INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

M A T H 1 0 0

Learner’s Module
T HIS MODULE IS PREPARED BY J IMBOY R. A LBARACIN
 Contents

I Week One

1 Review of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1 Functions 10

1.2 Operations on Functions 14

1.3 Constructing a Table of Signs 15

1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions 16

1.5 Basic Types of Functions 18

1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 27

1.6.1 Price–Demand and Revenue Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.6.2 Growth and Decay Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.3 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.7 Exercises 34
 II Week Two

2 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1 Limit of a Function 38

2.2 Evaluating Limits 44

2.3 One Sided Limits 48

2.4 Exercises 53

III Week Three

3 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.1 Infinite Limits 55

3.2 Limits at Infinity 61

3.3 Applications 68

3.4 Exercises 69

IV Week Four

4 Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Continuity at a point 71

4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity 74

4.3 Continuity on an Interval 77

4.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) 80

4.5 Application 81

4.6 Exercises 82

V Week Five

5 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.1 Rate of Change 84

5.2 Tangent Line 88

5.3 Definition of the Derivative of a Function 91

5.4 Differentiation Rules 92

5.4.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4.3 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.5 The Chain Rule 96

5.6 Applications 99

5.7 Exercises 100

VI Week Six

6 Higher Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6.1 Higher Order Derivatives 103

6.2 Implicit Differentiation 104

6.3 Applications: Related Rates 107

6.4 Exercises 114

VII Week Seven

7 Relative Extrema and Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.1 Critical Numbers 117

7.2 Increasing/Decreasing Functions 119

7.3 The First Derivative Test For Relative Extrema 119

7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection 121

7.5 The Second Derivative Test 124

7.6 Applications 125

7.7 Exercises 127

VIII Week Eight

8 Graphing Polynomials and L’hopital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

8.1 Graphing Polynomials 130

8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 133

0 ∞
8.2.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
0 ∞
8.2.2 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.2.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

8.3 Exercises 138

IX Week Nine

9 Absolute Extrema and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

9.1 Absolute Extrema 141

9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded Intervals 143

9.2.1 Absolute Extrema Of Functions with One Relative Extremum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

9.3 Optimization Problems 146

9.4 Exercises 153

X Week Ten

10 Antiderivatives and Antidifferentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

10.1 Antiderivatives 156

10.2 The Substitution Rule 160

10.3 Particular Antiderivatives 164

10.4 Applications 166

10.5 Exercise 168

 XI Week Eleven

11 Area and the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 171
11.1.1 Method of Exhaustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.1.2 Area of a Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

11.2 The Definite Integral 177

11.3 Application 182

11.4 Exercises 182

XII Week Twelve

12 Fundamental Theorems of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

12.1 The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 185

12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 187

12.3 Area of a Plane Region 191

12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles 197

12.5 Exercise 200

XIII Week Thirteen

13 Integrals Involving Circular and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

1
13.1 Integrals of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions 202
x
13.2 Integrals of Exponential Functions 205

13.3 Inverse Circular Functions 207

13.4 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions 208

13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions 209

13.6 Exercises 212

 8

XIV Week Fourteen

14 Other Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

14.1 Integration by Parts 215

14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 218

14.2.1 Case I: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
14.2.2 Case II: Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.2.3 Case III: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated . . . . . . . . 223
14.2.4 Case IV: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

14.3 Exercises 225

XV Week Fifteen

15 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

15.1 Definition and Examples 227

15.2 Applications 232

15.3 Exercises 233

I
Week One

1 Review of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1 Functions
1.2 Operations on Functions
1.3 Constructing a Table of Signs
1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions
1.5 Basic Types of Functions
1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models
1.7 Exercises
 1. Review of Functions

In the first week, you will encounter some notions you have studied before. Functions is a
significant concept in calculus.
At the end of the week you will able to:
• Review different concepts involving function such as domain, range and graph of a
function.
• Classify different types of functions.
• Construct a table of signs for functions.
• Recognize combinations and operations on functions.
• Describe the process of using functions as mathematical models of real-world phenomena.

1.1 Functions

Let us start with the definition of a function and some examples. Central to the concept of
function is correspondence. You are familiar with correspondences in daily life. For example,
To each person, there corresponds an annual income.
To each item in a supermarket, there corresponds a price.
To each student, there corresponds a grade-point average.
1.1 Functions 11

To each day, there corresponds a maximum temperature.

For the manufacture of x items, there corresponds a cost.
For the sale of x items, there corresponds a revenue.
To each square, there corresponds an area.
To each number, there corresponds its cube.

Definition 1.1.1 Let X and Y be nonempty sets. A function f from X to Y , denoted

f : X → Y , is a correspondence (rule) between X and Y that assigns to each element of X
a unique element of Y . The set X is called the domain of the function, denoted by dom f ,
and the set Y is called the codomain of f . The set of all elements of Y that are assigned to
some element of X is the range of f , denoted ran f .

 Example 1.1 Suppose that the domain is X = {a, b, c, d, e} and the codomain is Y =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. We can define a function f : X → Y that corresponds each letters in X to
one of the numbers in Y . We can define the function f by

f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2, f (c) = 2, f (d) = 4, f (e) = 1.

Since f never corresponds any elements of X to the elements 3 and 5 of Y , the set {1, 2, 4} is
the range of the function f .

 Example 1.2 Let X and Y be the set of real numbers R. Then f : R → R defined by
f (x) = x3 + 1 is a function since to each domain value, there corresponds exactly one range
value (for example, if x = 2, then f (2) = 23 + 1 = 9 and no other number).

 Example 1.3 Consider the two tables below.

The first table (left) specify functions since to each domain value, there corresponds exactly
one range value (for example, the square of −2 is 4 and no other number). On the other hand,
1.1 Functions 12

the second table(right) does not specify a function since to at least one domain value, there
corresponds more than one range value (for example, to the domain value 9, there corresponds
−3 and 3, both square roots of 9).

 Example 1.4 The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that
connects r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . Let x = r and y = A. Then y = πx2 . For
each input x (radius), we obtain an output y (area).
If x = 3, then y = π(3)2 = 9π ≈ 28.274.
√ √
If x = 5, then y = π( 5)2 = 5π ≈ 15.708.
With each positive number x there corresponds one value of y, and we say that y is a function
of x. Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the domain is {x ∈ R | x > 0} = (0, ∞).
Since the area depends on the radius, the range is also (0, ∞).

The input values are domain values, and the output values are range values. The equation
assigns each domain value x a range value y. The variable x is called an independent variable
(since values can be "independently" assigned to x from the domain), and y is called a
dependent variable (since the value of y "depends" on the value assigned to x).
In this course, we will deal with functions whose domain and range are subsets of R. If the
domain is not explicitly specified, then the domain is

dom f = {x ∈ R | f (x) is a real number}.

 Example 1.5 Find the domain and range of each function.

1. f (x) = x2
√
2. f (x) = x − 1
√
3. g(x) = 4 − x2

Solution:
1. The domain of f (x) = x2 is dom f = R since we can put any x ∈ R such that f (x) is
defined. Because f (x) = x2 is never negative, the range of f is [0, ∞).
√
2. The domain of the function f (x) = x − 1 is the set of all x-values for which x − 1 ≥ 0,
otherwise, f (x) is not a real number. Thus, dom f is the set of all x-values such that
√
x ≥ 1, which is the interval [1, ∞). To find the range, observe that f (x) = x − 1 is never
negative. So, the range is the interval [0, ∞).
1.1 Functions 13
√
3. The domain of the function g(x) = 4 − x2 is the set of all values for which 4 − x2 ≥ 0,
or x2 ≤ 4. So, the domain of g is the interval [−2, 2]. To find the range, observe that
√
g(x) = 4 − x2 is never negative and is at most 2. So, the range is the interval [0, 2].

R For any element x in the domain of the function f , the symbol f (x) represents the
element in the range of f corresponding to x in the domain of f . If x is an input
value, then f (x) is the corresponding output value. If x is an element that is not in
the domain of f , then f is not defined at x and f (x) does not exist.

14 √
 Example 1.6 For f (x) = and g(x) = x − 1 evaluate:
x+2
1. f (5)
2. f (0) − g(10)
Solution:
14 14
1. f (5) = = =2
5+2 7
14 √ 14 √
2. f (0) − g(10) = − 10 − 1 = − 9 = 7 − 3 = 4.
0+2 2
2
 Example 1.7 For f (x) = x − 2x + 3, find

1. f (a)
2. f (a + h)
f (a + h) − f (a)
3. , h 6= 0
h
Solution:
1. f (a) = a2 − 2a + 3
2. f (a + h) = (a + h)2 − 2(a + h) + 3 = a2 + 2ah + h2 − 2a − 2h + 3
3.
f (a + h) − f (a) (a2 + 2ah + h2 − 2a − 2h + 3) − (a2 − 2a + 3)
=
h h
2ah + h2 − 2h
=
h
h(2a + h − 2)
=
h
= 2a + h − 2
 1.2 Operations on Functions 14

Definition 1.1.2 If f is a function with domain X, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs

{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ X}.

 Example 1.8 The graph of the function f (x) = x2 is shown in Figure 1.1.

5 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

Figure 1.1: The graph of f (x) = x2

1.2 Operations on Functions

This section will give you insights about the operation of functions.
Definition 1.2.1 Let f and g be functions, c ∈ R. Then

1. Addition: ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);

2. Subtraction: ( f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)

  ( f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
3. Multiplication:
f f (x)
4. Division: (x) =
g g(x)
5. Composition: ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
6. Multiplication: c f (x) = c( f (x)).

I If the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then the domain of f + g is the

intersection A ∩ B because both f (x) and g(x) have to be defined. Similarly, the domain
of f − g and f g is A ∩ B, but we can’t divide by 0 and so the domain of f /g is {x ∈
A ∩ B | g(x) 6= 0}. The domain of f ◦ g is {x ∈ B | g(x) ∈ A} and the domain of c f is A.
 1.3 Constructing a Table of Signs 15
√ √
 Example 1.9 (a) The domain of f (x) = x is A = [0, ∞) and the domain of g(x) = 2 − x
√ √
is B = (−∞, 2], so the domain of ( f + g)(x) = x + 2 − x is A ∩ B = [0, 2].
(b) If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 1, then the domain of the rational function ( f /g)(x) =
x2 /(x − 1) is {x | x 6= 1}, or (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

 Example 1.10 If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 3, find the composite functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

Solution: We have

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x − 3) = (x − 3)2

and

(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(x3 ) = x2 − 3.

 Example 1.11 Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + h, where h is a nonzero constant. Find
1
[( f ◦ g)(x) − f (x)].
h
Solution:
1 1
[( f ◦ g)(x) − f (x)] = [ f (g(x)) − f (x)]
h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
=
h
(x + h) − x2
2
=
h
(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) − x2
=
h
2xh + h 2
=
h
= 2x + h.

1.3 Constructing a Table of Signs

A table of signs for a function f shows when a value of f is positive, zero or negative. This is
the procedure on how to construct a table of signs for a function f .
Step 1 Find all numbers x such that f (x) = 0 and f (x) is undefined.
 1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions 16

Step 2 Plotting the numbers found in step 1 in the real number line, the number line will be
divided into intervals. Use this observation to determine the open intervals.
Step 3 Select a test number in each open interval determined in step 2 and evaluate f (x) at each
test number to determine whether f (x) is positive (+) or negative (−) in each interval.
Step 4 Construct a table of signs using the real number line in step 2. This will show the sign of
f (x) on each open interval.
2x2 − x3
 Example 1.12 Construct the table of signs for f (x) = . Determine the intervals
2x2 − 3x + 1
where the graph of f lies above the x-axis.

Solution: We will rewrite the expression as a product of factors whose table of signs are easily
determined.
2x2 − x3 x2 (2 − x)
= .
2x2 − 3x + 1 (2x − 1)(x − 1)
The function is zero when x = 0, 2 and undefined at x = 12 , 1. These numbers will give us
these open intervals: (−∞, 0), (0, 12 ), ( 12 , 1), (1, 2), and (2, +∞). Then we will select a test
number for each open interval. In the interval (−∞, 0), we choose x = −1. Then we get
(−1)2 (3)
f (1) = (−3)(−2) = 21 . Thus, in the interval (−∞, 0), the values of f are positive. We can do
this with the rest of the intervals and get the following table of signs.

(−∞, 0) (0, 12 ) ( 12 , 1) (1, 2) (2, +∞)

x2 (2 − x)
+ + − + −
(2x − 1)(x − 1)
As we can see in the table, the graph of f lies above the x-axis in the intervals (−∞, 0) ∪
(0, 21 ) ∪ (1, 2).

1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions

1.4 Piecewise-defined Functions 17

Definition 1.4.1 Functions that are defined by different formulas in different parts of their
domains are called piecewise defined functions. Such functions can be written in the form

 f1 (x) if x ∈ X1






 f2 (x) if x ∈ X2

f (x) =
.. ..
. .







 fn (x) if x ∈ Xn


where X1 , . . . , Xn ⊆ R with Xi ∩ X j = ∅ for all i 6= j.

 Example 1.13The absolute value function f (x) = |x| defined by


√ x if x ≥ 0

|x| = x2 =
−x if x < 0.


is a piecewise defined function. In Figure 1.2, we see that the graph of f coincides with the
line y = x to the right of the y-axis and coincides with the line y = −x to the left of the y-axis.

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

Figure 1.2: The graph of f (x) = |x|

 Example 1.14 Write f (x) = |2x − 3| + x as a piecewise function.

Solution: Recall that


x if x ≥ 0

|x| =
−x if x < 0.

 1.5 Basic Types of Functions 18

Then

(2x − 3) + x,

if 2x − 3 ≥ 0
f (x) = |2x − 3| + x =
−(2x − 3) + x if 2x − 3 < 0


3x − 3, if x ≥ 3

2
=
−x + 3 if x < 32 .


1.5 Basic Types of Functions

In this section, we will classify different types of function. The most common type of function
is a polynomial function.
Definition 1.5.1 A function f is called a polynomial if

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants called the
coefficients of the polynomial. If the leading coefficient an 6= 0, then the degree of the
polynomial is n.

I The domain of any polynomial is R.

 Example 1.15 (a) Functions of the form f (x) = c where c is a real number, called constant
functions, is a polynomial function. The domain of f is R and its range is {c}. The
graph of f is a horizontal line intersecting the y-axis at y = c.
(b) A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form f (x) = mx + b is called a linear function. The
domain of f is R and its range is R. The graph of f is a line with slope m and y-intercept
b. If m > 0, then the line slants to the right. If m < 0, then line slants to the left.
(c) A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is called a quadratic

b 4ac − b2

function. The graph of f is a parabola with vertex at − , . If a > 0, then
2a 4a
4ac − b2
 
the parabola opens upward and the range of f is , +∞ . If a < 0, then the
4a
4ac − b2
 
parabola opens downward and the range of f is −∞, . The extreme function
4a
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 19

b b 4ac − b2
value of f occurs at x = − and the extreme function value of f is f (− ) = .
2a 2a 4a
If a > 0, then f has a minimum function value. If a < 0, then f has a maximum function
value.
Definition 1.5.2 A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
where p and q are polynomials.

I The domain of a rational function consists of all values of x such that q(x) 6= 0.

 Example 1.16 (a) A simple example of a rational function is the function f (x) = 1/x,
whose domain is {x | x 6= 0}.
(b) The function
x2 − 5x + 6
f (x) =
x−3
is a rational function with domain {x | x 6= 3} = R \ {3}. In Figure 1.3, we can see that
the range is R \ {1}.

y
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7

x2 − 5x + 6
Figure 1.3: The graph of f (x) =
x−3

Definition 1.5.3 A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using

algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking
roots) starting with polynomials.
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 20

 Example 1.17 (a) Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.

(b) Functions involving rational exponents or radicals, that is, functions of the form f (x) =
√n
x = x1/n . If n is odd, then dom f = R. If n is even, then dom f = [0, ∞).
√ x4 − 16x2 √
(c) The functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = √ + (x − 2) 3 x + 1 are algebraic func-
x+ x
tions.
√
 Example 1.18 Sketch the graph of the square root function f (x) = x.

Solution: Note that

√
y= x =⇒ y2 = x, y ≥ 0.
√
Thus, the graph of f (x) = x is the upper branch of the parabola y2 = x as we can see in
Figure 1.4.
y

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

√
Figure 1.4: The graph of f (x) = x

√
 Example 1.19 Sketch the graph of the function g(x) = − 2 − x.

Solution: Note that

√
y = − 2−x ⇐⇒ y2 = 2 − x, y ≤ 0

⇐⇒ x = 2 − y2 , y ≤ 0.

Thus, the graph of g is the lower branch of the parabola x = 2 − y2 as shown in Figure 1.5.
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 21

2 y

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

−4

√
Figure 1.5: The graph of g(x) = − 2 − x

Definition 1.5.4 The six trigonometric or circular functions sine, cosine, tangent, cotan-
gent, secant and cosecant functions.

In this course, the trigonometric functions are viewed as functions on the set of real
numbers.
Definition 1.5.5 An exponential function is a function of the form

f (x) = ax ,

where a > 0 is a fixed real number called the base of the exponent.

Note that this is different from the power function xk , where the base is a variable and the
exponent is constant. Here is an example you are familiar with.

 Example 1.20 The graph of the function f (x) = 2x is shown in Figure 1.6.

Recall that the domain of a function is the set of all real numbers for which the function is
defined. In this particular example, the domain is the set real numbers R and the range is the
set of all positive real numbers or (0, +∞).
 x
1
 Example 1.21 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = and identify the domain and
2
range.

Solution: Let us make table of values for the graph

1.5 Basic Types of Functions 22

5 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

Figure 1.6: The graph of f (x) = 2x

x −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

Plotting these points in the plane and connecting them in the sooth curve we obtain the
graph of g.
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 23

5 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
 x
1
Figure 1.7: The graph of g(x) =
2

The domain of this function is still the set of real numbers R and the range is (0, +∞).

Definition 1.5.6 We say that the function f is increasing on an interval (a, b) if f (x2 ) >
f (x1 ) whenever a < x1 < x2 < b; and f is decreasing on (a, b) if f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) whenever
a < x1 < x2 < b.

Note that f is an increasing function while g is a decreasing function. As x grows larger,

f (x) grows larger and larger and g(x) decreases to be closer and closer to 0. So, we call f (x) an
exponential growth function (a > 1) and g(x) an exponential decay function (0 < a < 1).
What happens if a = 1? Then we have a the function f (x) = 1x = 1, which is a constant
function whose graph is shown in Figure 1.8 below
It is useful also to recall the rules on how to deal with exponent.
Theorem 1.5.1 Laws of Exponents
For all nonzero real numbers a and b, and any integers x and y, we have
1. ax · ay = ax+y 4. (ab)x = ax bx
ax
2. y = ax−y 5. a0 = 1
a
1
3. (ax )y = axy 6. a−x =
ax
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 24

y
3

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

Figure 1.8: The graph of f (x) = 1x

Definition 1.5.7 A function f is said to be one-to-one if each range value corresponds to

exactly one domain value.

x
 Example 1.22 The function f (x) =
is a one-to-one fumction since each range value
2
corresponds to exactly one domain value. For example, the range value 2 corresponds to the
domain value 4 and no other value. The function g(x) = x2 is not a one-to-one function since
every range value except 0 corresponds to two domain value. For example, the range value 4
corresponds to the domain values 2 and −2.

Starting with a one-to-one function f , we can obtain a new function called the inverse of f .
Definition 1.5.8 If f is a one-to-one function, then the inverse of f is the function formed

by interchanging the independent and dependent variables for f . Thus, if (a, b) is a point
on the graph of f , then (b, a) is a point on the graph of the inverse of f .

Note that if f is not one-to-one, then f does not have an inverse.

 Example 1.23 If we start with the exponential function f defined by

y = 2x

and interchange the variables, we obtain the inverse of f which is

x = 2y .

We call the inverse the logarithmic function with base 2, and write y = log2 x if and only if
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 25

x = 2y . We can graph y = log2 x by graphing x = 2y since they are equivalent.

Definition 1.5.9 A logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function and has
the form

f (x) = logb x,

where b > 0 is a fixed real number referred to as the base of the logarithm.

The function f (x) = logb x is the inverse of g(x) = bx , that is

logb (bx ) = blogb x = x.

Recall that log2 8 = 3 since 3 is the exponent used to raise the base 2 to get 8.

Notation:
• log usually refers to “log base 10" or log10 , also known as the common logarithm
• ln usually refers to “log base e" or loge , also known as the natural logarithm, where
e ≈ 2.71828.
To graph a logarithmic function, we simply use the exponential equivalence of y = loga x,
that is,

y = loga x ⇐⇒ ay = x,

and then we assign values on y so that we can compute easily the corresponding value of x.

 Example 1.24 Sketch the graph of the logarithmic function f (x) = log2 x

Solution: Let y = f (x). Then y = log2 x ⇐⇒ x = 2y . Here, we will assign values on y.

Plotting these points and connecting them in a smooth curve we obtain graph of f as shown
in Figure 1.9

x 1/4 1/2 1 2 4
y −2 −1 0 1 2

I The domain of the logarithmic function f (x) = logb x is the set of positve real numbers
or (0, +∞).
1.5 Basic Types of Functions 26

5 y
4
3
2
1
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5

Figure 1.9: The graph of f (x) = log2 x

I The range of the the logarithmic function f (x) = logb x is the set of real numbers R.
I The function f is increasing for b > 1 for b > 1 and decreasing for 0 < b < 1.

Let us review some of the properties of logarithms.

Theorem 1.5.2 Laws of Logarithms
For all positive real numbers x, y and k with a > 0, a 6= 1, we have

1. loga xy = loga x + loga y 4. loga a = 1 and loga 1 = 0

x log10 x
2. loga = loga x − loga y 5. loga x =
y log10 a
ln x
3. loga xk = k loga x 6. loga x =
ln a

The next examples uses the laws of exponents and logarithms in solving for the desired
quantity.

 Example 1.25 Solve for the value of x in the equation 5x = 0.23

 1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 27

Solution:

5x = 0.23
ln 5x = ln 0.23

x ln 5 = ln 0.23
ln 0.23
x=
ln 5
Using calculator, we find that x ≈ −0.91.

 Example 1.26 If loga x = 2.1 and loga y = 0.45, compute loga x3 y

Solution: We will use the properties of logarithms to solve for the required value.

loga x3 y = loga x3 + loga y

= 3 loga x + loga y

= 3(2.1) + 0.45
= 6.3 + 0.45

= 6.75

 Example 1.27 Solve for x in the equation log4 3x = 1.4

Solution: We will write the given equation into its exponential equivalent and solve for x, that
is,

log4 3x = 1.4

3x = 41.4
41.4
x=
3
x ≈ 2.32

1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models

In the next example we will see how a function can be used to describe data from the real
world, a process that is often referred to as mathematical modeling. A mathematical model
 1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 28

is a mathematical description (often by means of a function or an equation) of a real-world

phenomenon. Note that the domain of such a function is determined by practical considerations
within the problem.

