LECTURE NOTES: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1. Defining Psychology and Its Goals
• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior (observable actions) and
mental processes (private thoughts, emotions, and motives).
• Four Main Goals:
o Description: Detailing what behavior or mental process is
occurring.
o Explanation: Understanding why a behavior occurs by identifying
its causes.
o Prediction: Determining how likely a behavior is to occur again in
the future.
o Control/Influence: Modifying behavior in positive ways to improve
human life.
2. Historical Schools of Thought
Psychology evolved from philosophy and biology into an independent science in
1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab in Germany.
Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt & Edward Titchener)
• Focused on breaking down conscious experience into its basic components
or "structures."
• Relied heavily on introspection, a method where subjects reported their
exact conscious experiences during specific tasks.
Functionalism (William James)
• Investigated how mental processes help individuals adapt to their
environments.
• Shifted focus from the structure of the mind to the practical purpose of
consciousness.
Behaviorism (John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner)
• Rejected the study of the internal mind entirely.
• Argued that psychology should only study objective, observable behavior
that can be measured.
3. Biological Foundations of Behavior
The nervous system is the body's electrochemical communication network,
controlling everything we think, feel, and do.
The Neuron
• The basic building block of the nervous system.
• Dendrites: Receive incoming signals from other cells.
• Soma (Cell Body): Contains the nucleus and maintains the cell's life.
• Axon: Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons or
muscles.
• Myelin Sheath: A fatty tissue layer that insulates the axon and speeds up
signal transmission.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons to transmit
information.
• Dopamine: Regulates movement, attention, and the brain's reward system.
• Serotonin: Affects mood, sleep, appetite, and emotional arousal.
• Acetylcholine (ACh): Vital for muscle action, learning, and memory.
4. Principles of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting
from experience.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
• Learning through association where a neutral stimulus becomes linked to
a meaningful stimulus.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Automatically triggers a natural
response (e.g., food).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, natural response to the
UCS (e.g., salivation).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after
association, triggers a response (e.g., a bell).
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned
stimulus (e.g., salivation at the sound of the bell).
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
• Learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened based on its
consequences.
• Reinforcement: Any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior
repeating.
o Positive: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., a reward).
o Negative: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping a loud
noise).
• Punishment: Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
repeating.
5. Human Memory Systems
Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Three-Stage Model)
1. Sensory Memory: Holds raw sensory information for a fraction of a
second (e.g., visual iconics or auditory echoics).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds roughly 5 to 9 items for about 20 to
30 seconds unless it is actively rehearsed.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): The permanent, virtually unlimited
storehouse of knowledge and experiences.