculture. Thousands of people were constantly running
away from their attackers. Some were forced to lead predatory lives.
This state of wars made it impossible for the people to carry out
agricultural activities such as arable farming. Cultivation in some
areas stopped altogether. Without any food being grown this led to
poverty and starvation.

Positive effects

 Creation of new kingdoms One of the most obvious effects of

the Mfecane was the emergence of larger and more powerful states. One such
state was the Zulu state which was militarily strong and managed to change
Nguniland. There was also the Sotho state of Moshoeshoe, their neighbours paid
them tribute. There was also the Ndebele state under Mzilikazi who were known
for their strong army which constantly attacked and raided their neighbours for
cattle. This means therefore that the Mfecane led to the collapse of old kingdoms.
 Acquisition of guns- Some groups such as the Tswana and Sotho
were able to acquire guns from the missionaries and traders.
These guns then enabled them to defend themselves against their
enemies.