1.6.1 Price–Demand and Revenue Modeling

Any manufacturing company has costs, C, and revenues, R. The company will have a loss
if R < C, will break even if R = C, and will have a profit if R > C. Costs include fixed
costs such as plant overhead, product design, setup, and promotion; and variable costs, which
are dependent on the number of items produced at a certain cost per item. In addition,
price–demand functions, usually established by financial departments using historical data or
sampling techniques, play an important part in profit–loss analysis.
We will let x, the number of units manufactured and sold, represent the independent variable.
Cost functions, revenue functions, profit functions, and price–demand functions are often
stated in the following forms, where a, b, m, and n are constants determined from the context
of a particular problem:
Cost Function

C = ((fixed cost) + (variable cost)

= a + bx

Price–Demand Function
p = m − nx (x is the number of items that can be sold at $p per item.)
Revenue Function

R = (number of items sold) + (price per item)

= xp = x(m − nx)

Profit Function

P = R −C

= x(m − nx) − (a + bx)

 Example 1.28 A manufacturer of a popular digital camera wholesales the camera to retail
outlets throughout the United States. Using statistical methods, the financial department in the
 1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 29

company produced the price–demand data in Table 1.1, where p is the wholesale price per
camera at which x million cameras are sold. Notice that as the price goes down, the number
sold goes up.

x (millions) p($)
2 87
5 68
8 53
12 37

Table 1.1: Price-Demand

Using special analytical techniques (regression analysis), an analyst obtained the following
price–demand function to model the Table 1.1 data:

p(x) = 94.8 − 5x 1≤x≤5

1. Plot the data in Table 1.1. Then sketch a graph of the price–demand function in the same
coordinate system.
2. What is the company’s revenue function for this camera, and what is its domain?
Solution:
1. In Figure 1.10, notice that the model approximates the actual data in Table 1.1, and it
is assumed that it gives realistic and useful results for all other values of x between 1
million and 15 million.
2. R(x) = xp(x) = x(94.8 − 5x) million dollars
Domain:1 ≤ x ≤ 5

1.6.2 Growth and Decay Applications

Logarithms and exponentials are frequently used to calculate the half-life of radioactive
substances or the time required for the population to double.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for N amount of that substance
to decay to 12 N amount.
The doubling time of a population is the time it takes for N individuals in that population
to reproduce and become 2N individuals.
1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 30

Figure 1.10: Price–demand

 Example 1.29 (Half-Life of a Drug in the Body)

A usual assumption in pharmacokinetics, the field which studies the changes and effects
of drugs in an individual, is that the amount of drug in a person’s body decays exponentially.
We assume that the drug is administered intravenously so that the amount of the drug in the
bloodstream jumps almost immediately to its highest level. Then, as time passes, the amount
of the drug in the bloodsteam decays exponentially.
Let C(t) denote the amount of the drug measured in milligrams in the bloodstream at time t
(in days), and let C0 be the initial amount of drug in the bloodstream (i.e., the amount of drug
administered in milligrams).
Then we can write

C(t) = C0 e−kt ,

where k > 0 is known as a decay constant. The larger the value of k, the more quickly the
drug decays in the bloodstream.
(a) If the drug has a half-life of 10 days, what is the value of k?
(b) What percent of the administered amount of drug remains in the bloodstream after 4
hours?

Solution: (a) A half-life of 10 days means that when t = 10, we should have of the initial
amount of drug, C0 . We can write this mathematically as

C(10) = 21 C0
1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 31

Using the above equation, we know that

C(10) = C0 e−10k

Properties of logarithms and exponentials give

1
C0 = C(10) = C0 e−10k
2
1
C0 = C0 e−10k
2
1
= e−10k
2
1
ln = ln e−10k
2
1
ln = −10k
2
ln(1/2)
k= ≈ 0.069
−10
(b) Using the results from (a), our equation for the decay of the drug in the bloodsteam is

C(t) = C0 e−0.069t .

Recall that t is measured in days; thus, if we want to know how much is left after 4 hours,
we need to convert this to units of days:
1 day 1
4 hours × = days.
24 hours 6
Thus, we want to know how much of C0 is left after days:
 
1 1
C = C0 e−0.069× 6
6
= 0.989C0

Thus, 98.9% of the administered dose is left after 4 hours.

 Example 1.30 (Oxygen Consumption in Salmon)

Biologists studying salmon have found that the oxygen consumption of yearling salmon (in
appropriate units such as mg of oxygen per kg of body mass per hour) increases exponentially
with the speed of swimming according to the function

f (x) = 100e0.6x ,
 1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 32

where x is the speed in feet per second. Find each of the following:
(a) The oxygen consumption when the fish are not moving.
(b) The oxygen consumption at a speed of 2 f t/s.
(c) If a salmon is swimming at 2 f t/s, how much faster does it need to swim to double its
oxygen consumption?

Solution: (a) When the fish are not moving, their speed is 0 f t/s. Thus, when x = 0,

f (0) = 100e0.6×0 = 100e0 = 100(1) = 100.

Thus, when the fishes are not moving, their oxygen consumption is 100 units.
(b) Here x = 2 and

f (2) = 100e0.6×2 = 100e1.2 ≈ 332.

Thus, at a speed of 2 f t/s, oxygen consumption is 332 units.

(c) We want to solve for x when oxygen consumption is 2 × f (2) = 2 × 332 = 664 units.

664 = 100e0.6x

6.64 = e0.6x
ln 6.64 = ln e0.6x
ln 6.64 = 0.6x
ln 6.64
x= ≈ 3.16 f t/s.
0.6
Note that 3.16 f t/s is 3.16 – 2 = 1.16 f t/s faster than 2 f t/s. Thus, to get double the
oxygen consumption than when swimming 2 f t/s, the salmon would have to swim 1.16 f t/s
faster.

1.6.3 Compound Interest

The fee paid to use another’s money is called interest. It is usually computed as a percent
(called interest rate) of the principal over a given period of time. If, at the end of a payment
period, the interest due is reinvested at the same rate, then the interest earned as well as the
principal will earn interest during the next payment period. Interest paid on interest reinvested
1.6 Applications: Functions as Mathematical Models 33

is called compound interest and may be calculated using the following compound interest
formula:
If a principal P (present value) is invested at an annual rate r (expressed as a decimal)
compounded m times a year, then the amount A (future value) in the account at the end of t
years is given by
 r mt
A = P 1+ Compound interest formula
m
For given r and m, the amount A is equal to the principal P multiplied by the exponential
function bt , where b = (1 + r/m)m .

 Example 1.31 If Php10, 000 is invested in an account paying 10% compounded monthly,
how much will be in the account at the end of 10 years? Compute the answer to the nearest
cent.
Solution: We use the compound interest formula as follows:
 r mt
A = P 1+
m
0.10 (12)(10)
 
= 10, 000 1 +
12
= 27, 070.41

Therefore, the amount in the account after 10 years is Php 27,070.41.

A convenient and easily understood way of comparing different investments is to use their
doubling times—the length of time it takes the value of an investment to double.

 Example 1.32 How long (to the next whole year) will it take money to double if it is invested
at 20% compounded annually?
Solution: We use the compound interest formula
 r mt
A = P 1+
m
 1.7 Exercises 34

The problem is to find t, given r = 0.20, m = 1, and A = 2P; that is,

2P = P(1 + 0.2)t
2 = 1.2t

1.2t = 2
ln 1.2t = ln 2
t ln 1.2 = ln 2
ln 2
t=
ln 1.2
≈ 3.8 years
≈ 4 years to the next whole year

When interest is paid at the end of 3 years, the money will not be doubled; when paid at the
end of 4 years, the money will be slightly more than doubled.

1.7 Exercises
Exercise 1.1 Find the domain of the following functions.
1. H(x) = 7 − 2x2 − x4
√
2. g(x) = 7 − x
x−2
3. f (x) = √
x−5

g(x + h) − g(x) 1
Exercise 1.2 Simplify , if g(x) = 2 .
h x

2x2 − x − 1
Exercise 1.3 Write f (x) = as a piecewise function and sketch its graph.
|x − 1|
1.7 Exercises 35

Exercise 1.4 Sketch the graph of


x − 4

if −1 < x ≤ 1
f (x) =
x2 − 4x

otherwise.

1−x
Exercise 1.5 Construct the table of signs for f (x) = .
2x2 + 3x

Exercise 1.6 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ex .

 −x
1
Exercise 1.7 Is there a difference between the graph of f (x) = 2x and g(x) = ?
2

Exercise 1.8 Solve for x in each of the following equations.

2 1
1. 2x +x =
4
2. log2 x + log2 (x − 1) = 1
3. log(5x2 − 5) − log(x + 2) = log(x − 2)

Exercise 1.9 A company manufactures memory chips for microcomputers. Its marketing
research department, using statistical techniques, collected the data shown in Table 1.2,
where p is the wholesale price per chip at which x million chips can be sold. Using special
analytical techniques (regression analysis), an analyst produced the following price–demand
function to model the data:

p(x) = 75 − 3x 1 ≤ x ≤ 20

1. Plot the data points in Table 1.2, and sketch a graph of the price-demand function in
the same coordinate system.
2. What would be the estimated price per chip for a demand of 7 million chips? For a
demand of 11 million chips?
1.7 Exercises 36

x (millions) p($)
1 72
4 63
9 48
20 15

Table 1.2: Price-Demand

Exercise 1.10 A person wishes to have Php 1,500,000 cash for a new car 5 years from now.
How much should be placed in an account now, if the account pays 6.75% compounded
weekly? Compute the answer to the nearest peso.
II
Week Two

2 Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1 Limit of a Function
2.2 Evaluating Limits
2.3 One Sided Limits
2.4 Exercises
 2. Limit of a Function

In this chapter, we will discuss some necessary concepts on limits.

At the end of this topic you will:
• Estimate a limit using a numerical or graphical approach.
• Study the definition of limit.
• Evaluate a limit using properties of limits.
• Develop and use some strategies for finding limits.
• Determine one-sided limits.

2.1 Limit of a Function

To understand the concept of limits, we will examine the behavior of the function

f (x) = x2 − x + 3

for the values of x near 2. The following table gives values of f (x) for values of x close to 2
but not equal to 2.
2.1 Limit of a Function 39

x f (x) x f (x)
1.0 3.0000 3.0 9.0000
1.5 3.7500 2.5 6.7500
1.8 4.4400 2.2 5.6400
1.9 4.7100 2.1 5.3100
1.95 4.8525 2.05 5.1525
1.99 4.9701 2.01 5.0301
1.995 4.985025 2.005 5.015025
1.999 4.997001 2.001 5.003001

From the table, we can see that when x gets closer to 2 (on either side of 2), f (x) gets closer
to 5. As a matter of fact, it seems that we can make the values of f (x) as close as possible
to 5 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. We express this by saying “the limit of the function
f (x) = x2 − x + 3 as x approaches 2 is equal to 5”. The notation for this is

lim x2 − x + 3 = 5.
x→2

8 y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

Figure 2.1: The graph of f (x) = x2 − x + 2

 Example 2.1 Consider f (x) = 3x + 2. What can we say about values of f (x) for values of x
near 1 but not equal to 1? We will see with the following table.
2.1 Limit of a Function 40

x f (x) x f (x)
0 2 2 8
0.5 3.5 1.5 6.5
0.9 4.7 1.1 5.3
0.99 4.97 1.001 5.003
0.99999 4.99997 1.00001 5.00003

Based on the table, as x gets closer and closer to 1, f (x) gets closer and closer to 5. The graph
of f is shown in Figure 2.2.

7 y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2

Figure 2.2: The graph of f (x) = 3x + 2

3x2 − x − 2
 Example 2.2 Consider g(x) = . Then
x−1
(3x + 2)(x − 1)
g(x) =
x−1
= 3x + 2, x 6= 1.

What can we observe about the values of g(x) for values of x near 1 but not equal to 1? Using
the table in the previous example, we can see that as x gets closer and closer to 1, g(x) gets
closer and closer to 5. In this example, g(1) is undefined. The graph of g is shown in Figure
2.3.
2.1 Limit of a Function 41

7 y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2

3x2 − x − 2
Figure 2.3: The graph of g(x) =
x−1

 Example 2.3 Consider


3x + 2 if x 6= 1

h(x) =
6 if x = 1.


Using the table in Example 2.1, we observe that the values of h(x) for values of x near 1 but
not equal to 1 gets closer and closer to 5. The graph of h is shown in Figure 2.4.

7 y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2

Figure 2.4: The graph of h

2.1 Limit of a Function 42

Definition 2.1.1 Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a. (This means that f is
defined on some open interval that contains a, except possibly at a itself.) Then we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L" if we can make the values of f (x)
arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by restricting x to be sufficiently close to a
(on either side of a) but not equal to a.

 Example 2.4 Let’s go back to the previous three examples. In Example 2.1, lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1
3x2 − x − 2
In this case, lim f (x) = f (1). In Example 2.2, lim = 5. Though g(1) is undefined,
x→1 x→1 x−1
lim g(x) exists. In Example 2.3, lim h(x) = 5. In this case, lim h(x) 6= h(1). We observe that
x→1 x→1 x→1
although they are different functions, they have the same limits.

A much more general observation is stated in the following remark.

R In finding lim f (x):

x→a
• We only need to consider values of x very close to a but not exactly at a.
Thus, lim f (x) is not necessarily the same as f (a).
x→a
• We let x approach a from both sides of a.

x−2
 Example 2.5 Guess the value of lim .
x→2 x2 − 4
x−2
Solution: Notice that the function f (x) = 2 is not defined when x = 2, but that does’nt
x −4
matter because the definition of lim f (x) says that we consider values of x that are close to a
x→a
but not equal to a. The table gives some values of f (x) for values of x that approach 2 but are
not equal to 2.

x<2 f (x) x>2 f (x)

1.5 0.286 2.5 0.2222
1.9 0.2564 2.1 0.2439
1.99 0.2506 2.01 0.2494
1.999 0.25006 2.001 0.24993
1.9999 0.250006 2.0001 0.24999
2.1 Limit of a Function 43

On the basis of the values in the tables, we make the guess that
x−2
lim 2 = 0.25.
x→2 x − 4

3 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

x−2
Figure 2.5: The graph of f (x) =
x2 − 4

R If f (x) does not approach any particular real number as x approaches a, then we
say lim f (x) does not exist (dne).
x→a

In the next example, we will examine limit that fail to exists.

|x|
 Example 2.6 Show that the limit lim does not exist.
x→0 x
|x|
Solution: Consider the graph of the function f (x) = . From the definition of absolute value,
x
we have


x if x ≥ 0

|x| =
−x

if x < 0.
Thus, you can see that


1 if x > 0

|x|
=
x −1 if x < 0.

 2.2 Evaluating Limits 44

So, no matter how close x gets to 0, there will be both positive and negative x-values that yield
|x|
f (x) = 1 or f (x) = −1. Therefore, lim does not exist.
x→0 x

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

|x|
Figure 2.6: The graph of f (x) =
x

2.2 Evaluating Limits

In this section, we will learn different properties to calculate the limit of a function.

Theorem 2.2.1 • If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

x→a
• If c ∈ R, then lim c = c.
x→a
• lim x = a
x→a

Theorem 2.2.2 Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 . Let c ∈ R and n ∈ N.
x→a x→a
• lim [ f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = L1 ± L2
x→a  x→a   x→a 
• lim [ f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) = L1 L2
x→a x→a x→a
• lim [c f (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
f (x) x→alim f (x) L1
• lim = = , provided L2 6= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) L2
x→a
 n
• lim ( f (x))n = lim f (x) = (L1 )n
x→a x→a

Evaluate: lim 2x3 + 3x − 4

 Example 2.7
x→−1
2.2 Evaluating Limits 45

Solution:

lim 2x3 + 3x − 4 = lim 2x3 + lim 3x − lim 4

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
   
3
= 2 lim x + 3 lim x − lim 4
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
 3  
=2 lim x +3 lim x − lim 4
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1

= 2(−1)3 + 3(−1) − 4
= −9

In general:

R If f is a polynomial function, then lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

5x3 + 3x2 − x + 1
 Example 2.8 Evaluate: lim
x→−2 x2 + 5
Solution:
lim (5x3 + 3x2 − x + 1)
5x3 + 3x2 − x + 1 x→−2
lim =
x→−2 x2 + 5 lim (x2 + 5)
x→−2
5(−2)3 + 3(−2)2 − (−2) + 1
=
(−2)2 + 5
25
=−
9

R If f is a rational function and f (a) is defined, then lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Theorem 2.2.3 Suppose lim f (x) exists and n ∈ N. Then,

x→a
p q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x),
x→a x→a
2.2 Evaluating Limits 46

provided lim f (x) > 0 when n is even.

x→a

p q √
 Example 2.9 • lim (3x − 2) = lim (3x − 2) = 7
r x→3
r x→3
x+3 −1 + 3
• lim 3 = 3 = −1
x→−1p x − 1 −1 − 1
• lim 4 (3 − 4x) (the limit does not exist since lim (3 − 4x) = −4 which negative)
x→ 47 x→ 74
√ 3
3x2 − 5x + 1

 Example 2.10 Evaluate: lim
x→3 x3 − x + 3
Solution:
3
√
q
lim 3x2 − lim (5x + 1)

3
3x2 −

5x + 1 x→3 x→3
lim 3
= 3

x→3 x −x+3 lim (x − x + 3)
x→3
27 − 4 3
 
=
27
 3
23
=
27

3x2 − x − 2
Consider the function g(x) = . From earlier, lim g(x) = 5. Can we arrive at this
x−1 x→1
conclusion computationally?

Note that lim 3x2 − x − 2 = 0 and lim (x − 1) = 0. But when x 6= 1,

x→1 x→1

3x2 − x − 2 (3x + 2)(x − 1)

=
x−1 x−1
= 3x + 2.

Since we are just taking the limit as x → 1,

3x2 − x − 2
lim = lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1 x−1 x→1
2.2 Evaluating Limits 47

Definition 2.2.1 If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then

x→a x→a

f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

0
is called an indeterminate form of type .
0

f (a)
R 1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined!
g(a)
2. The limit above MAY or MAY NOT exist.
3. Some techniques used in evaluating such limits are:
• Factoring
• Rationalization

x3 + 27
 
0
 Example 2.11 Evaluate: lim 2
x→−3 x − 9 0
Solution:
x3 + 27 (x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 9)
lim = lim
x→−3 x2 − 9 x→−3 (x + 3)(x − 3))
2
x − 3x + 9
= lim
x→−3 x−3
9+9+9
=
−3 − 3
9
=−
2

x2 − 81
 
0
 Example 2.12 Evaluate: lim √
x→9 3 − x 0
 2.3 One Sided Limits 48

Solution:
√
x2 − 81 x2 − 81 3 + x
lim √ = lim √ · √
x→9 3 − x x→9 3 − x 3 + x
√
(x2 − 81)(3 + x)
= lim
x→9 (9 − x)
√
(x − 9)(x + 9)(3 + x)
= lim
x→9 (9 − x)
√
= lim [−(x + 9)(3 + x)]
x→9

= (−18)(6)
= −108

√
3
 
x+1 0
 Example 2.13 Evaluate: lim
x→−1 7x + 7 0
Solution:
√ √ √3 2 √
3
x+1 3
x+1 x − 3 x+1
lim = lim ·√ 3 2 √
x→−1 7x + 7 x→−1 7x + 7 x − 3 x+1
(x + 1)
= lim √ √
x→−1 7(x + 1) 3 x2 − 3 x + 1
1
= lim √ 3 2 √
x→−1 7( x − 3 x + 1)
1
=
21

2.3 One Sided Limits

Consider the function


3 − 4x2 , x < 1

f (x) =
2x − 1,

x ≥ 1.

As x → 1, the value of f (x) depends on whether x < 1 or x > 1.

We can observe that:
• As x approaches to 1 through values less than 1, f (x) approaches −1.
2.3 One Sided Limits 49

4 y

1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

Figure 2.7: The graph of f

• As x approaches 1 through values greater than 1, f (x) approaches 1.

√
Consider the function g(x) = 2x. Since there is no open interval I containing 0 such that
y

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

√
Figure 2.8: The graph of g(x) = 2x

g(x) is defined on I, we cannot let x approach 0 from both sides. But we can say something
about the values of g(x) as x gets closer to 0 from the right of 0.

Definition 2.3.1 The

limit of f (x)as x approaches to a from the left is L

2.3 One Sided Limits 50

written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a,
but are less than a.
Definition 2.3.2 The

limit of f (x)as x approaches to a from the right is L

written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a+

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a,
but are greater than a.

Theorem 2.3.1 lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L.
x→a x→a− x→a+


3 − 4x2 , x < 1

 Example 2.14 Consider the function f (x) = .
2x − 1,

x≥1
Then
• lim f (x) = lim (3 − 4x2 ) = −1
x→1− x→1−
• lim f (x) = lim (2x − 1) = 1
x→1+ x→1+
• lim f (x) dne.
x→1
√
 Example 2.15 Consider the function g(x) = 2x.
Then
√
• lim 2x = 0
x→0+ √
• lim 2x dne
x→0−√
• lim 2x dne
x→0
√

 7 − 3x, x ≤ 2

 Example 2.16 Let p(x) = 2 .
 x − 2x , x > 2

2x − 4
Then
2.3 One Sided Limits 51
√ √
• lim p(x) = lim 7 − 3x = 1 = 1
x→2− x→2−
x2 − 2x x(x − 2) x
• lim p(x) = lim = lim = lim = 1
x→2+ x→2 2x − 4
+ x→2 2(x − 2)
+ x→2 2
+

• lim p(x) = 1
x→2
x2 − 2x 16 − 8 8
• lim p(x) = lim = = =2
x→4 x→3 2x − 4 8−4 4
Recall that in Theorem 2.2.3,
p
n
√
n
lim f (x) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a

where n is an even positive integer. Also,

p
n
lim f (x) = L < 0 ⇒ lim f (x) dne.
x→a x→a
p
n
But if lim f (x) = 0, then what can we say about lim f (x)?
x→a x→a
Consider the function f (x) = 16 − x2 . Then lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = 0. If we
x→−4 x→4
construct a table of signs for f , we have the following table.

(−∞, −4) (−4, 4) (4, +∞)

(4 + x)(4 − x) − + −

• As x → −4− , f (x) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

• As x → −4+ , f (x) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
• As x → 4− , f (x) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
• As x → 4+ , f (x) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

R Suppose lim f (x) = 0. If f (x) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,

x→a
we write f (x) → 0+ [ f (x) → 0− ].

Using the notation for the function f (x) = 16 − x2 , we have

• As x → −4− , f (x) → 0− .
• As x → −4+ , f (x) → 0+ .
• As x → 4− , f (x) → 0+ .
• As x → 4+ , f (x) → 0− .

 Example 2.17 Consider f (x) = 5 − x. Then

2.3 One Sided Limits 52

• As x → 5− , f (x) → 0+ .
• As x → 5+ , f (x) → 0− .

 Example 2.18 Consider g(x) = (3 − x)2 . As x → 3, g(x) → 0+ .

Here is our answer for the question earlier.

R Let n be an even positive integer.

• As x → a,
p
f (x) → 0+ ⇒ lim n
f (x) = 0.
x→a
• As x → a,
f (x) → 0−
p
n
⇒ lim f (x) dne.
x→a
√
 Example 2.19 Consider the function f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1. Then
p p p √
lim 3x2 + 2x − 1 = lim (3x − 1)(x + 1) ( (−4)(0− )) ( 0+ )
x→−1− x→−1−

=0

and
p p p √
lim 3x2 + 2x − 1 = lim (3x − 1)(x + 1) ( (−4)(0+ )) ( 0− )
x→−1+ x→−1+
√
Thus, lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) dne. Therefore, lim 3x2 + 2x − 1 dne.
x→−1− x→−1+ x→−1
t +4
 Example 2.20 Evaluate lim
t→−4 |t + 4|
Solution: By the definition of absolute value,

t + 4, t + 4 ≥ 0 or t ≥ −4

|t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t + 4 < 0 or t < −4.


Then
t +4 t +4
• lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
t +4 t +4
• lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t→−4+ |t + 4| t→−4+ t + 4 t→−4+
t +4
Therefore, lim dne.
t→−4 |t + 4|
 2.4 Exercises 53

2.4 Exercises
3x − 12
Exercise 2.1 Evaluate: lim √
x→4 3 − 2x + 1

x2 + 1

, if x < −1


Exercise 2.2 Find lim f (x) given f (x) = x−1
x→−1 1 − √x + 5,

if x ≥ −1

 
6x − 4 1
Exercise 2.3 Evaluate: lim 2
+
x→ 32 3x + 4x − 4 3x + 2
III
Week Three

3 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity . . . . . 55

3.1 Infinite Limits
3.2 Limits at Infinity
3.3 Applications
3.4 Exercises
 3. Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity

This chapter deals with some different types of limit called infinite limits and limits at infinity.
At the end of the week you will:
• Determine infinite limits from the left and from the right.
• Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function.
• Investigate limits at infinity and horizontal asymptotes.

3.1 Infinite Limits

1
Consider f (x) = . What happens as x → 0?
x2

x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.0001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
3.1 Infinite Limits 56

As x → 0+ , f (x) increases, and there is no bound to its growth. Similarly, as x → 0− , f (x)

increases indefinitely.

6 y

x
−4 −2 2 4

1
Figure 3.1: The graph of f (x) =
x2

Definition 3.1.1 We say that the

limit of f (x) as x approaches a is positive infinity

[limit of f (x) as x approaches a is negative infinity]

if the value of f (x) increases [decreases] without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.

With the definition above, we use the notation

lim f (x) = +∞ [lim f (x) = −∞]

x→a x→a

and “x → a" may be replaced by “x → a− " or “x → a+ ".

1
 Example 3.1 We will consider our example at the start of this section. Consider f (x) = x2
.
Then we write

lim x12 = +∞
x→0

as we can see in the following table.

3.1 Infinite Limits 57

x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 10 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.0001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ +∞ 0− +∞

R Note that ∞ is NOT a number. So, lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞ does not mean that the
x→a
limit exists.

Definition 3.1.2 The line with equation x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if at
least one of the following is true: lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = +∞, and
x→a− x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a+

4x
 Example 3.2 Consider the function f (x) = . Then
x−1
 
4x 4
lim = −∞
x→1 x − 1
− 0−
and
 
4x 4
lim = +∞ .
x→1 x − 1
− 0+
Therefore, x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f . We can see its graph in Figure 3.2.

In general, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 3.1.1 Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
1. If c > 0
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim g(x) = +∞
x→a
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim f (x) = −∞
x→a g(x)
2. If c < 0
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim g(x) = −∞
x→a
3.1 Infinite Limits 58

10 y

2
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

4x
Figure 3.2: The graph of with vertical symptote x = 1
x−1

f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞
x→a g(x)

7x
 Example 3.3 Consider the function f (x) = . Then
9 − x2
7x 7x
lim 2
= lim
x→−3− 9 − x x→−3− (3 + x)(3 − x)
 
−21
= +∞
(0− )(6)
and
7x 7x
lim 2
= lim
x→−3+ 9−x x→−3 (3 + x)(3 − x)
+
 
−21
= −∞ .
(0+ )(6)

Theorem 3.1.2 1. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim ( f (x) + g(x)) = ±∞.
x→a x→a x→a
2. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim ( f (x) − g(x)) = ∓∞.
x→a x→a x→a
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim ( f (x) + g(x)) = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
4. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim ( f (x) − g(x)) = +∞, and lim (g(x) −
x→a x→a x→a x→a
f (x)) = −∞
3.1 Infinite Limits 59

lim f (x) lim g(x) lim [ f (x) + g(x)] lim [ f (x) − g(x)]
x→a x→a x→a x→a
c +∞ +∞ −∞
c −∞ −∞ +∞
+∞ +∞ +∞ ?
+∞ −∞ ? +∞

Theorem 3.1.3 1. Let c ∈ R \ {0}. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim f (x) = ±∞.
x→a x→a
(a) If c > 0, then lim f (x)g(x) = ±∞.
x→a
(b) If c < 0, then lim f (x)g(x) = ∓∞.
x→a
2. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = −∞.
x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x) lim g(x) lim [ f (x)g(x)]

x→a x→a x→a
c>0 ±∞ ±∞
c<0 ±∞ ∓∞
+∞ +∞ +∞
+∞ −∞ −∞
0 ±∞ ?

We can see that some of the boxes in our tables are filled with a question mark (?). We can
see in the succeeding discussion what are the answers to these questions.
 
3 3
 Example 3.4 Evaluate lim x − .
x→1− x−1
Solution: Note that

lim x3 = 1
x→1−

and
 
3 3
lim = −∞ .
x→1 x − 1
− 0−
 
3 3
Therefore, lim x − = +∞.
x→1− x−1
3.1 Infinite Limits 60
 
1 5x
 Example 3.5 Evaluate lim + .
x→−2− x2 − 4 x + 2
Solution:
     
1 5x 1 5x 1 −10
lim 2
+ = lim + −
+ −
x→−2− x −4 x+2 x→−2− (x + 2)(x − 2) x + 2 (0 )(−4) 0
= +∞

Definition 3.1.3 1. Suppose lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞. Then
x→a x→a

lim ( f (x) − g(x))

x→a

is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞.

2. Suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→a x→a

lim f (x)g(x)
x→a

is called an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞.

 
2 6
 Example 3.6 Evaluate: lim + .
x→−1− x + 1 2x2 + x − 1
Solution:
 
2 6
lim + 2
x→−1− x + 1 2x + x − 1
   
2 6 2 6
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
2(2x − 1) + 6
= lim
x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)
 
4x + 4 0
= lim
x→−1 (2x − 1)(x + 1)
− 0
4
= lim
x→−1− 2x − 1
4
=− .
3

 
4 3x
 Example 3.7 Evaluate: lim − .
x→2+ x − 2 x2 − 4
 3.2 Limits at Infinity 61

Solution:
 
4 3x
lim − 2
x→2+ x − 2 x −4
   
4 3x 4 6
= lim − +
− + (∞ − ∞)
x→2+ x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 2) 0 (0 )(4)
4x + 8 − 3x
= lim
x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2)
+
 
x+8 10
= lim +
x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2)
+ (0 )(4)
= +∞

 
1 x 8
 Example 3.8 Evaluate: lim − .
x→4+ 4 − x x − 1 x+2
Solution:
 
1 x 8
lim −
x→4+ 4 − x x − 1 x+2
    
1 x(x + 2) − 8(x − 1) 1 4 8
= lim − (−∞ · 0)
x→4+ 4 − x (x − 1)(x + 2) 0− 3 6
2
x − 6x + 8
 
0
= lim
x→4+ (4 − x)(x − 1)(x + 2) 0
(x − 2)(x − 4)
= lim
x→4+ (4 − x)(x − 1)(x + 2)
−(x − 2)
= lim
x→4+ (x − 1)(x + 2)
2
=−
(3)(6)
1
=−
9

3.2 Limits at Infinity

1
Consider the function f (x) = . What happens as x increases or decreases without bound?
x
Let’s look at the following table.
3.2 Limits at Infinity 62

x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 −1
10 0.1 −10 −0.1
1000 0.001 −1000 −0.001
1000000 0.000001 −1000000 −0.000001
1000000000 0.000000001 −1000000000 −0.000000001

As x → +∞, f (x) → 0 and as x → −∞, f (x) → 0. We can observe it in the graph of f as

shown in Figure 3.3

4 y

1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

1
Figure 3.3: The graph of f (x) =
x

Definition 3.2.1 We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches positive infinity is L if the
values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x increase without bound.

With the definition above, we use the following notation,

lim f (x) = L.
x→+∞

Definition 3.2.2 We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is L if the
values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x decrease without bound.

With the definition above, we use the following notation,

lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞
3.2 Limits at Infinity 63

1
 Example 3.9 We will consider our example at the start of this section. Consider f (x) = .
x
Then we write
1 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x

as we can see in the following table.

x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 −1
10 0.1 −10 −0.1
1000 0.001 −1000 −0.001
1000000 0.000001 −1000000 −0.000001
1000000000 0.000000001 −1000000000 −0.000000001
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
∞ 0 −∞ 0

Definition 3.2.3 The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞ x→+∞

1 1 1
 Example 3.10For f (x) = , we have lim = 0 and lim = 0. Thus, y = 0 is a horizontal
x x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
asymptote for the graph of f .

Theorem 3.2.1 Suppose lim f (x) = L and n ∈ N, n > 1.

 x→±∞ n
1. lim ( f (x))n = lim f (x) = Ln
x→±∞ x→±∞
p q √
2. lim n
f (x) = n lim = n L, provided that L > 0 when n is even.
x→±∞ x→±∞

 Example 3.11 1. lim x = +∞

x→+∞
2. lim x = −∞
x→−∞
3. lim x2 = +∞
x→+∞
4. lim x2 = +∞
x→−∞
5. lim 9 = 9
x→+∞
6. lim 2π = 2π
x→−∞
3.2 Limits at Infinity 64

1
7. lim =0
x→+∞ x
1
8. lim = 0
x→−∞ x

Theorem 3.2.2 1. If c ∈ R, then lim c = c.

x→±∞
2. If n is even, then lim xn = +∞.
x→±∞
3. If n is odd, then
(a) lim xn = +∞.
x→+∞
(b) lim xn = −∞.
x→−∞
4. lim 1n = 0.
x→±∞ x
5. Let c ∈ R. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→+∞ x→+∞

f (x)
lim = 0.
x→+∞ g(x)

In item (5), "x → +∞" may be replaced by "x → a", "x → a− ", "x → +a+ ", and "x → −∞".

 Example 3.12 Evaluate lim (x5 − 5x4 ).

x→+∞

Solution:

lim (x5 − 5x4 ) (∞ − ∞)

x→+∞
 
5 5
= lim x 1 − (+∞)(1 − 0)
x→+∞ x
= +∞

 Example 3.13 Evaluate lim (7x6 − x5 + 2x2 − 7).

x→−∞

Solution:

lim (7x6 − x5 + 2x2 − 7)

x→−∞
 
6 1 2 7
= lim x 7 − + 4 − 6 (+∞)(7 − 0 + 0 − 0)
x→−∞ x x x
= +∞
3.2 Limits at Infinity 65

R In general, if f (x) is a polynomial function, then lim f (x) depends only on the
x→±∞
leading term.

 Evaluate
Example 3.14
1
1. lim 4
x − 3x2
x→+∞  
7
2. lim 4x2 − 3x − 3
x→−∞ x
Solution:  
1 1
lim 4 2
1. x→+∞ x − 3x +∞
=0
 
2 7
lim 4x − 3x − 3 (+∞ − 0)
2. x→−∞ x
= +∞
x−1 x−1
Consider the function f (x) = . We will evaluate lim . Note that lim (x −
6x + 1 x→+∞ 6x + 1 x→+∞
1
1) = +∞ and lim (6x + 1) = +∞. But if we observe the table below, it seems that f (x) →
x→+∞ 6
as x → +∞.
x−1
x
6x + 1
1 0
10 ≈ 0.1475409
103 ≈ 0.1664722
105 ≈ 0.1666647
107 ≈ 0.1666666
↓ ↓
+∞ ?

Definition 3.2.4 Suppose f (x) → ∞ and g(x) → ∞ as x → a. Then

f (x)
lim
x→ g(x)
∞
is an indeterminate form of type .
∞

The expression "x → a" may be replaced by "x → a+ ", "x → a− ", “x → a+ ", and "x → −∞".
3.2 Limits at Infinity 66

x−1
 Example 3.15 Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 6x + 1

Solution:
 
x−1 +∞
lim
x→+∞ 6x + 1 +∞
1
x−1 x
= lim · 1
x→+∞ 6x + 1
x
1 − 1x
= lim
x→+∞ 6 + 1
x
1−0
=
6+0
1
=
6

1
R The technique is multiply the numerator and denominator by xn , where n is the
"degree" of the denominator.

x3 − 3x2 + 4
 Example 3.16 Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 5x4 − 7x2 + 9x + 2

Solution:
x3 − 3x2 + 4 ∞
lim
x→+∞ 5x4 − 7x2 + 9x + 2 ∞
1
x3 − 3x2 + 4 x4
= lim · 1
x→+∞ 4x4 − 7x2 + 9x + 2
x4
1
x − x32 + x44
= lim
x→+∞ 5 − 7 + x73 + x24
x2
0
=
5
=0

To solve the next examples, recall that


√ x, x≥0

x2 = |x| =
−x, x < 0

3.2 Limits at Infinity 67

Note that
√ √
x2 = x as x → +∞ and x2 = −x as x → −∞.
√
x2 − 4 ∞
 Example 3.17 Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ x + 3 ∞
Solution:
√ √ 1
x2 − 4 x2 − 4 √x2 √
lim = lim · 1 x2 = x as x → +∞
x→+∞ x + 3 x→+∞ x + 3 √
x2
√ 1
x2 − 4 √x2
= lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 3
x
q
x2 −4
x2
= lim x+3
x→+∞
x
q
1 − x42
= lim
x→+∞ 1 + 3x
√
1−0
=
1+0
=1

 
3x + 2 −∞
 Example 3.18 Evaluate: lim √
x→−∞ 9x2 − 7 +∞
Solution:
√1 √
3x + 2 3x + 2 x2
lim √ = lim √ · x2 = −x as x → −∞
x→−∞ 9x2 − 7 x→−∞ 9x2 − 7 √1
x2
1
3x + 2 −x
= lim √ ·
x→−∞ 9x2 − 7 √1
x2
3x+2
−x
= lim q
x→−∞ 9x2 −7
x2
−3 − 2x
= lim q
x→−∞
9 − x72
−3 − 0
=√
9−0
3
= − = −1
3
 3.3 Applications 68

√ 
 Example 3.19 Evaluate: lim 9x2 − x + 3x (∞ − ∞)
x→−∞

Solution:
p  p  √9x2 − x − 3x
lim 9x2 − x + 3x = lim 2
9x − x + 3x · √
x→−∞ x→−∞ 9x2 − x − 3x
1
−x √
2
√
= lim √ · 1x x2 = −x as x → −∞
x→−∞ 9x2 − x − 3x √
2 x
−x − 1x
= lim √ ·
x→−∞ 9x2 − x − 3x √1
x2
1
= lim q
x→−∞
9 − 1x + 3
1
=
6

3.3 Applications

 Example 3.20 — Oxygen Concentration. Suppose a small pond normally contains 12 units
of dissolved oxygen in a fixed volume of water. Suppose also that at time t = 0 a quantity of
organic waste is introduced into the pond, with the oxygen concentration t weeks later given
by
12t 2 − 15t + 12
f (t) =
t2 + 1
As time goes on, what will be the ultimate concentration of oxygen? Will it return to 12 units?

Solution: After 2 weeks, the pond contains

12 · 22 − 15 · 2 + 12 30
f (2) = = =6
22 + 1 5
units of oxygen, and after 4 weeks, it contains
12 · 42 − 15 · 4 + 12
f (4) = ≈ 8.5
42 + 1
units. Choosing several values of t and finding the corresponding values of f (t), or using a
graphing calculator or computer, leads to the graph in Figure 3.4.
 3.4 Exercises 69

Figure 3.4: The graph of f (t)

The graph suggests that, as time goes on, the oxygen level gets closer and closer to the
original 12 units. If so, the line y = 12 is a horizontal asymptote. The table suggests that

lim f (t) = 12.

t→∞

Thus, the oxygen concentration will approach 12, but it will never be exactly 12.

3.4 Exercises
Exercise 3.1 Evaluate the following limits:
x2 − 1
1. lim
x→ 12 1 − 2x
−
√
2. lim x2 + 2x − 3
x→−3−
x
3. lim √
x→2− x2 − 4
|x − 10|
4. lim
x→10 x − 10
+

4x − 3
Exercise 3.2 Evaluate: lim √
x→−∞ x − x2 + 2x
IV
Week Four

4 Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Continuity at a point
4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity
4.3 Continuity on an Interval
4.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
4.5 Application
4.6 Exercises
 4. Continuity of Functions

Continuous functions are functions that do not have any sudden changes from its values, called
discontinuities. You will learn more on continuity of functions in this chapter.
At the end of this topic you will:
• Determine continuity at a point and continuity on an interval.
• Use properties of continuity.
• Understand and use the Intermediate Value Theorem.

4.1 Continuity at a point

Definition 4.1.1 A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions

are all satisfied:
1. f is defined at x = a
2. lim f (x) exists
x→a
3. f (a) = lim f (x)
x→a
Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a.

 Example 4.1 Consider f (x) = 2x − 1. Then f is continuous at x = 1. We can see it from its
4.1 Continuity at a point 72

graph in Figure 4.1.

3 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

Figure 4.1: The graph of f (x) = 2x − 1

2x2 − 3x + 1
 Example 4.2 Consider g(x) = . Then g is discontinuous at x = 1 since g(1) is
x−1
undefined. We can see it from its graph in Figure 4.2.

3 y

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

2x2 − 3x + 1
Figure 4.2: The graph of g(x) =
x−1

1
 Example 4.3 Consider h(x) = . Then h is discontinuous at x = 0 since h(0) is undefined.
2x
Moreover, lim h(x) does not exist. We can see it from its graph in Figure 4.3.
x→0
 Example 4.4 Let f (x) = x3 + x2 + x − 3. Then f (1) = 0. Also, lim f (x) = f (1) = 0. There-
x→1
fore, f is continuous at x = 1. In fact, for any a ∈ R, lim f (x) = f (a), so f is continuous at
x→a
4.1 Continuity at a point 73

4 y

1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

1
Figure 4.3: The graph of h(x) =
2x

every real number.

x2 − x − 2
 Example 4.5 Let f (x) = . Then f is discontinuous at x = 2 since f (2) is undefined.
x−2
Let a ∈ R \ {2}. Then f (a) is defined since a ∈ dom f = R \ {2}. Since f is a rational function
and f (a) is defined,

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Therefore, f is continuous at any a ∈ R \ {2}.

R If f is a polynomial or a rational function and f (a) is defined, then f is continuous

at x = a.

 Example 4.6 Let

 2
 x − x − 2 , x 6= 2

g(x) = x−2

0, x=2

Then g(2) = 0 and

x2 − x − 2
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Thus, lim g(x) = 3 6= 0 = g(2). Therefore, g is discontinuous at x = 2.

x→2
 4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity 74

 Example 4.7 Let

 2
 x − x − 2 , x 6= 2

h(x) = x−2

3, x=2
Then h(2) = 3 and
x2 − x − 2
lim h(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Thus, lim h(x) = 3 = h(2). Therefore, h is continuous at x = 2.

x→2

4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity

Definition 4.2.1 1. If lim f (x) exists but either f (a) is undefined or f (a) 6= lim f (x), then
x→a x→a
we say that f has a removable discontinuity at x = a.
2. If lim f (x) does not exist, then we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a.
x→a
Moreover,
(a) if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal, then f is said to have a
x→a− x→a+
jump essential discontinuity at x = a.
(b) if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞ or lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, then f is said to have a
x→a− x→a+
infinite essential discontinuity at x = a.

3x2 − 4x + 1
 Example 4.8 1. g(x) = has a removable discontinuity at x = 1 since g(1) is
x−1
undefined but lim g(x) exists.
x→1
1
2. h(x) = has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = 0.
x
3. The Heaviside Function

1, x ≥ 1

H(x) =
0, x < 1


has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 0.

R Let f be a function. If f has a removable discontinuity at x = a, then the

discontinuity can be removed by redefining the value of f at a so that f (a) =
lim f (x).
x→a
4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity 75

y
3

1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

Figure 4.4: The graph of Heaviside function

3x2 − 4x + 1
 Example 4.9 The function g(x) = has a removable discontinuity at x = 1.
x−1
Redefining g at 1 such that g(1) = 2, the function is now continuous! We have this new
function,
 2
 3x − 4x + 1 , x 6= 1

G(x) = x−1 .

2, x=1

 Example 4.10 Discuss the continuity of the following function at x = 1 and x = 2:


4x − 3,

x<1
f (x) = x−2
, x≥1


2
2x − 5x + 2
Solution: At x = 1, we have
1−2
f (1) = = 1.
2(1)2 − 5(1) + 2
Also,
x−2
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 4(1) − 3 = 1 and lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→1− x→1− x→1+ x→1+ 2x2 − 5x + 2

Thus, lim f (x) = 1 = f (1) and therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.

x→1
At x = 2, f (2) is undefined. Also,
x−2 1 1
lim f (x) = lim = lim = .
x→2 x→2 (x − 2)(2x − 1) x→2 2x − 1 3
4.2 Removable and Essential Discontinuity 76

2 y

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

−3

−4

Figure 4.5: The graph of f

Thus, lim f (x) exists but f (2) is undefined, therefore, f has a removable discontinuity at
x→2
x = 2.

 Example 4.11 Redefine f at point with removable discontinuity:


4x − 3,

x<1
f (x) = x−2
, x≥1


2x2 − 5x + 2
Solution: Since f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, we redefine f as follows:


4x − 3, x<1





x−2

F(x) = 2
, x ≥ 1, x 6= 2

 2x − 5x + 2

 1
 ,
 x=2
3
or


 f (x), x 6= 2

F(x) =
1,

x=2
3
 4.3 Continuity on an Interval 77

Theorem 4.2.1 Let f and g be continuous at x = a and let c ∈ R. Then the following are
also continuous at x = a:
1. f ± g
2. f g
f
3. , provided g(a) 6= 0
g
4. c f .

Definition 4.2.2 A function f is said to be continuous from the left [right] at x = a if

f (a) = lim f (x) [ f (a) = lim f (x)].

x→a− x→a+

√
 Example 4.12 Let f (x) = 2 − x. Then
√
• f (2) = 2 − 2 = 0
√ √
• lim 2 − x = 0 ( 0+ )
x→2− √ √
• lim 2 − x = dne ( 0− )
x→2+
Thus, f is continuous from the left at x = 2 but not from the right at x = 2.

4 y

1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

√
Figure 4.6: The graph of f (x) = 2−x

4.3 Continuity on an Interval

4.3 Continuity on an Interval 78

Definition 4.3.1 A function f is said to be continuous

1. everywhere if f is continuous at every real number
2. on (a, b) if f is continuous at every point in (a, b)
3. on [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the right of a
4. on (a, ∞) if f is continuous at every x > a
5. on [a, ∞) if f is continuous on (a, ∞) and from the right of a

Similar definitions for: (a, b], [a, b], (−∞, b), (−∞, b].

 Example 4.13 1. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.

2. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.
3. f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.
√
4. f (x) = x is continuous on [0, ∞).

Theorem 4.3.1 If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). That is, if
x→a x→a
f is continuous at lim g(x), then
x→a
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

x−2
 Example 4.14 Evaluate: lim .
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution: Observe that
x−2 1 1
lim 2
= lim = .
x→2 x − 4 x→2 x + 2 4
Since the absolute value function is continuous everywhere, by the previous theorem,
x−2 x−2 1 1
lim 2
= lim 2 = = .
x→2 x −4 x→2 x − 4 4 4

Theorem 4.3.2 If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

is continuous at x = a.
√
 Example 4.15Determine the largest interval for which h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous.
√
Solution: The square root function f (x) = x is continuous at every x > 0 and the function
p
p(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous everywhere. Then h(x) = p(x) is continuous at all x such that
4.3 Continuity on an Interval 79

p(x) > 0 or x2 − 1 > 0 or x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). Also, h is continuous from the left at x = −1
and continuous from the right at x = 1. Therefore, h is continuous on (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

R In general:
1. A function is discontinuous at numbers where it is undefined.
2. A piecewise-defined function may be discontinuous at endpoints of intervals.

 Example 4.16 Discuss the continuity of


x−2
, x≤1



f (x) = 2x +6
2x2 + x − 6
, x>1


|2x − 3|


Solution: We recall that


2x − 3, 3
2x − 3 ≥ 0 ⇔x≥

2
|2x − 3| =
−(2x − 3), 2x − 3 < 0 3
⇔x<

2

Then
3
• f is undefined: x = −3 and x = 2
3
• Endpoints of intervals: x = 1 (and x = 2 )
• Everywhere else, f is a rational function and therefore continuous.
At x = −3, f (−3) is undefined. Also,
x−2 x−2
lim f (x) = lim = +∞ and lim f (x) = lim = −∞
x→−3− x→−3− 2x + 6 x→−3 + x→−3 2x + 6
+

Thus, f has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = −3.

At x = 23 , f ( 32 ) is undefined. Also,
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
lim f (x) = lim = lim =−
x→ 23
−
x→ 3
− |2x − 3| x→ 3
− −(2x − 3) 2
2 2

and
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
lim f (x) = lim = lim =
x→ 32
+
x→ 3
+ |2x − 3| x→ 3
+ −(2x − 3) 2
2 2

3
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = .
2
1−2 1
At x = 1, we have f (1) = = − . Also,
2(1) + 6 8
 4.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) 80

x−2 1
lim f (x) = lim =−
x→1− x→1− 2x + 6 8
and
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = −3
x→1+ x→1+ |2x − 3| x→ 3
+ −(2x − 3)
2

Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 1. (But f is continuous from the left at x = 1).
We can see its graph in Figure 4.7.
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−7−6−5−4−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 4
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure 4.7: The graph of f

4.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Theorem 4.4.1 — Intermediate Value Theorem. Let f be continuous on a closed interval

[a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b). For every k between f (a) and f (b), there exists c in (a, b) such that
f (c) = k.

R • The continuity of the function on [a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the

theorem is not true for functions discontinuous on [a, b].
• The c in the conclusion of IVT may not be unique.

x−1
 Example 4.17 Consider the function f (x) =
on the interval [1, 3]. Note that dom f =
x
R \ {0}. Then f is continuous on R \ {0} and in particular, on [1, 3]. Also, f (1) = 0 and
f (3) = 23 . Therefore, IVT is applicable!
 4.5 Application 81

By IVT, for every k between 0 and 23 , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k. Let k = 12 .
Then there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = 12 . Solving for c, we have
1 c−1
= f (c) = =⇒ c = 2c − 2 =⇒ c = 2.
2 c
Note that c = 2 ∈ (1, 3).

 Example 4.18 Show that 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0 has a solution between 0 and 1.

Solution: Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 11 on [0, 1]. Our goal is to show that there is a c ∈ (0, 1)
such that f (c) = 0. Since f is a polynomial, f is continuous on [0, 1]. Also, f (0) = −1 and
f (1) = 3 and hence, f (0) 6= f (1). Note that 0 is between f (0) and f (1). By IVT, there exists
c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0.

4.5 Application

 Example 4.19 — Cost analysis. A trailer rental firm charges a flat $8 to rent a hitch. The
trailer itself is rented for $22 per day or fraction of a day. Let C(x) represent the cost of renting
a hitch and trailer for x days.
1. Graph C.
2. Find any values of x where C is discontinuous.
Solution:

Figure 4.8: The graph of C.

1. The charge for one day is $8 for the hitch and $22 for the trailer, or $30. In fact, if
0 < x ≤ 1, then C(x) = 30. To rent the trailer for more than one day, but not more than
 4.6 Exercises 82

two days, the charge is 8 + 2 · 22 = 52 dollars. For any value of x satisfying 1 < x ≤ 2,
the cost is C(x) = 52. Also, if 2 < x ≤ 3, then C(x) = 74. These results lead to the graph
in Figure 4.8.
2. As the graph suggests, C is discontinuous at x = 1, 2, 3, 4, and all other positive integers.

4.6 Exercises
Exercise 4.1 Given the function




x2 , x≤1

f (x) = 2 − x, 1<x≤2



x2 − 3x + 1, x > 2


1. Is f continuous at x = 1? Justify your answer.

2. Is f continuous at x = 2? Justify your answer.
3. In case there is a discontinuity in item (1) or (2), what type of discontinuity is it?
4. Is f continuous on the interval [0, 2]? Justify your answer.

Exercise 4.2 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1 has at
least one real zero between 0 and 1.

Exercise 4.3 A company charges Php 125 per kilogram for a certain fertilizer on all orders
100 kg or less, and Php 100 per kg for orders over 100 kg. Let F(x) represent the cost for
buying x kg of the fertilizer. Find the cost of buying the following.
1. 80 kg
2. 150 kg
3. 100 kg
4. Where is F discontinuous?
V
Week Five

5 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.1 Rate of Change
5.2 Tangent Line
5.3 Definition of the Derivative of a Function
5.4 Differentiation Rules
5.5 The Chain Rule
5.6 Applications
5.7 Exercises
 5. Derivative of a Function

The derivative of a function is a measure of the rate at which the value of a function changes.
You will dig deeper into this concept as you read this chapter.
At the end of this topic you will:
• Find the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point.
• Find the equations of the line tangent and normal to a curve at a point.
• Use the limit definition to find the derivative of a function.
• Find the derivative of a function using differentiation rules.
• Find the derivative of a composite function using the Chain Rule.

5.1 Rate of Change

If you pass mile marker 120 on a highway at 9 a.m. and mile marker 250 at 11 a.m., then the
average rate of change of distance with respect to time, also known as average velocity, is
250 − 120 130
= = 65 miles per hour
11 − 9 2
Of course your speedometer reading, that is, the instantaneous rate of change, or instan-
taneous velocity, might well have been 75 mph at some moment between 9 a.m. and 11
5.1 Rate of Change 85

a.m.
We will define the concepts of average rate of change and instantaneous rate of change
more generally, and will apply them in situations that are unrelated to velocity.

Definition 5.1.1 — Average Rate of Change. For y = f (x), the average rate of change
from x = a to x = a + h is
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
= h 6= 0.
(a + h) − a h

Let us consider the following examples.

 Example 5.1 — Revenue Analysis. The revenue (in dollars) from the sale of x plastic planter
boxes is given by

R(x) = 20x − 0.02x2 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 000.

1. What is the change in revenue if production is changed from 100 planters to 400 planters?
2. What is the average rate of change in revenue for this change in production?
Solution:
1. The change in revenue is given by

R(400) − R(100) = 20(400) − 0.02(400)2 − [20(100) − 0.02(100)2 ]

= 4, 800 − 1, 800
= 3, 000

Increasing production from 100 planters to 400 planters will increase revenue by $3,000.
2. To find the average rate of change in revenue, we divide the change in revenue by the
change in production:
R(400) − R(100) 3, 000
= = 10
400 − 100 300
The average rate of change in revenue is $10 per planter when production is increased
from 100 to 400 planters.

 Example 5.2 — Alaskan Moose. Researchers from the Moose Research Center in Soldotna,
Alaska, have developed a mathematical relationship between the age of a captive female
moose and its weight. The function is
5.1 Rate of Change 86

M(t) = 369(0.93)t (t 0.36 )

where M is the weight of the moose (in kg) and t is the age (in years) of the moose. Find the
average rate of change in the weight of a female moose between the ages of 2 and 3 years.

Solution: On the interval from t = 2 to t = 3, the average rate of change is

M(3) − M(2) 369(0.93)3 (3)0.36 − 369(0.93)2 (2)0.36
= ≈ 31.194
3−2 3−2
The average rate of change in the weight of a female moose between the ages of 2 and 3 years
is approximately 31.194 kg.

 Example 5.3 — Velocity. A small steel ball dropped from a tower will fall a distance of y feet
in x seconds, as given approximately by the formula

y = f (x) = 16x2 .

1. Find the average velocity from x = 2 seconds to x = 3 seconds.

2. Find and simplify the average velocity from x = 2 seconds to x = 2 + h seconds, h 6= 0.
3. Find the limit of the expression from part 2 as h → 0 if that limit exists.
4. Discuss possible interpretations of the limit from part 3.

Solution:
1. Recall the formula d = rt, which can be written in the form
d Distance covered
r= = = Average velocity
t Elapsed time
For example, if a person drives from San Francisco to Los Angeles (a distance of about
420 miles) in 7 hours, then the average velocity is
d 420
r= = = 60 miles per hour
t 7
Sometimes the person will be traveling faster and sometimes slower, but the average
velocity is 60 miles per hour. In our present problem, the average velocity of the steel
ball from x = 2 seconds to x = 3 seconds is
5.1 Rate of Change 87

Distance covered
Average velocity =
Elapsed time
f (3) − f (2)
=
3−2
16(3)2 − 16(2)2
=
1
= 80 feet per second

We see that if y = f (x) is the position of the falling ball, then the average velocity is
simply the average rate of change of f (x) with respect to time x.
2. Proceeding as in part 1, we have
Distance covered
Average velocity =
Elapsed time
f (2 + h) − f (2)
=
h
16(2 + h)2 − 16(2)2
=
h
64 + 64h + 16h2 − 64
=
h
h(64 + 16h)
= = 64 + 16h h 6= 0
h
Notice that if h = 1, the average velocity is 80 feet per second, which is the result in part
1.
3. The limit of the average velocity expression from part 2 as h → 0 is
f (2 + h) − f (2)
lim = lim (64 + 16h)
h→0 h h→0

= 64 feet per second

4. The average velocity over smaller and smaller time intervals approaches 64 feet per
second. This limit can be interpreted as the velocity of the ball at the instant that the ball
has been falling for exactly 2 seconds. Therefore, 64 feet per second is referred to as the
instantaneous velocity at x = 2 seconds
 5.2 Tangent Line 88

Definition 5.1.2 — Instantaneous Rate of Change . For y = f (x), the instantaneous rate
of change at x = a is
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim
h→0 h
if the limit exists.

The adjective instantaneous is often omitted with the understanding that the phrase rate of
change always refers to the instantaneous rate of change and not the average rate of change.
Similarly, velocity always refers to the instantaneous rate of change of distance with respect
to time.

5.2 Tangent Line

Tangent line to a circle is a line that touches the circle in one point. Below is an illustation of a
tangent line to a circle.

P
•

Figure 5.1: A tangent line to a circle at point P

How about tangent line to a curve?

←→
Consider a function f and points P(x0 , f (x0 )), Q(x1 , f (x1 )) in its graph. The line PQ that
passes through the point P and Q is called a secant line, that is, a line that passes through any
←
→
two points on a curve. How can we get the slope of PQ? Let’s use the slope formula and we
have
f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
m←→= .
PQ x1 − x0
Let ∆x = x1 − x0 . Then
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m←→= .
PQ ∆x
5.2 Tangent Line 89
←→
Let Q get closer and closer to P. The line PQ will approach the line l. The slope of the line l is
f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
ml = lim
x1 →x0 x1 − x0
or if we let ∆x = x1 − x0 , then
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
ml = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
The line l is called the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at P.
y y
f f

f (x1 ) • •Q

P P
f (x0 ) • • •
l

• • x x
x0 x1

Figure 5.2: The secant line through the points Figure 5.3: The tangent line l to the graph of
P(x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x1 , f (x1 )) f at point P

Definition 5.2.1 If the function f is defined on an open interval containing x = x0 , then the
tangent line to the graph of f at the point P(x0 , f (x0 )) is the line
• passing through P whose slope is given by
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
provided that this limit exists.
• with equation x = x0 if
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
lim = +∞ or −∞ and
∆x→0− ∆x
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
lim = +∞ or −∞.
∆x→0+ ∆x
Otherwise, there is no tangent line to the graph of f at P.
5.2 Tangent Line 90

R These are some remarks regarding the tangent line to the graph of f at point P.
1. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at P gives us an idea on the
"flatness" or "steepness" of the graph of f at P and whether the graph of f
rises or falls at P.
2. The tangent line to the graph of a function may intersect the graph at points
other than the point of tangency.

Definition 5.2.2 The line normal to the graph of f at the point P is the line perpendicular to
the tangent line at P.

1
 Example 5.4 Give equations of the tangent and normal lines to the graph of f (x) = at
x
x = 1.

Solution: We remember that point-slope form of a line is given by y − y0 = m(x − x0 ) where

m is the slope of the line and (x0 , y0 ) is a point in the line. At x = 1, we have f (1) = 1/1 = 1.
So, (1, 1) is a point on the graph of f . Let mT L be the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
f (x) at (1, 1). Then
f (1 + ∆x) − f (1)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
1
−1
= lim 1+∆x
∆x→0 ∆x
1 − (1 + ∆x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x)
 
−∆x 0
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x) 0
−1
= lim
∆x→0 1 + ∆x

= −1

Therefore, the tangent line is y − 1 = −(x − 1).

Since mT L = −1, so the slope of the normal line is 1 (recall that the slope m1 of the line
a
L1 perpendicular to the line L2 is the negative reciprocal of the slope m2 = b of L2 , that is,
m1 = − ba ). Hence, the normal line is y − 1 = (x − 1).

 Example 5.5 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 at x = 2.
 5.3 Definition of the Derivative of a Function 91

Solution:
g(2 + ∆x) − g(2)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(2 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (22 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[4 + 4∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 6
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
4∆x + (∆x) 2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (4 + ∆x)
∆x→0

=4

Note that we can compute the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 for any
value of x.

5.3 Definition of the Derivative of a Function

Definition 5.3.1 The derivative of a function f (x), denoted f 0 (x), is the function
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
It is defined at all points x in the domain of f where the limit exists.

R The following are some important remarks on the derivative of a function.

1. There may be points x0 ∈ dom f at which f 0 (x0 ) does not exist. So, dom f 0 ⊆
dom f .
2. The definition tells us that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph
of the function at point P(x0 , f (x0 )).
3. To get the derivative of f at x = x0 , we use
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
Alternatively, by setting ∆x = x − x0 ,
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
∆x→0 x − x0
dy d
4. Other notations: y0 if y = f (x), , [ f (x)], Dx [ f (x)].
dx dx
 5.4 Differentiation Rules 92

5. The process of computing the derivative is called differentiation.

√
 Example 5.6 Find the derivative of f (x) = x.

Solution: Using the definition, we have

√ √
0 x + ∆x − x
f (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
√ √ √ √
x + ∆x − x x + ∆x + x
= lim ·√ √
∆x→0 ∆x x + ∆x + x
(x + ∆x) − x
= lim √ √
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x)
1
= lim √ √
∆x→0 x + ∆x + x
1
= √ .
2 x
1
Therefore, f 0 (x) = √ .
2 x
Note that dom f = [0, +∞) and dom f 0 = [0, +∞).
√
3
 Example 5.7 Find the derivative of f (x) = x at x = 0.

Solution: Using the other definition of the derivative, we have

√ √
0
3
x− 3 0
f (0) = lim
x→0 x − 0
√3
x
= lim
x→0 x
 
1 1
= lim 2
x→0 x 3 0+
=∞

Since the limit does not exist, f 0 is undefined at x = 0.

5.4 Differentiation Rules

Theorem 5.4.1 Let f be functions and c ∈ R.
1. If f (x) = c ∈ R, then f 0 (x) = 0.
2. (Power Rule) If f (x) = xn , where n ∈ Q, then f 0 (x) = nxn−1 .
5.4 Differentiation Rules 93

 Example 5.8 1. Dx (5) = 0

2. Dx [x] = 1 · x1−1 = 1
3. Dx [x5 ] = 5 · x5−1 = 5x4
d √ d 1 1 1 1
4. ( x) = (x 2 ) = x− 2 = √
dx   dx 2 2 x
d 1 d −2 2
5. 2
= [x ] = −2x−3 = − 3
dx x dx x

Theorem 5.4.2 Let f and g be functions and c ∈ R. If f (x) = c · g(x), then f 0 (x) = c · g0 (x)
if g0 (x) exists.

 Example 5.9 1. Dx [3x2 ] = 3Dx [x2 ] = 3 · (2x) = 6x

2. If a ∈ R and f (x) = ax, then f 0 (x) = a.
3. Dx [(2x)5 ] = Dx [32x5 ] = 32 · 5x4 = 160x4
(Note that the derivative is not 5(2x)4 which is 80x4 .)

Theorem 5.4.3 — Sum Rule. Let f and g be functions. If h(x) = f (x) ± g(x), then h0 (x) =
f 0 (x) ± g0 (x), provided both f 0 (x) and g0 (x) exist.

2 2
 Example
 5.10 √1. Dx [x + 3x] = Dx [x ] + Dx [3x] = 2x + 3
d 4 x 4 1 2
2. 2x4 − + 7 = 8x3 − · √ = 8x3 − √
dx 5 5 2 x 5 x

Theorem 5.4.4 — Product Rule. Let f and g be functions. If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then h0 (x) =
f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g0 (x), provided f 0 (x) and g0 (x) both exist.

 Example 5.11 Let us find the indicate derivatives.

1. Using the Product Rule,

Dx [(x − 3)(2x2 − 3)] = (1)(2x2 − 3) + (x − 3)(4x)

= 2x2 − 3 + 4x2 − 12x
= 6x2 − 12x − 3

2. If y = (x − 3)(2x2 − 3), then y = 2x3 − 6x2 − 3x + 9 and so y0 = 6x2 − 12x − 3.

 5.4 Differentiation Rules 94

3. Using the Product Rule,

d 4 √
[(3x5 + 6x 3 − 2)(4x3 − 5 3 x)]
dx
√
 
4 1
3 3 5 4
2 5 −2
= (15x + 8x 3 )(4x − 5 x) + (3x + 6x 3 − 2) 12x − x 3
3

f (x)
Theorem 5.4.5 — Quotient Rule. Let f and g be functions. If h(x) = g(x) , where g(x) 6= 0,
then
g(x) f 0 (x) − f (x)g0 (x)
h0 (x) = ,
[g(x)]2
provided f 0 (x) and g0 (x) both exist.

 Example 5.12 The following examples exhibit the quotient rule.

2x2 + 3x
1. If f (x) = , then
x−5
(x − 5)(4x + 3) − (2x2 + 3)(1)
f 0 (x) =
(x − 5)2
4x2 + 3x − 20x − 15 − 2x2 − 3
=
(x − 5)2
2x2 − 17x − 18
=
(x − 5)2
√  √x √ 1
− (
√ 1
x + 1) 2√
d x+1 2 x x 1
2. √ = =− √
dx x x 2x x
 Example 5.13 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 3x2 − x at the
point where x = 1.

Solution: At x = 1, f (1) = 2. So, we have the point (1, 2) in the graph of f . Now, f 0 (x) =
6x − 1. Then f 0 (1) = 5. Thus, 5 is the slope of tangent line. Hence, the equation of the tangent
line is y − 2 = 5(x − 1).

5.4.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 5.4.6 Dx [sin x] = cos x
 5.4 Differentiation Rules 95

Theorem 5.4.7 The following differentiation formulas hold.

1. Dx [sin x] = cos x
2. Dx [cos x] = − sin x
3. Dx [tan x] = sec2 x
4. Dx [cot x] = − csc2 x
5. Dx [sec x] = sec x tan x
6. Dx [csc x] = − csc x cot x

d
 Example 5.14 1. [3 sin x − 7 cos x] = 3 cos x − 7(− sin x) = 3 cos x + 7 sin x
dx
2. Dx [sec x csc x] = (sec x tan x)(csc x) + (sec x)(− csc x cot x)
cot x − x
3. If f (x) = , then
1 + tan x
(1 + tan x)(− csc2 x − 1) − (cot x − x)(sec2 x)
f 0 (x) =
(1 + tan x)2
4.

Dx [sin(2x)] = Dx [2 sin x cos x]

= 2Dx [sin x cos x]
= 2 · (cos x · cos x + sin x · (− sin x))

= 2(cos2 x − sin2 x)
= 2 cos(2x)

5.4.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Theorem 5.4.8 For a > 0, Dx [ax ] = ax ln a.
In particular, if a = e, then Dx [ex ] = ex ln e = ex .

Example 5.4.1 1. Dx [2x ] = 2x ln 2

2. Dx [5x ] = 5x ln 5

Example 5.4.2 1. Dx [5ex − 3x4 + 8x − 20] = 5ex − 12x3 + 8

2. Dx [−7xe + 3ex + e3 ] = −7exe−1 + 3ex
Remember that e is a real number, so the power rule is used to find the derivative of xe .
 5.5 The Chain Rule 96

The derivative of the exponential function ex , however, is ex . Note that e3 is a constant, so its
derivative is 0.

5.4.3 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

1
Theorem 5.4.9 For b > 0 and b 6= 1, Dx [logb x] = .
x ln b
In particular, if b = e, we have a natural logarithmic function and
1 1
Dx [loge x] = Dx [ln x] = = .
x ln e x

1
Example 5.4.3 1. Dx [log2 x] =
x ln 2
1
2. Dx [log5 x] =
x ln 5
7
Example 5.4.4 1. Dx [4ex + 7 ln x] = 4ex +
x
4 4 4 3 4
2. Dx [x − ln x ] = Dx [x − 4 ln x] = 4x −
x

5.5 The Chain Rule

Theorem 5.5.1 — Chain Rule. If a function g is differentiable at x = x0 and a function f is

differentiable at g(x0 ), then f ◦ g is differentiable at x = x0 and

( f ◦ g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (g(x0 )) · g0 (x0 ).

R The chain rule can also be stated in the following manner:

dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g(x), then = · or Dx [ f (u)] = f 0 (u)Dx [u].
dx du dx

 Example 5.15 Find Dx [(2x)5 ].

Solution: Note that (2x)5 = ( f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x5 and g(x) = 2x. We have f 0 (x) = 5x4
and g0 (x) = 2. Using the chain rule,

Dx [(2x)5 ] = f 0 (g(x)) · g0 (x)

= 5(2x)4 · 2

= 10(2x)4 .
5.5 The Chain Rule 97

 Example 5.16 Determine Dx[sin(2x)].

Solution: We have sin(2x) = ( f ◦ g)(x)where f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 2x. So, by the chain
rule,

Dx [sin(2x)] = f 0 (g(x)) ◦ g0 (x)

= (cos(2x)) ◦ (2)

= 2 cos(2x).

 Example 5.17 Find h0 (x) if h(x) = 2 sin(x2 ).

Solution: Note that h(x) = ( f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = 2 sin x and g(x) = x2 . Now, using the
chain rule,

h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) ◦ g0 (x)

= (2 cos x2 ) ◦ (2x)
= 4x cos x2 .

dy √
 Example 5.18 if y = x3 − tan x.
Find
dx
√
Solution: We let y = u and u = x3 − tan x. Thus,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
1
= √ · (3x2 − sec2 x)
2 u
3x2 − sec2 x
= √ .
2 x3 − tan x

R 1. The chain rule can also be extended to a finite composition of functions. To

illustrate,
5.5 The Chain Rule 98

( f1 ◦ f2 ◦ f3 )0 (x) = f10 (( f2 ◦ f3 )(x)) · f20 ( f3 (x)) · f30 (x).

2. It may help to think that :
"The derivative of f (g(x)) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated
at the inside function times the derivative of the inside function."

 Example 5.19 1. Dx [(3x2 − x − 6)27 ]

Dx [(3x2 − x − 6)27 ] = 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · Dx [3x2 − x − 6]

= 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · (6x − 1).
d
2. [sec(cos x)]
dx
d d
[sec(cos x)] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · [cos x]
dx dx
= sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · (− sin x).

3. y = (2x − 1)100 (2 − x)200

dy
= 100(2x − 1)99 · 2 · (2 − x)200 + (2x − 1)100 · 200(2 − x)199 · (−1)
dx
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [200(2 − x) − 200(2x − 1)]
= 600(1 − x)(2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 .
" 5
#
(2x 2 + 2)4
4. Dx √
2x − csc x
" 5
#
(2x 2 + 2)4
Dx √
2x − csc x
√ 5 5 √
( 2x − csc x) · Dx [(2x 2 + 2)4 ] − (2x 2 + 2)4 · Dx [ 2x − csc x]
= √
( 2x − csc x)2
√ 5 3 5
 
( 2x − csc x) · 4(2x 2 + 2)3 · (5x 2 ) − (2x 2 + 2)4 · 2√12x · 2 + csc x cot x
= √
( 2x − csc x)2
5. Dx [sin(tan2 x)]

Dx [sin(tan2 x)] = f 0 ((g ◦ h)(x)) · g0 (h(x)) · h0 (x)

= cos(tan2 x) · 2(tan x) · sec2 x

 5.6 Applications 99

6. Dx [cos2 (cot 4x)]

Dx [cos2 (cot 4x)] = 2 cos(cot 4x) · (− sin(cot 4x)) · (− csc2 4x) · (4)

5.6 Applications

Example 5.6.1 — Instantaneous Velocity. An object moves along the y axis (marked in feet)
so that its position at time x (in seconds) is

f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x

1. Find the instantaneous velocity function v.

2. Find the velocity at x = 2 and x = 5 seconds.
3. Find the time(s) when the velocity is 0.
Solution:
1. v = f 0 (x) = (x3 )0 − (6x2 )0 + (9x)0 = 3x2 − 12x + 9
2. f 0 (2) = 3(2)2 − 12(2) + 9 = −3 feet per second
f 0 (5) = 3(5)2 − 12(5) + 9 = 24 feet per second

3.

v = f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 = 0

3(x2 − 4x + 3) = 0

3(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
x = 1, 3

So, v = 0 at x = 1 and x = 3 seconds.

One important application of calculus to business and economics involves marginal analysis.
In economics, the word marginal refers to a rate of change—that is, to a derivative. Thus, if
C(x) is the total cost of producing x items, then C0 (x) is called the marginal cost and represents
the instantaneous rate of change of total cost with respect to the number of items produced.
Similarly, the marginal revenue is the derivative of the total revenue function, and the marginal
profit is the derivative of the total profit function.
 5.7 Exercises 100

Definition 5.6.1 — Marginal Cost, Revenue, and Profit. If x is the number of units of a
product produced in some time interval, then

total cost = C(x)

marginal cost = C0 (x)

total revenue = R(x)

marginal revenue = R0 (x)
total profit = P(x) = R(x) −C(x)

marginal profit = P0 (x) = R0 (x) −C0 (x)

Marginal cost (or revenue or profit) is the instantaneous rate of change of cost (or revenue
or profit) relative to production at a given production level.

Example 5.6.2 — Cost Analysis. The cost in dollars to manufacture x graphing calculators is
given by C(x) = −0.005x2 + 20x + 150 when 0 ≤ x ≤ 2000. Find the rate of change of cost
with respect to the number manufactured when 100 calculators are made and when 1000
calculators are made.

Solution: The rate of change of cost is given by the derivative C0 (x) of the cost function. Now,

C0 (x) = −0.01x + 20.

When x = 100,

C0 (100) = −0.01(100) + 20 = 19.

This rate of change of cost per calculator gives the marginal cost at x = 100, which means the
approximate cost of producing the 101st calculator is $19.
When 1000 calculators are made, the marginal cost is

C0 (1000) = −0.01(1000) + 20 = 10,

or $10.

5.7 Exercises
5.7 Exercises 101

Exercise 5.1 Use the definition to find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1.

1
Exercise 5.2 Find f 0 (x) given f (x) = x3 − .
x3

Exercise 5.3 Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x + 3 at the
point where x = 1.

dy
Exercise 5.4 Find if y = 2x cos x.
dx

√
x−8 4 x
Exercise 5.5 Differentiate:
sec x − 3 cot x

dy
Exercise 5.6 Find if y = (x + tan x)4 .
dx

√
Exercise 5.7 Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = sin(2x3 − 3x).

π
Exercise 5.8 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = cos 2x at x = .
4

Exercise 5.9 Suppose the demand for a certain item is given by D(p) = −2p2 − 4p + 300,
where p represents the price of the item in pesos.
1. Find the rate of change of demand with respect to price.
2. Find and interpret the rate of change of demand when the price is Php 100.
VI
Week Six

6 Higher Order Derivatives and Implicit Dif-

ferentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1 Higher Order Derivatives
6.2 Implicit Differentiation
6.3 Applications: Related Rates
6.4 Exercises
 6. Higher Order Derivatives and Implicit Differentiatio

This chapter covers the notion of higher order derivatives and implicit differentation.
At the end of this topic you will:
• Find a higher-order derivative of a function.
• Distinguish between functions written in implicit form and explicit form.
• Use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of a function.
• Use derivatives to find rates of change.

6.1 Higher Order Derivatives

If f 0 is differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the second derivative of f and is

denoted f 00 .
We can continue to obtain the third derivative, f 000 , the fourth derivative, f (4) , and other
higher derivatives.
Definition 6.1.1 The n-th derivative of the function f , denoted f (n) , is the derivative of the
(n − 1)-th derivative of f , that is,
f (n−1) (x + ∆x) − f (n−1) (x)
f (n) (x) = lim .
∆→0 ∆x
 6.2 Implicit Differentiation 104

R 1. The n in f (n) is called the order of the derivative.

2. The derivative of a function f is also called the first derivative of f .
3. The function f is sometimes written as f (0) (x).
dny dn
4. Other notations: Dx [ f (x)], n , n [ f (x)], y(n)
n
dx dx
 Example 6.1 Find f (n) (x) for all n ∈ N where f (x) = x6 − x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 4.

Solution: We differentiate repeatedly and obtain

f 0 (x) = 6x5 − 4x3 − 9x2 + 4x,

f 00 (x) = 30x4 − 12x2 − 18x + 4,

f 000 (x) = 120x3 − 24x − 18,

f (4) (x) = 360x2 − 24,
f (5) (x) = 720x,

f (6) (x) = 720,

f (n) (x) = 0 for all n ≥ 7.

√
 Example 6.2 Find f (4) (x) if f (x) = 2x − 3.

Solution:
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = (2x − 3)− 2
2
1 3 3
f 00 (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = −(2x − 3)− 2
2
3 5 5
f 000 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = 3(2x − 3)− 2
2
15 7 7
f (4) (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = −15(2x − 3)− 2 .
2

6.2 Implicit Differentiation

Equations in two variables are used to define a function explicitly or implicitly. The function
y = x2 − 1 defines f (x) = x2 − 1 explicitly. The function y2 = x + 1 defines two functions of x
√ √
implicitly such as f1 (x) = x + 1 and f2 (x) = − x + 1.
6.2 Implicit Differentiation 105

dy
 Example 6.3 Consider: If x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, how do we find ?
dx
Solution: From x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, we can define y explicitly in terms of x as
x3 − 6
y= .
2x + 3
Thus,
dy (2x + 3)(3x2 ) − (x3 − 6)(2)
=
dx (2x + 3)2
4x3 + 9x2 + 12
= .
(2x + 3)2

dy
Suppose we have x4 y3 − 7xy = 7 or tan(x2 − 2xy) = y. How do we find ?
dx
dy
To find using implicit differentiation, we
dx
1. think of the variable y as a differentiable function of the variable x,
2. differentiate both sides of the equation, using the chain rule where necessary, and
dy
3. solve for .
dx
dy
 Example 6.4 Find if x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0.
dx
Solution:

Dx [x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6] = Dx [0]

Dx [x3 ] − Dx [2xy] − Dx [3y] − Dx [6] = Dx [0]
 
2 dy dy
3x − 2 1 · y + x · −3· −0 = 0
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 − 2y − 2x · − 3 · =0
dx dx
dy dy
2x · + 3 · = 3x2 − 2y
dx dx
dy
(2x + 3) = 3x2 − 2y.
dx
6.2 Implicit Differentiation 106

Now, we have
dy 3x2 − 2y
=
dx 2x + 3
x3 −6
3x2 − 2 · 2x+3
=
2x + 3
3x · (2x + 3) − 2(x3 − 6)
2
=
(2x + 3)2
4x3 + 9x2 + 12
= .
(2x + 3)2

dy
 Example 6.5 Find dx if x4 y3 − 7xy = 7.

Solution:

Dx [x4 y3 − 7xy] = Dx [7]

dy dy
4x3 y3 + 3x4 y2 · − 7(y + x · ) = 0
dx dx
dy −4x3 y3 + 7y
=
dx 3x4 y2 − 7x

dy
 Example 6.6 Find if tan(x2 − 2xy) = y.
dx
Solution:

Dx [tan(x2 − 2xy)] = Dx [y]

  
2 2 dy dy
sec (x − 2xy) 2x − 2 y + x · = .
dx dx
Thus,
dy 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy) − 2y sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
= .
dx 1 + 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
d2y
 Example 6.7 Find if xy2 = y − 2.
dx2
 6.3 Applications: Related Rates 107

Solution:

Dx [xy2 ] = Dx [y − 2]
dy dy
y2 + x · 2y =
dx dx
dy y2
= .
dx 1 − 2xy
This implies that
dy dy
d 2 y (1 − 2xy)(2y dx ) − (y2 )[−2(y + x dx )]
=
dx2 (1 − 2xy)2
h i h  i
y2 y2
(1 − 2xy) 2y · 1−2xy − (y2 ) −2 y + x · 1−2xy
= .
(1 − 2xy)2

6.3 Applications: Related Rates

Union workers are concerned that the rate at which wages are increasing is lagging behind the
rate of increase in the company’s profits. An automobile dealer wants to predict how much an
anticipated increase in interest rates will decrease his rate of sales. An investor is studying the
connection between the rate of increase in the Dow Jones average and the rate of increase in
the gross domestic product over the past 50 years.
In each of these situations, there are two quantities—wages and profits, for example—that
are changing with respect to time. We would like to discover the precise relationship between
the rates of increase (or decrease) of the two quantities. We begin our discussion of such
related rates by considering familiar situations in which the two quantities are distances and
the two rates are velocities.

 Example 6.8 A 26-foot ladder is placed against a wall. If the top of the ladder is sliding
down the wall at 2 feet per second, at what rate is the bottom of the ladder moving away from
the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 10 feet away from the wall?

Solution:
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 108

26 ft
y
→
x

Let x be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from the wall and let y be the distance of the
top of the ladder from the ground. Both x and y are changing with respect to time and can be
thought of as functions of time; that is, x = x(t) and y = y(t). Furthermore, x and y are related
by the Pythagorean relationship:

x2 + y2 = 262

Differentiating the equation implicitly with respect to time t and using the chain rule where
appropriate, we obtain
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0.
dt dt
dx dy
From this equation, the rates and are related. This is a related-rates problem.
dt dt
dx dy
Our problem is to find when x = 10 feet, given that = −2 (y is decreasing at a
dt dt
constant rate of 2 feet per second). We have all the quantities we need in equation (2) to solve
dx
for , except y. When x = 10, y can be found by:
dt

102 + y2 = 262
p
y = 262 − 102 = 24 feet

dy
Substituting = −2, x = 10 and y = 24, we have
dt
dx
2(10) + 2(24)(−2) = 0
dt
dx −2(24)(−2)
= = 4.8 feet per second
dt 2(10)
The bottom of the ladder is moving away from the wall at a rate of 4.8 feet per second
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 109

dx
In general, if we let x be a quantity that is a function of time t, then dt is rate of change of
dy dx
x with respect to t. Suppose y is dependent on x. Then dt is dependent on dt .
Problems on related rates are problems involving rates of change of several variables where
one variable is dependent on one or more other variables.

dx
R 1. If > 0 ∀ t > 0, then x increases through time.
dt
dx
2. If < 0 ∀ t > 0, then x decreases through time.
dt
dx
3. = 0 ∀ t > 0, then x remains constant through time.
dt

Before we solve some interesting problems, the following are some suggestions in solving
problems involving related rates.
1. Let t denote the elapsed time. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem that is valid for
any time t > 0.
2. Select variables to represent the quantities that change with respect to time. Label those
quantities whose values do not depend on t with their given constant values.
3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of change
as the derivative of a variable with respect to time.
4. Identify what is being asked.
5. Write an equation relating the variables that is valid at all time t > 0.
6. Differentiate the equation in (5) implicitly with respect to t.
7. Substitute in the equation obtained in (6) all values that are valid at the particular time of
interest. Solve for what is being asked.
8. Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include the
correct units of measurement.

 Example 6.9 A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is
being pulled horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving
when the bottom is 6 meters from the wall?

Solution:
• Let t denote the elapsed time. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem that is valid for
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 110

any time t > 0.

y 10 m

x ← 2 m/s

• Select variables to represent the quantities that change with respect to time. Label those
quantities whose values do not depend on t with their given constant values.
• Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of change
as the derivative of a variable with respect to time.
dx
= −2 m/s
dt
• Identify what is being asked.
dy
=?
dt x=6
• Write an equation relating the variables that is valid at all time t > 0.

x2 + y2 = 100

• Differentiate the equation implicitly with respect to t.

Dt [x2 + y2 ] = Dt [100]
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0
dt dt
dy x dx
=−
dt y dt
• Substitute in the equation obtained all values that are valid at the particular time of
interest. Solve for what is being asked.
dy x dx dx
x2 + y2 = 100 =− = −2
dt y dt dt
When x = 6: 36 + y2 = 100 =⇒ y2 = 64 =⇒ y = 8 (since y > 0)
dy 6 3
∴ = − · (−2) =
dt x=6 8 2
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 111

• Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include the
correct units of measurement.
3
Therefore, the top of the ladder is sliding up the wall at a rate of m/s when the bottom
2
of the ladder is 6 meters from the wall.

 Example 6.10 An automobile traveling at a rate of 20 ft/s is approaching an intersection.

When the automobile is 100 ft. from the intersection, a truck traveling at the rate of 40 ft/s
crosses the intersection. The automobile and the truck are on roads that are at right angles
to each other. How fast are the truck and the automobile separating 2 seconds after the truck
leaves the intersection?

Solution:
t =0: t >0:

truck auto x auto

• ←• • ←•
↓
y
z
truck •
↓

dx dy
Given: = −20 ft/s, = 40 ft/s
dt dt

dz
Find: =?
dt t=2

Dt [x2 + y2 ] = Dt [z2 ]
dx dy dz
2x + 2y = 2z
dt dt dt
 
dz 1 dx dy
= x +y
dt z dt dt
At t = 2:
• x = 100 − 40 = 60
• y = 80
√
• z = 602 + 802 = 100
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 112

dz 1
= (60(−20) + 80(40))
dt t=2 100
2000
=
100
= 20

Therefore, the distance between them is increasing at a rate of 20 ft/s after 2 seconds.

 Example 6.11 Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of 8 cubic feet per minute. If
the height of the cone is 12 feet and the radius of its base is 6 feet, how fast is the water level
rising when the water is 4 feet deep?

Solution:

V = volume of water in cone

dV
= 8 ft3 /min
dt

dh
=?
dt h=4

1
V = πr2 h
3
dr
But we don’t know .
dt
Express r in terms of h. By similar triangles,
r 6 h
= =⇒ r =
h 12 2
1 h2
=⇒ V = π h
3 4
πh3
=⇒ V =
12
dV π dh
=⇒ = h2
dt 4 dt
dh 4 dV
=⇒ = 2
dt πh dt
6.3 Applications: Related Rates 113

dh 4
= (8)
dt h=4 16π
2
=
π
2
ft/min when the water is 4 feet deep.
Therefore, the water level is rising at
π
 Example 6.12 Suppose that for a company manufacturing flash drives, the cost, revenue, and

profit equations are given by

C = 5, 000 + 2x (Cost equation )

R = 10x − 0.001x2 (Revenue equation )

P = R −C (Profit equation)

where the production output in 1 week is x flash drives. If production is increasing at the rate
of 500 flash drives per week when production is 2,000 flash drives, find the rate of increase in
1. Cost
2. Revenue
3. Profit
Solution: If production x is a function of time (it must be, since it is changing with respect to
time), then C, R, and P must also be functions of time. These functions are given implicitly
(rather than explicitly). Letting t represent time in weeks, we differentiate both sides of each of
the preceding three equations with respect to t and then substitute x = 2, 000 and dx/dt = 500
to find the desired rates.
1.

C = 5, 000 + 2x
dC d d
= (5, 000) + (2x)
dt dt dt
dC dx dx
= 0+2 = 2
dt dt dt

Since dx/dt = 500 when x = 2, 000,

 6.4 Exercises 114

dC
= 2(500) = $1, 000 per week
dt
Cost is increasing at a rate of $1,000 per week.
2.

R = 10x − 0.001x2
dR d d
= (10x) + (0.001x2 )
dt dt dt
dR dx dx
= 10 − 0.002x
dt dt dt
dR dx
= (10 − 0.002x)
dt dt
Since dx/dt = 500 when x = 2, 000,
dR
= [10 − 0.002(2, 000)](500) = $3, 000 per week
dt
Revenue is increasing at a rate of $3, 000 per week.
3.

P = R −C
dP dR dC
= −
dt dt dt
= $3, 000 − $1, 000
= $2, 000 per week

Profit is increasing at a rate of $2,000 per week.

6.4 Exercises
Exercise 6.1 Determine D4x [cos(4x)].

dy
Exercise 6.2 Find dx if sin(x + y) = xy2 − 2x3 .

Exercise 6.3 A boy standing on a cliff is watching a ship as the ship approaches the shoreline
directly below him. If the boy’s eyes are 300 feet above the water level and if the ship is
6.4 Exercises 115

approaching at 40 feet per second, how fast is the angle of depression of the ship from the
boy’s eyes changing when the ship is 300 feet from the shore?

Exercise 6.4 Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 40 cubic feet per
minute so that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose height and base diameter are
always equal. How fast is the height of the pile increasing when the pile is 15 feet high?

Exercise 6.5 Suppose that for a company manufacturing calculators, the cost, revenue, and
profit equations are given by
x2
C = 90, 000 + 30x, R = 300x − , P = R −C
30
where the production output in 1 week is x calculators. If production is increasing at a rate
of 500 calculators per week when production output is 6,000 calculators, find the rate of
increase (decrease) in
1. Cost
2. Revenue
3. Profit
VII
Week Seven

7 Relative Extrema and Concavity . . . . . 117

7.1 Critical Numbers
7.2 Increasing/Decreasing Functions
7.3 The First Derivative Test For Relative Extrema
7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection
7.5 The Second Derivative Test
7.6 Applications
7.7 Exercises
 7. Relative Extrema and Concavity

At the end of this topic you will:

• Understand the definition of relative extrema of a function on an interval.
• Find the critical points of a function
• Determine intervals on which a function is increasing or decreasing.
• Apply the First Derivative Test to find relative extrema of a function.
• Determine intervals on which a function is concave upward or concave downward.
• Find any points of inflection of the graph of a function.
• Apply the Second Derivative Test to find relative extrema of a function.

7.1 Critical Numbers

Definition 7.1.1 A function f is said to have a relative maximum at x = c if there is an
open interval I, containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≤ f (c) for all
x ∈ I.
Definition 7.1.2 A function f is said to have a relative minimum at x = c if there is an
open interval I, containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≥ f (c) for all
x ∈ I.
7.1 Critical Numbers 118

Definition 7.1.3 We say f has a relative extremum at x = c if f has either a relative

maximum at x = c or a relative minimum at x = c.

Theorem 7.1.1 If a function f has a relative extremum point at x = c, then either f 0 (c) = 0
or f 0 (c) does not exist.

Definition 7.1.4 A number c ∈ dom f is said to be a critical number of f if either f 0 (c) = 0

or f 0 (c) is undefined.

In considering a value to be a critical number, one might ask, is c a critical number of f ? If

yes, does f have a relative extremum at x = c? If no, f has no relative extremum at x = c.
x3
 Example 7.1 Find all critical numbers of f (x) = − 3x.
9
Solution: Note that
x2 1 1
f 0 (x) = − 3 = (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3).
3 3 3
Then f 0 (x) = 0 when x = ±3 and f 0 (x) is always defined. Thus, critical numbers of f are 3
and −3.

 Example 7.2 Find all critical numbers of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 .

Solution: Note that

f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = x2 (4x + 6).

3
Then f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 0 or x = − , and f 0 (x) is always defined. Thus, critical numbers of
2
3
f are 0 and − .
2
x2
 Example 7.3 Find all critical numbers of f (x) = .
9 − x2
Solution: Note that
18x
f 0 (x) = .
(9 − x2 )2
Then f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 0 and f 0 (x) is undefined when x = ±3 but ±3 ∈
/ dom f . Thus, critical
number of f is 0.

 Example 7.4 Find all critical numbers of f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 .

 7.2 Increasing/Decreasing Functions 119

Solution: Note that

4 4 −4(x − 1)
f 0 (x) = − x1/3 + x−2/3 = .
3 3 3x2/3
Then f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 1 and f 0 (x) is undefined when x = 0 but 0 ∈ dom f . Thus, critical
numbers of f are 0 and 1.

7.2 Increasing/Decreasing Functions

Definition 7.2.1 Let f be a function defined on an interval I.

1. f is said to be (strictly) increasing on I if f (a) < f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
2. f is said to be (strictly) decreasingon I if f (a) > f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.

Theorem 7.2.1 Let f be a function that is continuous on an interval [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b).
1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].
3. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

 Example 7.5 Consider the function f (x) = x2 . Then f 0 (x) = 2x. We can see in the following
table that the values of the derivative of f is negative in (−∞, 0), 0 when x = 0, and positive in
(0, ∞).

x (−∞, 0) 0 (0, ∞)
f 0 (x) − 0 +

Thus, f is increasing on [0, ∞) and f is decreasing on (−∞, 0].

 Example 7.6 Consider the function f (x) = x3 . Then f 0 (x) = 3x2 . Hence, f 0 (x) > 0 whenever
x 6= 0. Thus, the graph of f is increasing on R.

7.3 The First Derivative Test For Relative Extrema

Theorem 7.3.1 Let f be a function continuous on the open interval (a, b) which contains the
number c. Suppose that f is also differentiable on the the interval (a, b), except possibly at
c.
7.3 The First Derivative Test For Relative Extrema 120

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative
maximum at x = c.
2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative
minimum at x = c.
3. If f 0 (x) does not change sign from (a, c) to (c, b), then there is no relative extremum at
x = c.
Note that f (c) has to be defined but not necessarily f 0 (c).
x3
 Example 7.7 Find all relative extrema of f (x) = − 3x.
9
x3
Solution: Note that f (x) = − 3x. Then the critical numbers of f are 3 and −3. The
9
following table shows us the signs of the values of f 0 .

x (−∞, −3] [−3, 3] [3, ∞)

f 0 (x) + − +

Therefore, f has a relative maximum at x = −3 or (−3, 6) is a relative maximum point of f .

Moreover, f has a relative mininimum at x = 3 or (−3, 6) is a relative minimum point of f .

 Example 7.8 Find all relative extrema of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 .

Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 . Then the critical numbers of f are 0 and − 32 . The
following table shows us the signs of the values of f 0 .

x (−∞, − 32 ] [− 32 , 0] [0, ∞)
f 0 (x) − + +
3
Therefore, f has a relative minimum at x = − but f has no relative extremum at x = 0.
2
x2
 Example 7.9 Find all relative extrema of f (x) = .
9 − x2
18x
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = . Then the critical number of f is 0. The following table
(9 − x2 )2
shows us the signs of the values of f 0 .

x (−∞, −3] [−3, 0] [0, 3] [0, ∞)

f 0 (x) − − + +
Therefore, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
 7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection 121

 Example 7.10Find all relative extrema of f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 .

4 4
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = − x1/3 + x−2/3 . Then the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
3 3
The following table shows us the signs of the values of f 0 .

x (−∞, 0] [0, 1] [1, ∞)

f 0 (x) + + −
Therefore, f has a relative maximum at x = 1 but f has no relative extremum at x = 0.

7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection

Definition 7.4.1 The graph of a function f is said to be concave up at the point P(c, f (c)) if
f 0 (c) exists and there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ c, the point
(x, f (x)) is above the tangent line to the graph of f at P.

Definition 7.4.2 The graph of a function f is said to be concave down at the point P(c, f (c))
if f 0 (c) exists and there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ c, the point
(x, f (x)) is below the tangent line to the graph of f at P.

Definition 7.4.3 The graph of f is concave up (or down) on an interval I, if it is concave up

(or down) at all points in I.

Theorem 7.4.1 Let f be a function such that f 00 exist on (a, b).

1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is concave up on (a, b).
2. f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is concave down on (a, b).

 Example 7.11 Consider the function f (x) = x3 . Then f 0 (x) = 3x2 and f 00 (x) = 6x. We can
see in the following table the signs of the values of f 00 .

x (−∞, 0) 0 (0, ∞)
f 00 (x) − 0 +

The graph of f is concave up on (0, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 0).

√ 1 −2 −5/3
 Example 7.12 Consider the function f (x) =
3
x. Then f 0 (x) = x−2/3 and f 00 (x) = x =
3 9
−2
√3 5
. We can see in the following table the signs of the values of f 00 .
9 x
7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection 122

x (−∞, 0) 0 (0, ∞)
f 00 (x) + 0 −

The graph of f is concave up on (−∞, 0) and concave down on (0, ∞).

Definition 7.4.4 The graph of f (x) has a point of inflection (POI) at P(c, f (c)) if f is
continuous at x = c and the graph of f changes concavity at P. Equivalently, there is an
open interval (a, b) containing c such that
1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) or;
2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b).

 Example 7.13 Consider the function f (x) = x3 . Then f is continuous at x = 0 and the graph
of f changes concavity at (0, 0). Hence, the graph of f has a point of inflection at (0, 0).
√
3
 Example 7.14 Consider the function f (x) = x. Then f is continuous at x = 0 and the graph
of f changes concavity at (0, 0). Hence, the graph of f has a point of inflection at (0, 0).

Theorem 7.4.2 If P(c, f (c)) is a POI of the graph of the function f , then f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c)
does not exist at x = c.

R The converse is not true. If c satisfies f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist, f may
or may not have a POI at x = c.

 Example 7.15 Consider the function f (x) = x4 . Then f 00 (x) = 12x2 . Also, f is continuous at
x = 0 and the graph of f changes concavity at (0, 0). Thus, (0, 0) is a POI of the graph of f
and f 00 (0) = 0.
−2
 Example 7.16 Consider the function f (x) = x2/3 . Then f 00 (x) = . Also, f is continuous
9x4/3
at x = 0 and the graph of f changes concavity at (0, 0). Thus, (0, 0) is a POI of the graph of f
but f 00 (0) does not exist.
x3
 Example 7.17 Determine all POIs of f (x) = − 3x and discuss the concavity of its graph.
9
2x
Solution: Note that f 00 (x) = . The possible POI is 0 (since f 00 (x) = 0 when x = 0). The
3
following is the table of signs for f 00 .
7.4 Concavity and Points of Inflection 123

x (−∞, 0) 0 (0, ∞)
f 00 (x) − 0 +

Therefore, the graph of f has a POI at (0, 0), is concave down on (−∞, 0), and is concave up
on (0, ∞).

 Example 7.18 Determine all POIs of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 and discuss the concavity of its graph.

Solution: Note that f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x = 12x(x + 1). The possible POI is 0, −1 (since
f 00 (x) = 0 when x = 0 or x = −1). The following is the table of signs for f 00 .

x (−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, ∞)

f 00 (x) + − +

Therefore, (−1, −1) and (0, 0) are POI’s of the graph of f . The graph of f is concave up on
(−∞, −1) and (0, ∞). Furthermore, The graph of f is concave down on (−1, 0).
x2
 Example 7.19 Determine all POIs of f (x) = and discuss the concavity of its graph.
9 − x2
54(3 + x2 )
Solution: Note that f 00 (x) = . Then there is no possible POIs. Also, note that
(9 − x2 )3
±3 ∈
/ dom f The graph of f has no POI. Moreover, we can see in the following table the signs
of the values of f 00 (x).

x (−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, ∞)

f 00 (x) − + −

The graph of f is concave down on (−∞, −3) and (3, ∞) and it is is concave up on (−3, 3).

 Example 7.20 Determine all POIs of f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 and discuss the concavity of its
graph.
−4(x + 2)
Solution: Note that f 00 (x) = . Then the possible POIs are −2 and 0. We can see in
9x5/3
the following table the signs of the values of f 00 (x).

x (−∞, −2) (−2, 0) (0, ∞)

f 00 (x) − + −
√
Therefore, (−2, 2 3 2) and (0, 0) are POIs of the graph of f . Also, the graph of f is concave
down on (−∞, −2) and (0, ∞) and it is is concave up on (−2, 0).
 7.5 The Second Derivative Test 124

7.5 The Second Derivative Test

Theorem 7.5.1 — Second Derivative Test (SDT) for Relative Extrema. Let f be a function
such that f 00 exist for all values of x on some open interval containing x = c and f 0 (c) = 0.
1. If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at x = c.
2. If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at x = c.
3. If f 00 (c) = 0, we have no conclusion ( f may or may not have a relative extrema at
x = c).

 Example 7.21 Consider the function f (x) = x3 . Then f 0 (x) = 3x2 and f 00 (x) = 6x. Thus,
f 00 (0) = 0. Note that f satisfies the hypotheses of SDT at x = 0. Hence, f has no relative
extremum at x = 0.

 Example 7.22 Consider the function f (x) = x4 . Then f 0 (x) = 4x3 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 . Thus,
f 00 (0) = 0. Note that f satisfies the hypotheses of SDT at x = 0. Hence, f has no relative
extremum at x = 0.
x3
 Example 7.23 Determine whether or not the SDT is applicable to f (x) = − 3x with critical
9
numbers −3 and 3. If yes, draw conclusions using SDT.
x2 − 9 2x
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = . Then f 0 (−3) = 0 and f 0 (3) = 0. Thus,
3 3
0
SDT is applicable to both −3 and 3. Since f ”(−3) = −2 < 0, f has a relative maximum at
x = −3. Also, since f 0 ”(3) = 2 > 0, f has a relative maximum at x = 3.

 Example 7.24 Determine whether or not the SDT is applicable to

f (x) = x4 + 2x3

with critical numbers 0 and − 32 . If yes, draw conclusions using SDT.

Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = 4x3 +6x2 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 +12x. Then f 0 (0) = 0 and f 0 (− 32 ) = 0.
Thus, SDT is applicable to both 0 and − 32 . Since f 00 (− 32 ) = 9 > 0, f has a relative minimum
at x = − 32 but inconclusive for x = 0 since f 00 (0) = 0.
x2
 Example 7.25 Determine whether or not the SDT is applicable to f (x) = with critical
9 − x2
number 0. If yes, draw conclusions using SDT.
 7.6 Applications 125

2
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) =
18x
and f 00 (x) = 54(3 + x ) . Then f 0 (0) = 0. Thus, SDT
(9 − x2 )2 (9 − x2 )3
54(3)
is applicable to 0. Since f 00 (x) = > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.
93
 Example 7.26 Determine whether or not the SDT is applicable to f (x) = −x
4/3 + 4x1/2 with

critical numbers 0 and 1. If yes, draw conclusions using SDT.

−4(x − 1) 00 (x) = −4(x + 2) . Then f 0 (1) = 0 and f 0 (0)
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = and f
3x2/3 9x5/3
4
is undefined. Thus, SDT is applicable to 1 only. Since f 00 (1) = − < 0, f has a relative
3
minimum at x = 1.

 Example 7.27 Determine whether or not the SDT is applicable to f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where
b
a 6= 0, with critical number − . If yes, draw conclusions using SDT.
2a
Solution: Note that f (x) = 2ax + b and f 00 (x) = 2a. Then f 0 (− 2a
0 b
) = 0. Thus, SDT is
b b
applicable to − . Note that f 00 (− 2a
b
) = 2a. If a > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = − .
2a 2a
b
If a < 0, f has a relative maximum at x = − .
2a

7.6 Applications

 Example 7.28 — Agricultural Exports and Imports. Over the past few decades, the Philippines
has exported more agricultural products than it has imported, maintaining a positive balance
of trade in this area. However, the trade balance fluctuated considerably during that period.
The graph in Figure 7.1 approximates the rate of change of the balance of trade over a 15-year
period, where B(t) is the balance of trade (in billions of pesos) and t is time (in years).
1. Write a brief description of the graph of y = B(t), including a discussion of any relative
extrema.
2. Sketch a possible graph of y = B(t).
Solution:
1. The graph of the derivative y = B(t) contains the same essential information as a sign
chart. That is, we see that B0 (t) is positive on (0, 4), 0 at t = 4, negative on (4, 12), 0
at t = 12, and positive on (12, 15). The trade balance increases for the first 4 years to
a relative maximum, decreases for the next 8 years to a relative minimum, and then
7.6 Applications 126

Figure 7.1: Rate of change of the balance of trade

increases for the final 3 years.

2. Without additional information concerning the actual values of y = B(t), we cannot
produce an accurate graph. However, we can sketch a possible graph that illustrates the
important features, as shown in Figure 7.2. The absence of a scale on the vertical axis is
a consequence of the lack of information about the values of B(t).

Figure 7.2: Balance of trade

 Example 7.29 — Revenue Analysis. The graph of the total revenue R(x) (in pesos) from the
sale of x bookcases is shown in Figure 7.3.
1. Write a brief description of the graph of the marginal revenue function y = R0 (x), includ-
ing a discussion of any x intercepts.
2. Sketch a possible graph of y = R0 (x).
Solution:
 7.7 Exercises 127

Figure 7.3: revenue

1. The graph of y = R(x) indicates that R(x) increases on (0, 550), has a local maximum
at x = 550, and decreases on (550, 1000). Consequently, the marginal revenue function
R0 (x) must be positive on (0, 550), 0 at x = 550, and negative on (550, 1000).
2. A possible graph of y = R0 (x) illustrating the information summarized in part 1 is shown
in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: marginal revenue

7.7 Exercises

Exercise 7.1 Find the coordinates of the relative extremum point/s of f (x) = x4/3 − 6x1/3 .
7.7 Exercises 128

Exercise 7.2 Show using First Derivative Test that if a, b, c are constants and a a 6= 0, then
the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c has a relative maximum at the vertex when a < 0 and a relative
minimum at the vertex when a > 0.

x2 + 4x + 3
Exercise 7.3 Determine the points of inflection of the graph of f (x) = and
−2(x − 1)2
discuss its concavity.

Exercise 7.4 Use the second derivative test to determine the relative extrema of f (x) =
4x
2
.
x +1
VIII
Week Eight

8 Graphing Polynomials and L’hopital’s Rule

130
8.1 Graphing Polynomials
8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule
8.3 Exercises
 8. Graphing Polynomials and L’hopital’s Rule

At the end of this topic you will:

• Analyze and sketch the graph of a function.
• Recognize limits that produce indeterminate forms.
• Apply L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate a limit.

8.1 Graphing Polynomials

These are the guidelines in graphing polynomials:

1. domain (always R) and intercepts
2. f 0 (x) and f 00 (x)
3. possible relative extrema and possible POIs
4. table of signs of f 0 and f 00
5. increasing or decreasing? (use signs of f 0 )
6. concave up or concave down? (use signs of f 00 )
7. coordinates of relative extrema and POIs
8. plot and label important points (intercepts, extrema, POI)
9. Use the table to graph the rest of the function.
8.1 Graphing Polynomials 131

x3
 Example 8.1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = − 3x analytically.
9
√
Solution: The domain of f is R. The x-intercepts are 0, ±2 3 and y-intercept is 0. Note
x2 − 9 2x
that f 0 (x) = with critical numbers −3, 3. Also, f 00 (x) = with possible POI 0. The
3 3
following table will tell us more about the graph of f .

interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
(−∞, −3) + − increasing, concave downward
−3 6 0 − relative maximum
(−3, 0) − − decreasing, concave downward
0 0 − 0 POI
(0, 3) − + decreasing, concave upward
3 −6 0 + relative minimum
(3, ∞) + + increasing, concave upward
The important points are:
• (0, 0)- intercept, POI
√ √
• (3, 3 3, 0), (−3, 3 3, 0)- intercept
• (−3, 6) - relative maximum
• (3, −6) - relative minimum
The graph of f is shown in Figure 8.1.
y
(−3, 6)
5

√ √
(−3 3, 0) (3 3, 0) x
−5 (0, 0) 5

−5
(3, −6)

x3
Figure 8.1: The graph of f (x) = − 3x
9
8.1 Graphing Polynomials 132

 Example 8.2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 analytically.

Solution: The domain of f is R. The x-intercepts are 0, −2 and y-intercept is 0. Note that
3
f 0 (x) = 2x2 (2x + 3) with critical numbers 0, − . Also, f 00 (x) = 12x(x + 1) with possible POI
2
0, −1 . The following table will tell us more about the graph of f .

interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
(−∞, − 32 ) − + decreasing, concave upward
− 23 − 27
16 0 + relative minimum
(− 23 , −1) + + increasing, concave upward
−1 −1 + 0 POI
(−1, 0) + − increasing, concave downward
0 0 0 0 POI
(0, ∞) + + increasing, concave upward

The important points are:

• (0, 0)- intercept, POI
• (−2, 0)- intercept
• (−1, −1) - relative maximum
• (− 32 , − 27
16 ) - relative minimum
The graph of f is shown in Figure 8.2.
y
4

(−2, 0) (0, 0) x
−3 −2 −1 1 2
(−1, −1)

( −3 −27 −2
2 , 16 )

−4

Figure 8.2: The graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x3

 8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 133

8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule

0 ∞
8.2.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and
0 ∞
f (x)
Definition 8.2.1 The lim is an indeterminate form of type:
x→a g(x)
0
1. if lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
0 x→a x→a
∞
2. if lim f (x) and lim g(x) are both +∞ or −∞.
∞ x→a x→a

In the definition, “x → a” may be replaced by any of the following: “x → a+ ”, “x → a− ”,

“x → +∞”, “x → −∞”.

 Example 8.3 Evaluate the following limits.

1.
x2 − 3x
 
0
lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0
x(x − 3)
= lim
x→0 x(2x + 1)
x−3
= lim
x→0 2x + 1

= −3.

2.
 
sin 5x 0
lim
x→0 sin 3x 0
   
sin 5x 3x 5
= lim
x→0 5x sin 3x 3
 
5
= 1·1·
3
5
= .
3

Theorem 8.2.1 — L’Hôpital’s [Link] f and g be functions differentiable on an open in-

f (x)
terval I containing a except possibly at a and g(x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I\{a}. If lim is
x→a g(x)
0 ∞
indeterminate of type or , then
0 ∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 134

f 0 (x)
provided that lim exists, or is +∞ or −∞.
x→a g0 (x)

R L’Hôpital’s Rule, with suitable modifications, is valid if “x → a” is replaced by

“x → a+ ”, “x → a− ”, “x → +∞”, “x → −∞”.

x2 − 3x
 
0
 Example 8.4 lim
x→0 2x2 + x 0

Dx (x2 − 3x) 2x − 3
lim 2
= lim = −3.
x→0 Dx (2x + x) x→0 4x + 1
x2 − 3x
Therefore, by LH Rule, lim 2 = −3.
x→0 2x + x

 
sin 5x 0
 Example 8.5 lim
x→0 sin 3x 0

sin 5x LHR 5 cos 5x 5

lim = lim =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 3 cos 3x 3

x2 + 3x − 10
 
0
 Example 8.6 lim
x→2− x2 − 4x + 4 0

x2 + 3x − 10 LHR
 
2x + 3 7
lim 2 = lim = −∞
x→2− x − 4x + 4 x→2− 2x − 4 0−
 
3x − 1 +∞
 Example 8.7 lim
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞

3x − 1 LHR 3 1
lim = lim =−
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ −6 2

x3 + 3x + 2
 
0
 Example 8.8 lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x 0

3x2 − 3
 
LHR 0
= lim 1
x→1 −1 +
x
0

LHR 6x
= lim = −6
x→1 − 12
x
 8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 135
 
csc x −∞
 Example 8.9 lim
x→0 1 − cot x
− +∞

LHR − csc x cot x

= lim
x→0− csc2 x
 
− cot x +∞
= lim
x→0 csc x
− −∞

LHR csc2 x
= lim
x→0− − csc x cot x
 
csc x −∞
= lim
x→0 − cot x
− +∞

− cot x
= lim [STOP!]
x→0− csc x
Now,  
csc x −∞
lim
x→0− 1 − cot x +∞
1
sin x sin x
= lim cos x ·
x→0− 1 − sin x sin x

1
= lim = −1
x→0− sin x − cos x

8.2.2 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞

Definition 8.2.2 1. The lim f (x)g(x) is an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞ if either
x→a

lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞, or

x→a x→a
lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞ and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a

2. The lim ( f (x) + g(x)) is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞ if either

x→a

lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞ or

x→a x→a
lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = +∞.
x→a x→a

0 ∞
L’Hôpital’s Rule works only for indeterminate forms of type and . Any other indeter-
0 ∞
minate form must be expressed equivalently in one of these two forms.
8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 136

R If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞

x→a x→a
 
f (x) 0
1. lim f (x)g(x) = lim 1
x→a x→a
g(x)
0
or

g(x) ∞
2. lim f (x)g(x) = lim 1
x→a x→a ∞
f (x)

and apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.

R Suppose lim f (x) + g(x) is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞.

x→a
0
• Combine f (x) + g(x) and if the result is an indeterminate form of type or
0
∞
, apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.
∞
OR
• Factor the expression and if the result is indeterminate of type 0 · ∞ apply the
procedure described in the previous slide.

 Example 8.10 lim tan θ ln(sin θ ) (+∞ · 0)

x→ π2 −
 
ln(sin θ ) 0
= lim
x→ π2 − cot θ 0
 
1
cos θ
LHR sin θ 1·0
= lim 2
= =0
x→ 2 π− − csc θ −1
1+ 1+
   
x 1
 Example 8.11 lim − −
x→1+ x − 1 ln x 0 0
 
x ln x − (x − 1) 0
= lim
x→1 + (x − 1) ln x 0

LHR x · 1x + ln x − 1
= lim
x→1+ (x − 1) · 1x + ln x
 
ln x 0
= lim
x→1 1 − 1 + ln x
+ 0
x
 8.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule 137

1
LHR x
= lim
x→1+ 12 + 1x
x

1
=
2

8.2.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0

Definition 8.2.3 Let f be a non-constant function. The lim f (x)g (x) is an indeterminate
x→a
form of type:
1. 1∞ if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞
x→a x→a
2. 00 if lim g(x) = 0 and f (x) →)+ as x → a
x→a
3. ∞0 if lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a

We will look at some properties of exponential and logarithmic functions.

• If a ∈ R, then lim ex = ea .
x→a
• lim ex = +∞
x→+∞
• lim ex = 0
x→−∞
• If a > 0, then lim lnx = lna .
x→a
x
• lim ln = +∞
x→+∞
• lim lnx = −∞
x→−∞
Note that
lim g(x) ln[ f (x)]
lim f (x)g(x) = lim eg(x) ln[ f (x)] = ex→a
x→a x→a

Indeterminate Form
lim f (x)g(x) 1∞ 00 ∞0
x→a
lim g(x) ln[ f (x)] ∞·0 0 · (−∞) 0 · (+∞)
x→a

Limit
lim g(x) ln[ f (x)] L +∞ −∞
x→a
lim f (x)g(x) el +∞ 0
x→a

Evaluate lim xsin x 00

 Example 8.12
x→0+
 8.3 Exercises 138

Solution: Write xsin x = esin x ln x then evaluate lim sin x ln x first.

x→0+

lim sin x ln x (0 · (−∞))

x→0+
 
ln x −∞
= lim
x→0+ csc x +∞
1
x
= lim
x→0+− csc x cot x
− sin2 x
 
0
= lim
x→0 x cos x
+ 0
−2 sin x cos x
= lim
x→0 cos x + x(− sin x)
+

=0

Hence, lim xsin x = e0 = 1.

x→0+

3 2x
 
 Example 8.13 Evaluate lim 1 − (1∞ )
x→+∞ x
 2x
3 3
Solution: Now, 1 − = e2x ln(1− x ) . Hence,
x
 
3
lim 2x ln 1 − ((+∞) · 0)
x→+∞ x
ln 1 − 3x

 
0
= lim 1
x→+∞
2x
0
 
1
1− 3x
· x32
= lim
x→+∞ − 2x12
−6
= lim
x→+∞ 3
1−
x
= −6

3 2x
 
Hence, lim 1 − = e−6 .
x→+∞ x

8.3 Exercises
8.3 Exercises 139

Exercise 8.1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 .

Exercise 8.2 Evaluate the following limits.

2x − 4
1. lim
x→+2 ln(2x − 3)
 
1
2. lim csc x −
x→+0− x
3. lim (sin 3x)x
x→+0+
IX
Week Nine

9 Absolute Extrema and Optimization . . 141

9.1 Absolute Extrema
9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded
Intervals
9.3 Optimization Problems
9.4 Exercises
 9. Absolute Extrema and Optimization

At the end of this topic you will:

• Understand the definition of relative extrema of a function on an interval.
• Find the absolute extrema of a function on closed and bounded intervals.
• Find the absolute extrema of a function with one relative extremum.
• solve applied minimum and maximum problems.

9.1 Absolute Extrema

One of the most important applications of the derivative is to find the absolute maximum or
minimum value of a function. An economist may be interested in the price or production level
of a commodity that will bring a maximum profit; a doctor may be interested in the time it
takes for a drug to reach its maximum concentration in the bloodstream after an injection;
and a city planner might be interested in the location of heavy industry in a city in order to
produce minimum pollution in residential and business areas. In this section, we develop the
procedures needed to find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a function.
9.1 Absolute Extrema 142

Definition 9.1.1 A function f is said to have an absolute maximum value on an interval I

at x0 if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I.

Definition 9.1.2 A function f is said to have an absolute minimum value on an interval I

at x0 if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I.

Definition 9.1.3 If f has either an absolute maximum or absolute minimum value on I at x0 ,

then we say f has an absolute extrema on I at x0 .

 Example 9.1 The function f (x) = 2x + 3 has an absolute maximum value of 3 on the interval
[−1, 0] at x = 0. On the same interval, the minimum value of f is 1 attained when x = −1.
On the interval [−1, ∞), f attains an absolute minimum value but does not attain an absolute
maximum value.
y y
6 6

4 4

2 2

x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3

Figure 9.1: The graph of f (x) = 2x + 3 on Figure 9.2: The graph of f (x) = 2x + 3 on
the interval [−1, 0] the interval [−1, ∞]

 Example 9.2 The function f (x) = cot x has no absolute extrema on the interval [− π2 , π2 ].
4 y

− π2 π
2 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−2

−4

Figure 9.3: The graph of f (x) = cot x on the interval [− π2 , π2 ]

 9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded Intervals 143

 Example 9.3 The function f (x) = x2 has an absolute minimum on the interval (−2, 1) at
x = 0. But f has no absolute maximum on (−2, 1).
6 y

(−2, 4)
4

2
(1, 1)

x
−4 −2 2 4

Figure 9.4: The graph of f (x) = x2 on the interval (−2, 1)

9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded Intervals

Theorem 9.2.1 — Extreme Value Theorem (EVT). If f is continuous on [a, b], then f has both
an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [a, b].

R If you replace [a, b] by one of the following intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (a, ∞),
(−∞, b), [a, ∞), (−∞, b], then the conclusion of EVT does not follow.

If f is continuous on [a, b], then the absolute maximum/minimum of f on the interval [a, b]
may occur at
• x=a
• x=b
• some x ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (x) = 0 or f 0 (x) is undefined.

Theorem 9.2.2 If f has an absolute extremum on (a, b) at x = c, then c is a critical number

of f .

To find the absolute extrema of f on [a, b]:

• find critical numbers of f on (a, b), say c1 , . . . , cm
• evaluate f at each critical number and at the endpoints a, b
• compare f (c1 ), . . . , f (cm ), f (a) and f (b)
9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded Intervals 144

• the number that gives the highest (lowest) value of f gives the absolute maximum
(minimum).
We should always check if the function is continuous on I.

 Example 9.4 Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 on the interval I = [− 21 , 4].

Solution: Note that f is continuous on I and f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) with critical
numbers 0 and 2 on I. Then f (− 12 ) = 81 , f (0) = 1, f (2) = −3 and f (4) = 17. Therefore, f
has an absolute minimum at x = 2 and an absolute maximum at x = 4.
1
 Example 9.5 Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = 1+x2
on the interval I = [−2, 1].
−2x
Solution: Note that f is continuous on I and f 0 (x) = (x2 +1)2
with critical number 0 on I. Then
f (−2) = 51 , f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 12 . Therefore, f has an absolute minimum at x = −2 and an
absolute maximum at x = 0.

 Example 9.6 Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x2/3 on the interval I = [−8, 1].

Solution: Note that f is continuous on I and f 0 (x) = 2

3x1/3
with critical number 0 on I. Then
f (−8) = 4, f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. Therefore, f has an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an
absolute maximum at x = −8.

 Example 9.7 Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x − tan x on the interval I = [− π4 , π4 ].

Solution: Note that f is continuous on I and f 0 (x) = 1 − sec2 x with critical number 0 on I.
Then f (− π4 ) = − π4 + 1, f (0) = 0 and f ( π4 ) = π
4 − 1. Therefore, f has an absolute minimum
π
at x = 4 and an absolute maximum at x = − π4 .

 Example 9.8 Find the absolute extrema of


x2 − 4, x < 3

f (x) =
8 − x, x ≥ 3


on the interval I = [0, 5].

Solution: Note that f is continuous on I and


2x, x < 3

0
f (x) =
−1, x > 3

 9.2 Absolute Extrema of Functions on Closed and Bounded Intervals 145

with critical numbers 0 and 3 on I. Then f (0) = −4, f (3) = 5 and f (5) = 3. Therefore, f has
an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = 3.

9.2.1 Absolute Extrema Of Functions with One Relative Extremum

Theorem 9.2.3 Suppose the function f is continuous on an interval I containing x0 and x0 is

the only number in I for which f has a relative extremum.

1. if f has a relative maximum at x0 , then f has an absolute maximum at x0 .
2. if f has a relative minimum at x0 , then f has an absolute minimum at x0 .

1
 Example 9.9 Find the absolute extrema, if they exist, of f (x) = on the interval
1 + x2
I = (−2, 1).
−2x
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = (x2 +1)2
with critical number 0 on I. There’s only one possible
6x2 −2
relative extremum of f on I. Is it really a relative extremum? Note that f 00 (x) = (x2 +1)3
and
f 00 (0) = −2 < 0. By the SDT, f has a relative maximum point at (0, f (0)) = (0, 1). Since the
point (0, 1) is the only relative extremum of f on I, then f has an absolute maximum at x = 0.

 Example 9.10 Find the absolute extrema, if they exist, of f (x) = x4 − 4x on R.

Solution: Note that f is continuous on R and f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 4 with critical number 1 on R.
Also, f 00 (x) = 12x2 and f 00 (1) = 12 > 0. By the SDT, f has a relative minimum at x = 1. Then
f has an absolute minimum at x = 1.

 Example 9.11 Find the absolute extrema, if they exist, of f (x) = x + 16

x on (1, ∞).
x2 −16
Solution: Note that f is continuous on I = (1, ∞) and f 0 (x) = 1 − 16
x2
= x2
with 4 as the
critical number on (1, ∞). Also, f 00 (x) = 32
x3
and f 00 (4) = 1
2 > 0. By the SDT, f has a relative
minimum at x = 4. Then f has an absolute minimum at x = 4.
Suppose we wish to determine if f has an abs max/min on (−∞, ∞).
• If f is cont. on (−∞, ∞) and lim = ∞, then f has no abs. max but has an abs. min.
x→±∞
Furthermore, the absolute minimum point will be the lowest relative minimum point.
• If f is cont. on (−∞, ∞) and lim = −∞, then f has no abs. min but has an abs. max.
x→±∞
Furthermore, the absolute maximum point will be the highest relative maximum point.
• If f is cont. on (−∞, ∞) and lim = ±∞ or ∓∞, then f has no abs. min nor an abs. max.
x→±∞
 9.3 Optimization Problems 146

Similar observations can be done to find the relative extrema of f on an interval (a, ∞) or
on (−∞, b).

 Example 9.12 Find the absolute extrema, if they exist, of f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 on I = [−3, ∞).

Solution:
√ √
• f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 10x = 2x(2x2 − 5) C.N. on I: 0, − 10
2 , 10
2
• f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 10
√ √
• f 00 (0) < 0, f 00 (− 10
2 ) > 0, f 00 ( 10
2 )>0
√
10
• By SDT, f has a relative maximum at x = 0 and relative minima at x = − 2 and
√
10
x= 2 .
√ √
10 9 10
• f (0) = 4 f (− 2 ) = −4 = f( 2√ ) √
• REL MAX:(0, 4) REL MIN: (− 210 , − 94 ), ( 210 , − 94 )
• lim f (x) = +∞ (Hence no abs max!)
x→+∞
• f (−3) = 40 > − 94
• The absolute minimum value of f on I is the lowest relative minimum − 94 attained at
√
10
x=± 2 .
x
 Example 9.13 Find the absolute extrema of f (x) = x2 −1
on (−1, 1), if there are any.

Solution:
• f is continuous on (−1, 1)
• lim f (x) = ∞
x→−1+
• lim f (x) = −∞
x→−1−
• f has no absolute extrema on the interval (−1, 1).

9.3 Optimization Problems

Now we can use calculus to solve optimization problems - problems that involve finding
the absolute maximum or the absolute minimum of a function. As you work through this
section, note that the statement of the problem does not usually include the function to be
optimized. Often, it is your responsibility to find the function and then to find the relevant
absolute extremum.
The following are some optimization problems:
9.3 Optimization Problems 147

• maximizing/minimizing a function f on a closed and bounded interval

• maximizing/minimizing a function on an infinite interval or a bounded interval that is
not closed
These are some steps in solving optimization problems:
1. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem corresponding to a general situation.
2. Assign variables to all quantities involved.
3. Identify the quantity, say q, to be maximized or minimized.
4. Formulate an equation involving q and other quantities. Express q in terms of a single
variable, say x. If necessary, use the information given/relationships between quantities
to eliminate some variables.
5. Determine the domain of q from the physical restrictions of the problem, i.e. constraints
of x.
6. Use appropriate theorems involving absolute extrema to solve the problem. Make sure to
give the exact answer to the question (provide units).

 Example 9.14 Find the number in the I = [−3, 2] so that the difference of the number from
its square is maximized.

Solution: First we will define variable/s. Let x be the desired number. Then x ∈ [−3, 2], a
closed interval. We are going to maximize f (x) = x2 − x. To do this, we have f 0 (x) = 2x − 1
1 1 1
where the critical number is . Now, f (−3) = 12, f (2) = 2, f ( ) = − . Thus, f attains an
2 2 4
absolute maximum on I at x = −3. Therefore, the desired number is −3.

 Example 9.15 A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of cardboard 25 inches long and
10 inches wide by cutting out identical squares from the four corners and turning up the sides.
Find the volume of the largest rectangular box that can be formed.

Solution:

x x
x x

x x
x x
9.3 Optimization Problems 148

Let x be the length of side of squares to be cut out and let V be the volume of the box
formed. Then we are going to maximize

V (x) = length · width · height

= (25 − 2x) · (10 − 2x) · x

= 2(108x − 33x2 + 2x3 )

For our constraint, x ∈ (0, 4.5). Now,

V 0 (x) = 216 − 132x + 12x2

= 4(54 − 33x + 3x2 )

= 4(3x − 6)(x − 9)

with 2 as the critical number in (0, 4.5). Also,

V 00 (x) = −132 + 24x ⇒ V 00 (2) < 0

Thus, V has a relative maximum at x = 2 (the only relative extremum on (0, 4.5)) Therefore,
the volume of the largest box formed is V (2) = 200 in3 .

 Example 9.16 A 1000 square yard rectangular lot along a highway is to be fenced off such
that one side of the fence is on the highway. The fencing on the highway costs Php 80 per
yard and the fencing on the other sides costs Php 20 per yard. Determine the dimensions of
the lot that will minimize the total cost of the fencing.

Solution:

highway
x1
x2

Let x1 be the length of side facing the highway, x2 be the length of other side of the
rectangular lot, and C be the cost of fencing the lot. Then we are going to minimize C =
100x1 + 40x2 . Note that the area is
9.3 Optimization Problems 149

1000
1000 = x1 · x2 ⇒ x2 = x1

40, 000
Thus, C(x1 ) = 100x1 + . For our constraint, x1 ∈ (0, ∞) := I. Now, C0 (x1 ) = 100 −
x1
40, 000
where the critical number on I is 20. Also,
x12
2(40,000)
C00 (x1 ) = x13
⇒ C00 (20) > 0.

Thus, 20 is the relative minimum (only relative extremum on I).

Therefore, the side facing the highway must be 20 yds and the other side 50 yds.

 Example 9.17 Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume
that can be inscribed in a right circular cone of radius 6 inches and height 9 inches.

Solution:

Let V , h, r be the volume, height, radius of inscribed cylinder respectively. Then we will
maximize V = πr2 h. By similar triangles,
6 6−r 3
= ⇒ h = 9 − r.
9 h 2
3 3
Thus, we will maximize V (r) = πr2 (9 − r) = 9πr2 − πr3 . For our constraint, r ∈ (0, 6).
2 2
Then V 0 (r) = 18πr − 92 πr2 where the critical number is 4. Now,

V 00 (r) = 18π − 9πr ⇒ V 00 (4) < 0.

Since V has only one relative extremum on I and it is a relative maximum, V has its absolute
maximum at the same point.
Therefore, the inscribed right circular cylinder will have the greatest volume if its dimen-
sions are r = 4 in and h = 3 in.
9.3 Optimization Problems 150

 Example 9.18 A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. If the

perimeter of a Norman window is to be 20ft., what should the radius of the semicircle and the
height of the rectangle be so that the window will admit the most light?

Solution: We are task to maximize surface area of the window. So, we will maximize

1
A = Arectangle + Asemicircle = 2rh + πr2 .
2
Now, the perimeter is
1
20 = 2h + 2r + πr ⇒ h = 10 − (2 + π)r
2
20 − 2h
Thus, r = . Hence,
2+π
πr2 πr2
 
1
A(r) = + 2r 10 − (2 + π)r = − − 2r2 + 20r.
2 2 2
20 20
For our constraint, h, r > 0 ⇒ h < 10 and r < . So, r ∈ (0, ) := I. Then A0 (r) =
2+π 2+π
20
−πr − 4r + 20 where the critical number is . Now,
π +4
20
A00 (r) = −π − 4 ⇒ A00 ( ) < 0.
π +4
20
Thus A has only one relative extremum on I attained when r = π+4 (relative maximum).
20 20
Therefore, to admit most light, r must be ft and h must be ft.
π +4 π +4
 Example 9.19 — Maximizing Revenue. An office supply company sells x permanent markers

per year at p pesos per marker. The price–demand equation for these markers is

p = 10 − 0.001x.

What price should the company charge for the markers to maximize revenue? What is the
maximum revenue?
9.3 Optimization Problems 151

Solution:

Revenue = price × demand

R(x) = (10 − 0.001x)x

= 10x − 0.001x2

Both price and demand must be nonnegative, so x ≥ 0 and

p = 10 − 0.001x ≥ 0

10 ≥ 0.001x
10, 000 ≥ x

The mathematical model for this problem is to maximize

R(x) = 10x − 0.001x2 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, 000

Now,

R0 (x) = 10 − 0.002x

10 − 0.002x = 0
10 = 0.002x
10
x= = 5, 000 Critical number
0.002
Use the second-derivative test for absolute extrema:

R00 (x) = −0.002 < 0 for all x

Max R(x) = R(5, 000) = Php 25,000

When the demand is x = 5, 000, the price is

10 − 0.001(5, 000) = Php 5

The company will realize a maximum revenue of Php 25,000 when the price of a marker is
Php 5.

 Example 9.20 — Maximizing Profit. The total annual cost of manufacturing x permanent
markers for the office supply company in the previous example is
9.3 Optimization Problems 152

C(x) = 5, 000 + 2x.

What is the company’s maximum profit? What should the company charge for each marker,
and how many markers should be produced?

Solution: Using the revenue model in the previous example, we have

Profit = Revenue × Cost

P(x) = R(x) −C(x)
= 10x − 0.001x2 − 5, 000 − 2x

= 8x − 0.001x2 − 5, 000

The mathematical model for profit is to maximize

P(x) = 8x − 0.001x2 − 5, 000 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, 000

The restrictions on x come from the revenue model in previous example.

P0 (x) = 8 − 0.002x = 0
8 = 0.002x
8
x= = 4, 000 Critical number
0.002
P00 (x) = −0.002 < 0 for all x

Since x = 4, 000 is the only critical number and P00 (x) < 0,

Max P(x) = P(4, 000) =Php 11,000

Using the price–demand equation from the previous example with x = 4, 000, we find that

p = 10 − 0.001(4, 000) =Php 6

A maximum profit of Php 11,000 is realized when 4,000 markers are manufactured annually
and sold for Php 6 each.

 Example 9.21 — Maximizing Revenue. When a management training company prices its
seminar on management techniques at Php 400 per person, 1,000 people will attend the
seminar. The company estimates that for each Php 5 reduction in price, an additional 20
 9.4 Exercises 153

people will attend the seminar. How much should the company charge for the seminar in order
to maximize its revenue? What is the maximum revenue?

Solution: Let x represent the number of Php 5 price reductions.

400 − 5x = price per customer

1, 000 + 20x = number of customers

Revenue = (price per customer)( number of customers)

R(x) = (400 − 5x) × (1, 000 + 20x)

Since price cannot be negative, we have

400 − 5x ≥ 0
400 ≥ 5x

80 ≥ x or x ≤ 80

A negative value of x would result in a price increase. Since the problem is stated in terms of
price reductions, we must restrict x so that x ≥ 0. We are going to maximize

R(x) = (400 − 5x)(1, 000 + 20x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 80

= 400, 000 + 3, 000x − 100x2

Now,

R0 (x) = 3, 000 − 200x = 0

3, 000 = 200x
x = 15 Critical number

Since R(x) is continuous on the interval [0, 80], we can determine the behavior of the graph
by constructing a table. Table 9.1 shows that R(15) = Php 422,500 is the absolute maximum
revenue. The price of attending the seminar at x = 15 is 400 − 5(15) = Php 325. The company
should charge Php 325 for the seminar in order to receive a maximum revenue of Php 422,500.

9.4 Exercises
9.4 Exercises 154

x R(x)
0 400,000
15 422,500
80 0

Table 9.1: Behavior of the graph R(x)

Exercise 9.1 Find the absolute extrema, if any, of the following functions on the given
interval.
x
1. f (x) = on [−1, 4]
x2 + 2
2. f (x) = x4 + 4x on (−∞, ∞)
3. f (x) = −(x2 − 1)2 on (−∞, ∞)

Exercise 9.2 Two poles, one 12 ft high and the other 28 ft high, stand 30 ft apart. They are
to be stayed by two wires, attached to a single stake, running from ground level to the top
of each pole. Where should the stake be placed to use the least amount of wire?

Exercise 9.3 Four feet of wire is to be used to form a square and a circle. How much of the
wire should be used for the square and how much should be used for the circle to enclose
the maximum total area?

Exercise 9.4 A company manufactures and sells x smartphones per week. The weekly
price-demand and cost equations are, respectively,

p = 500 − 0.5x and C(x) = 20, 000 + 135x

1. What price should the company charge for the phones, and how many phones should
be produced to maximize the weekly revenue? What is the maximum weekly revenue?
2. What is the maximum weekly profit? How much should the company charge for the
phones, and how many phones should be produced to realize the maximum weekly
profit?
X
Week Ten

10 Antiderivatives and Antidifferentiation 156

10.1 Antiderivatives
10.2 The Substitution Rule
10.3 Particular Antiderivatives
10.4 Applications
10.5 Exercise
 10. Antiderivatives and Antidifferentiation

At the end of this topic you will be able to:

• Find an antiderivative of a function
• Use the substitution rule to find antiderivatives.
• Find the particular antiderivative of a function.

10.1 Antiderivatives

Many operations in mathematics have reverses - addition and subtraction, multiplication

and division, powers and roots. We now know how to find the derivatives of many functions.
The reverse operation, antidifferentiation (the reconstruction of a function from its derivative),
will receive our attention in this section.
Suppose F 0 (x) = 2x, what is F(x)? The answer to this question is F(x) = x2 . Is this the
only function satisfying F 0 (x) = 2x?
Definition 10.1.1 A function F is an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if and
only if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every value of x in I.

 Example 10.1 1. An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F(x) = 4x3 + x2 .

10.1 Antiderivatives 157

2. An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x.

3. Another antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 1.
4. Another antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G1 (x) = sin x + π.

R If an antiderivative of f exists, then it is not unique.

Theorem 10.1.1 If F is a particular antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antideriva-

tive of f on I is given by F(x) +C, where C is an arbitrary constant.

R If F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f , then F2 (x) = F1 (x) +C for some constant C.

Terms and Notations:

• Antidifferentation : process of finding the antiderivative
Z
• : integral sign, denotes the operation of antidifferentiation
Z
• If F is an antiderivative of f , we write f (x)dx = F(x) +C.
• f (x) : integrand
• F(x) +C : general antiderivative of f
• Each antiderivative of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .
Z
12x2 + 2x dx = 4x3 + x2 +C


 Example 10.2 1.
Z
2. cos xdx = sin x +C
Z Z
3. dx = 1 · dx = x +C
Z
4. 3x2 dx = x3 +C
1
Z
5. x2 dx = x3 +C
3
Z
Theorem 10.1.2 1. dx = x +C
Z Z
2. If a is any constant, then a f (x)dx = a f (x)dx.
3. If f and g are defined on the same interval, then
Z Z Z
[ f (x) ± g(x)]dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx.
10.1 Antiderivatives 158

4. If n ∈ Q and n 6= −1, then

xn+1
Z
xn dx = +C.
n+1

x6
Z
 Example 10.3 1. x5 dx =
+C
Z Z 6
2. 2dx = 2 dx = 2(x +C1 ) = 2x + 2C1 = 2x +C
 −4 
3 x 3 3
Z Z
−5
3. 5
dx = 3 x dx = 3 +C1 = − 4 + 3C1 = − 4 +C
x −4 4x 4x
Z
u 7/4 16u 7/4
4. 4u3/4 du = 4 · +C = +C
7/4 7
5.
Z  
1
Z Z
x + √ dx = x dx + x−1/2 dx
3 3
x
x4 x1/2
= +C1 + +C2
4 1/2
x4 √
= + 2 x +C
4
6.
12x3 2x2
Z
2


12x + 2x dx = + +C
3 2
= 4x3 + x2 +C

7.
Z √
Z  
t 2t − 3 t dt = 2t 2 − 3t 3/2 dt

2t 3 t 5/2
= −3· +C
3 5/2
2t 3 6t 5/2
= −· +C
3 5
Z √
Z Z √

Note: t 2t − 3 t dt 6= tdt · 2t − 3 t dt
10.1 Antiderivatives 159

8.
3x2 + 1
Z Z
3 + x−2 dx


dx =
x2
x−1
= 3x + +C
−1
1
= 3x − +C
x
Z
Z
3x2 + 1 3x2 + 1dx
Note: dx 6= Z
x2 x2 dx

Z
Theorem 10.1.3 1. sin xdx = − cos x +C
Z
2. cos xdx = sin x +C
Z
3. sec2 xdx = tan x +C
Z
4. csc2 xdx = − cot x +C
Z
5. sec x tan xdx = sec x +C
Z
6. csc x cot xdx = − csc x +C

Z
 Example 10.4 1. (sin x + cos x)dx = − cos x + sin x +C
Z
2. (3 sec x tan x − 2 csc2 x)dx = 3 sec x − 2(− cot x) +C = 3 sec x + 2 cot x +C
cos x 1 cos x
Z Z Z
3. 2
dx = · dx = csc x cot xdx = − csc x +C
Z sin x Z sin x sin x
4. tan2 xdx = (sec2 x − 1)dx = tan x − x +C
 10.2 The Substitution Rule 160

5.
dx 1 1 − sin x
Z Z
= · dx
1 + sin x 1 + sin x 1 − sin x
1 − sin x
Z
= dx
1 − sin2 x
1 − sin x
Z
= 2
dx
cos x 
1 1 sin x
Z
= − · dx
cos2 x cos x cos x
Z
sec2 x − sec x tan x dx


=

= tan x − sec x +C

10.2 The Substitution Rule

Suppose F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x). Then Dx [F(x)] = f (x). We recall that the chain
rule is given by

Dx [F(g(x))] = F 0 (g(x)) · g0 (x) = f (g(x)) · g0 (x).

Therefore, F(g(x)) is an antiderivative of f (g(x)) · g0 (x). Thus,

Z
f (g(x)) · g0 (x)dx = F(g(x)) +C

Let u = g(x). Then du = g0 (x)dx. Hence,

Z
f (u)du = F(u) +C.

Theorem 10.2.1 If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is

Z Z
0
continuous on I, then f (g(x)) · g (x)dx = f (u)du.

TIPS:
• Assign u to be an "inner" function whose derivative (disregarding constant factors) is a
factor of the integrand.
• The entire integral must be expressed in terms of u.
Z
 Example 10.5 Find (1 − 4x)1/2 dx.
10.2 The Substitution Rule 161

Solution: Let u = 1 − 4x. Then du = −4dx. Thus,

−4
Z Z
1/2
(1 − 4x) dx = (1 − 4x)1/2 · dx
−4
1
Z
=− u1/2 du
4
1 2u3/2
=− · +C
4 3
(1 − 4x)3/2
=− +C.
6

Z
 Example 10.6 Find x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx.
du
Solution: Let u = x3 − 1. Then du = 3x2 dx. Thus, = x2 dx. Hence,
3
du
Z Z
2 3 10
x (x − 1) dx = u10
3
1
Z
= u10 du
3
u11
= +C
33
(x3 − 1)11
= +C.
33

x
Z
 Example 10.7 Find dx.
(x2 + 1)3
du
Solution: Let u = x2 + 1. Then du = 2xdx. Thus, = xdx. Hence,
2
x 1
Z Z
2 3
dx = u−3 du
(x + 1) 2
1 u−2
= · +C
2 −2
1
=− 2 +C.
4(x + 1)2

Z
 Example 10.8 Find csc2 (5x)dx.
10.2 The Substitution Rule 162

du
Solution: Let u = 5x. Then du = 5dx. Thus, 5 = dx. Hence,
du
Z Z
2
csc (5x)dx = csc2 (u)
5
1
Z
= csc2 (u)du
5
1
= (− cot u) +C
5
1
= − cot(5x) +C
5

Z
 Example 10.9 Find cos4 x sin xdx.

Solution: Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin dx. Thus, −du = sin xdx. Hence,
Z Z
4
cos x sin xdx = − u4 du
u5
=− +C
5
cos5 x
=− +C.
5

Z
 Example 10.10 Find x sec3 (x2 ) tan(x2 )dx.
du
Solution: Let u = sec(x2 ). Then du = sec(x2 ) tan(x2 ) · 2xdx. Thus, = sec(x2 ) tan(x2 ) · xdx.
2
Hence,
Z Z
x sec3 (x2 ) tan(x2 )dx = sec2 (x2 ) sec(x2 ) tan(x2 ) · xdx
1
Z
= u2 du
2
1 u3
= · +C
2 3
sec3 (x2 )
= +C
6

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z
 Example 10.11 Find ds.
s2 cos 1s
10.2 The Substitution Rule 163

Solution: Let u = 1s . Then du = − s12 ds. Thus, −du = ds

s2
. Hence,

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s tan u + tan u sin u

Z Z
ds = − du
s2 cos 1s cos u
Z
sec u tan u + tan2 u du


=−
Z
sec u tan u + sec2 u − 1 du


=−

= −(sec u + tan u − u) +C
1 1 1
= − sec − tan + +C
s s s

Z √
 Example 10.12 Find t t − 1dt.

Solution: Let u = t − 1. Then du = dt. Also, t = u + 1. Hence,

Z √ Z
t t − 1dt = (u + 1)u1/2 du
Z  
= u3/2 + u1/2 du

2u5/2 2u3/2
= + +C
5 3
2(t − 1)5/2 2(t − 1)3/2
= + +C
5 3
t3
Z
 Example 10.13 Find √ dt.
t2 + 3
du
Solution: Let u = t 2 + 3. Then du = 2tdt. Thus, 2 = tdt. Hence,

t3 t2 · t
Z Z
√ dt = √ dt
t2 + 3 t2 + 3
du
Z
= u−1/2 (u − 3)
2
1  1/2
Z 
= u − 3u−1/2 du
2 !
1 2u3/2
= − 6u1/2 +C
2 3
(t 2 + 3)3/2
= − 3(t 2 + 3)1/2 +C
3
 10.3 Particular Antiderivatives 164
Z q
√
 Example 10.14 Find 4 + xdx.
√ 1 √
Solution: Let u = 4 + x. Then du = 2√ dx. Thus, 2du = √1 dx and x = u − 4. Hence,
x x
√
Z q
√ Z q
√ x
4 + xdx = 4 + x · √ dx
x
Z
= u1/2 · 2(u − 4)du
Z  
= 2u3/2 − 8u1/2 du

2 · 2u5/2 8 · 2u3/2
= − +C
5 3
√ √
4(4 + x)5/2 16(4 + x)3/2
= − +C
5 3

10.3 Particular Antiderivatives

In the previous section, we know that F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x) if and only if Dx [F(x)] =
f (x). The antiderivative of a function f is not unique and we write
Z
f (x)dx = F(x) +C

The expression F(x) +C is called the general antiderivative of f . Each antiderivative of f is

called a particular antiderivative of f .

 Example 10.15 Suppose F 0 (x) = 2x and F(2) = 5, what is F(x)?

Solution: The general antiderivative is

Z
F(x) = 2xdx = x2 +C

What should C be so that F(2) = 5? To get C, we have,

F(2) = 5 ⇒ 22 +C = 5 ⇒ C = 1

Therefore, the particular antiderivative is F(x) = x2 + 1.

The previous example is a problem for finding the particular antiderivative that satisfies a
given condition. This condition is called an initial or boundary condition.
10.3 Particular Antiderivatives 165

 Example 10.16 Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F(2) = −1, find F(x).

Solution: We have
Z Z
0 0
F (x) = 2x =⇒ F (x)dx = 2xdx

=⇒ F(x) = x2 +C.

Given the initial condition F(2) = −1, we have

22 +C = −1
C = −5

Therefore, F(x) = x2 − 5.
√
 Example 10.17 The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by 3 x.
Find the equation of a curve if the point (9, 4) is on the curve.

Solution: We have
Z
0 1/2
F (x) = 3x =⇒ F(x)dx = 3x1/2 dx

=⇒ F(x) = 2x3/2 +C

Given the initial condition that the point (9, 4) is on the curve,that is, F(9) = 4, we have

2 · 93/2 +C = 4

C = −50

Therefore, F(x) = 2x3/2 − 50.

1
π


 Example 10.18 The point 6 ,−2 is on a curve and at any point on the curve, the slope of
the tangent line is given by −2 sin(2x). Find an equation of the curve.
 10.4 Applications 166
Z
Solution: Note that f 0 (x) = −2 sin(2x). Then f (x) = −2 sin(2x)dx. Let u = 2x. Then
du
du = 2dx and thus, 2 = dx. Now,
Z
f (x) = −2 sin(2x)dx
du
Z
= −2 sin u
Z 2
=− sin udu

= −(− cos u) +C
= cos 2x +C

Given the initial condition f ( π6 ) = − 12 , we have

π 1
cos +C = −
3 2
1 1
+C = −
2 2
C = −1

Therefore, f (x) = cos 2x − 1.

10.4 Applications

 Example 10.19 — Cost Function. If the marginal cost of producing x units of a commodity is
given by

C0 (x) = 0.3x2 + 2x

and the fixed cost is Php 2,000, find the cost function C(x) and the cost of producing 20 units.

Solution: Recall that marginal cost is the derivative of the cost function and that fixed cost is
cost at a zero production level. So we want to find C(x), given

C0 (x) = 0.3x2 + 2x C(0) = 2, 000

We find the indefinite integral of 0.3x2 + 2x and determine the arbitrary integration constant
using C(0) = 2, 000:
10.4 Applications 167

C0 (x) = 0.3x2 + 2x
Z
C(x) = (0.3x2 + 2x)dx

= 0.1x3 + x2 + K

Since C represents the cost, we use K for the constant of integration. But

C(0) = (0.1)03 + 02 + K = 2, 000

So K = 2, 000, and the cost function is

C(x) = 0.1x3 + x2 + 2, 000

We now find C(20), the cost of producing 20 units:

C(20) = (0.1)203 + 202 + 2, 000

= Php3, 200.

 Example 10.20 — Advertising. A satellite radio station is launching an aggressive advertising

campaign in order to increase the number of daily listeners. The station currently has 27,000
daily listeners, and management expects the number of daily listeners, S(t), to grow at the rate
of

S0 (t) = 60t 1/2

listeners per day, where t is the number of days since the campaign began. How long should
the campaign last if the station wants the number of daily listeners to grow to 41,000?

Solution: We must solve the equation S(t) = 41, 000 for t, given that S0 (t) = 60t 1/2 and
S(0) = 27, 000. First, we use integration to find S(t):
Z
S(t) = 60t 1/2 dt

t 3/2
= 60 3
+C
2

= 40t 3/2 +C

Since
 10.5 Exercise 168

S(0) = 40(0)3/2 +C = 27, 000

we have C = 27, 000 and S(t) = 40t 3/2 + 27, 000. Now we solve the equation S(t) = 41, 000
for t:

40t 3/2 + 27, 000 = 41, 000

40t 3/2 = 14, 000

t 3/2 = 350
t = 3502/3

= 49.664419...

The advertising campaign should last approximately 50 days.

10.5 Exercise
s
Z
Exercise 10.1 Find √ ds.
s+3

Exercise 10.2 Evaluate the following integrals.

2x5
Z
1. √ dx
2 − x 2
4 − 2x
Z
2. √ p √ dx
6 x 3+
x 1

2 1
2 csc x cot x
Z
3. dx
Z x2
4. x(sin x2 ) cos(cos x2 )dx

Exercise 10.3 Do as indicated.

1. The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by (x + 2)2/3 + 1.
If the curve has x-intercept equal to −2, find the equation of the curve.
2. Find an equation of the curve such that y00 is always 2 and at the point (2, 6), the slope
of the tangent line is 10.
10.5 Exercise 169

Exercise 10.4 The rate of change of the monthly sales of a newly released football game is
given by

S0 (t) = 500t 1/4 S(0) = 0

where t is the number of months since the game was released and S(t) is the number of
games sold each month. Find S(t). When will monthly sales reach 20,000 games?
XI
Week Eleven

11 Area and the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . 171

11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region
11.2 The Definite Integral
11.3 Application
11.4 Exercises
 11. Area and the Definite Integral

At the end of this topic you will be able to:

• Use sigma notation to write and evaluate a sum.
• Understand the concept of area.
• Approximate the area of a plane region.
• Find the area of a plane region using limits.
• Understand the definition of a definite integral.

11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region

11.1.1 Method of Exhaustion

The area of an inscribed regular polygon P approximates the area of the circle C, that is,

AC ≈ AP

where AC is the area of the circle and AP is the area of a regular polygon P. Increasing the
number of sides of the regular polygon gives us a better approximation of the area of the circle.
To discuss it toroughly, we will define some important concepts first.
11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 172

Figure 11.1: A regular octagon inscribed in a circle

Definition 11.1.1 — Summation. If n is a positive integer and F is a function such that

{1, 2, . . . , n} is in the domain of F, we define
n
∑ F(i) := F(1) + F(2) + . . . + F(n).
i=1

The left hand side is read "the summation of F(i), with i from 1 to n."
20
 Example 11.1 ∑ (5i + 4)
i=1
Solution:
20
∑ (5i + 4) = (5 · 1 + 4) + (5 · 2 + 4) + · · · + (5 · 19 + 4) + (5 · 20 + 4)
i=1

= 9 + 14 + 19 + · · · + 99 + 104
20(9 + 104)
=
2
= 1130

R These are some important summation formulas:

n n
1. ∑ cF(i) = c ∑ F(i) where c ∈ R
i=1 i=1
n n n
2. ∑ [F(i) + G(i)] = ∑ F(i) + ∑ G(i)
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
n(n + 1)
3. ∑ i = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n =
i=1 2
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
4. ∑ i2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 =
i=1 6
n
5. ∑ c = c| + c +{z· · · + }c = cn
i=1 n-times
 11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 173

20
 Example 11.2 ∑ (5i + 4)
i=1
Solution:
20 20 20
∑ (5i + 4) = ∑ 5i + ∑ 4
i=1 i=1 i=1
20 20
= 5 ∑i+ ∑4
i=1 i=1
20 · 21
= 5· + 4 · 20
2
= 1050 + 80
= 1130

n
 Example 11.3 ∑ (i + 1)2 where n ∈ N
i=1
Solution:
n n
∑ (i + 1)2 = ∑ (i2 + 2i + 1)
i=1 i=1
n n n
= ∑ i2 + 2 ∑ i + ∑ 1
i=1 i=1 i=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
= +2· +n
6 2
2n3 + 9n2 + 13n
=
6

11.1.2 Area of a Plane Region

To discuss some areas of plane regions, we will first solve this problem.

 Example 11.4 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the
vertical line x = 2.

Solution: We use a method similar to the "Method of Exhaustion".

• Divide the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x
2−0 2
• Note that ∆x = n = n
11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 174

Figure 11.2: Region bounded by f (x) = x2 , x-axis and x = 2

• Let ci be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval. We can see in the following table the
subintervals with ci = 0 + i∆x = i · n2 = 2i
n.

Interval left endpoint right endpoint

1st 0 0 + ∆x
2nd 0 + ∆x 0 + 2∆x
3rd 0 + 2∆x 0 + 3∆x
.. .. ..
. . .
ith 0 + (i − 1)∆x 0 + i∆x
.. .. ..
. . .
nth 0 + (n − 1)∆x 0 + n∆x = 2
• Cover the region with n circumscribed rectangles where the width is ∆x and the height is
f (ci ).

Figure 11.3: Region covered by circumscribed rectangles

11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 175

• Let Ai be the area of the ith rectangle, that is, Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.
• The approximation of the area of the region given by
n n
AR ≈ ∑ Ai or AR ≈ ∑ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1 i=1
2i
• Recall that f (x) = x2 and ci = n.
• Put f (ci ) in terms of i and n. Then
 2
2i 4i2
f (ci ) = c2i = = n2
n
2 4i2
• Substitute ∆x = n and f (ci ) = n2
into AR . Then
n n
4i2 2 8i2
AR ≈ ∑ ·
2 n
= ∑ 3
i=1 n i=1 n

• Simplify the right-hand side using summation formulas. Thus,

n
8i2
AR ≈ ∑ 3
i=1 n
8 n 2
≈ ∑i
n3 i=1
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
≈ ·
n3 6
4 2n2 + 3n + 1
≈ ·
3 n2
• Increasing n increases the number of rectangles and this gives a better approximation of
the area.
• Let n → ∞ to get the area of the region.
n
AR = lim ∑ Ai
n→∞
i=1
4 2n2 + 3n + 1
= lim ·
n→∞ 3 n2
8
= square units
3
 Example 11.5 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = 2x, the x-axis and the
vertical line x = 5 using inscribed rectangles.

Solution: We will use the same method.

11.1 Introduction to the Area of a Plane Region 176

Figure 11.4: The region bounded by f (x) = 2x, x-axis and x = 5

• Divide the interval [0, 5] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.

5−0 2
• Note that ∆x = n = n
• Cover the region with n inscribed rectangles where the width is ∆x and the height is
f (ci ), with ci is the left endpoint of the ith subinterval.

Figure 11.5: Region covered by inscribed rectangles

• Let Ai be the area of the ith rectangle, that is, Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.
• The approximation of the area of the region given by
n n
AR ≈ ∑ Ai or AR ≈ ∑ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1 i=1
• Recall that the endpoint of the ith subinterval from the left is 0 + (i − 1)∆x and the
endpoint from the right is 0 + i∆x.
• Put ci (left endpoint) in terms of i and n. Thus,

ci = 0 + (i − 1)∆x = (i − 1) · 5n .

• Put f (ci ) in terms of i and n. Thus,

 11.2 The Definite Integral 177

f (ci ) = 2ci = 2 · 5(i−1)

n = 10
n (i − 1).

5 10
• Substitute ∆x = n and f (ci ) = n (i − 1) into AR . Then

AR ≈ ∑ni=1 10 5 n 50
n (i − 1) · n = ∑i=1 n2 (i − 1)

• Simplify the right-hand side using summation formulas, we have

n
50
AR ≈ ∑ 2
(i − 1)
i=1 n
50 n
≈ ∑ (i − 1)
n2 i=1
!
n n
50
≈ 2 ∑i− ∑i
n i=1 i=1
 
50 n(n + 1)
≈ 2 −n
n 2
50 n2 − n
 
≈ 2
n 2
 
n−1
≈ 25
n
• Increasing n increases the number of rectangles and this gives a better approximation of
the area.
• Let n → ∞ to get the area of the region.
n
AR = lim ∑ Ai
n→∞
i=1
 
n−1
= lim 25
n→∞ n
= 25 square units

11.2 The Definite Integral

In the last chapter, we find the area of plane regions using circumscribed and inscribed
rectangles of the same widths. A more general way to find the area of some plane region is to
use rectangles of different widths.
• A partition of the interval [a, b] is a sequence of numbers

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . < xn−1 < xn = b

11.2 The Definite Integral 178

Figure 11.6: Region with rectangles of different widths

that divides the interval into n subintervals:

[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], [x2 , x3 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ]

• The length of the i th subinterval is

∆xi = xi − xi−1

• xi∗ : any point in [xi−1 , xi ]

• Area of ith rectangle:

f (xi∗ )∆x

• Approximation for area:

∑ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x

• Regular Partition: the subintervals are of equal length ∆x

• For a regular partition, ∆x → 0 as n → ∞.
• This is NOT ALWAYS TRUE if the partition is not regular.
• For a partition that is not regular:
• Mesh size, ||∆||, of the partition: length of the longest subinterval in the partition
• As ||∆|| → 0, the approximation for the area gets better and better.
• The area of the region is given by
n
AR = lim ∑ f (xi∗ )∆x.
||∆||→0 i=1
11.2 The Definite Integral 179

Definition 11.2.1 Let f be defined on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b n
f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (xi∗ )∆x
a ||∆||→0 i=1

if the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partitions or on the choice of
numbers xi∗ in the subintervals. If the limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on
[a, b].

Terms and Notations:

• Integration: process of calculating the integral
Z b
• In the definite integral f (x)dx:
Za
• The integral sign resembles the letter S because an integral is the limit of a sum.
• f (x) : integrand
• a, b: (lower and upper) limits of integration
• The symbol is similar to that of the antiderivative because the definite integral is
closely linked to the antiderivative.
• A sum of the form ∑ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x is called a Riemann Sum, after the mathematician
Bernhard Riemann.
Let R be the region bounded by the graph of y = f (x) and the x-axis between x = a and
n
x = b. If the function f is negative on some portions of [a, b], then ∑ f (xi∗)∆x approximates
i=1
the area of the portion of R above the x-axis minus the area of the portion below the x-axis.
The actual difference is called the net signed area of the region.
If a ≤ b, the value of the definite integral is the net signed area between the graph of the
curve y = f (x) and the interval [a, b] on the x-axis.

R • The definite integral is a number which does not depend on the variable used:
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (t)dt
a a
• If the function f is continuous, a regular partition can be used to compute
the definite integral:
Z b n

a
f (x)dx = lim
n→∞
∑ f (xi∗)∆x
i=1
11.2 The Definite Integral 180

Figure 11.7: Net signed area of a plane region

• To define the definite integral, [a, b] must be a subset of dom f .

Z 1
1
• 2
dx is not a definite integral. This kind of integral is called an
0 x
improper integral (not in the scope of Math 53)
Z 2
8
 Example 11.6 1. x2 dx =
Z 5 0 3
2. 2xdx = 25
0
Z 6
 Example 11.7 What is the value of 2xdx?
−2
Solution:
Z 6
1 1
2xdx = · 6 · 12 − · 2 · 4
−2 2 2
= 32

Theorem 11.2.1 If a function is continuous on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].

 Example 11.8 1. Polynomial functions are integrable on any closed interval.

2. The function f (x) = |x| is integrable on the interval [−1, 2], although it is not differen-
tiable on (−1, 2).
3. The sine and cosine functions are integrable on any closed interval.

Theorem 11.2.2 — Properties of the Definite Integral. Let f and g be integrable on [a, b], and
c, p, q, r ∈ R.
11.2 The Definite Integral 181
Z a
1. f (x)dx = 0
Za b Z a
2. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
Za b
b

3. cdx = c(b − a)
Za b Z b
4. c f (x)dx = c f (x)dx
Za b
a Z b Z b
5. [ f (x) ± g(x)]dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx
a a a
6. If [a, b] contains p, q and r, then
Z q Z r Z q
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx,
p p r

regardless of the order of p, q and r.

Z 1 Z 2 Z 2
 Example 11.9 Find f (x)dx given f (x)dx = 2 and f (x)dx = 3.
0 0 1
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2 Z 1
Solution: Because f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx, we get f (x)dx = 2 − 3 = −1.
0 0 1 0
Z 5 Z 5 Z −2
 Example 11.10 If f (x)dx = 4 and 3g(x)dx = −9, evaluate [3 f (x) + g(x)]dx.
−2 −2 5
Z 5 Z 5
1
Solution: First, note that g(x)dx = 3g(x)dx = −3. Therefore,
−2 3 −2
Z −2 Z 5
[3 f (x) + g(x)]dx = − [3 f (x) + g(x)]dx
5
−2
Z 5 Z 5 
=− 3 f (x)dx + g(x)dx
−2 −2
5 Z 5
 Z 
=− 3 f (x)dx + g(x)dx
−2 −2

= −[3(4) + (−3)]

= −9

Z
What is the difference between the general antiderivative f (x)dx and the definite integral
Z b
f (x)dx?
a
The general antiderivative is a collection of functions F(x) +C whose derivative is f (x),
that is, Dx [F(x) +C] = f (x) while the definite integral yields a value.
 11.3 Application 182

Figure 11.8: Rate at which the oil is leaking

11.3 Application

 Example 11.11 — Oil Leakage. Figure 11.8 shows the rate that oil is leaking from a machine
in a large factory (in cubic centimeters per hour) with specific rates over a 12-hour period
given in the table. Approximate the total amount of leakage over a 12-hour shift.

Solution: Use approximating rectangles, dividing the interval from 0 to 12 into 12 equal
subdivisions. Each subinterval has width 1. Using the left endpoint of each subinterval and
the table to determine the height of the rectangle, as shown, the approximation becomes

1 · 15.2 + 1 · 18.0 + 1 · 18.8 + 1 · 14.1 + 1 · 9.5 + 1 · 9.6 + 1 · 13.1 + 1 · 17.3 + 1 · 20.0 + 1 ·

19.2 + 1 · 16.6 + 1 · 16.4 = 187.8.

About 187.8 cubic centimeters of oil leak during this time. Mathematically, we could write
Z 12
f (x)dx ≈ 187.8
0

where f (x) is the function shown in Figure 11.8.

11.4 Exercises
Exercise 11.1 Let f (x) = 2x + 5, x1 = 0, x2 = 2, x3 = 4, x4 = 6, and ∆x = 2.
4
1. Find ∑ f (xi)∆x.
i=1
2. The sum in part 1 approximates a definite integral using rectangles. The height of
each rectangle is given by the value of the function at the left endpoint. Write the
definite integral that the sum approximates.
11.4 Exercises 183

Exercise 11.2 Consider the region below f (x) = x/2, above the x-axis, and between x = 0
and x = 4. Let xi be the midpoint of the ith subinterval.
1. Approximate the area of the region using four rectangles.
Z 4
2. Find f (x)dx by using the formula for the area of a triangle.
0
XII
Week Twelve

12 Fundamental Theorems of Calculus . . . 185

12.1 The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
12.3 Area of a Plane Region
12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles
12.5 Exercise
 12. Fundamental Theorems of Calculus

At the end of this topic you will be able to:

• Evaluate a definite integral using properties of definite integrals.
• Evaluate a definite integral using the First and Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
• Find the area of a region between two curves using integration.
• Find the area of a region between intersecting curves using integration.

12.1 The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this section we will consider a function defined by

Z x
F(x) = f (t)dt,
a

where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x is any number in [a, b]. Let’s have some
examples of this function.
Z x
 Example 12.1 1. Let F(x) = t 2 dt.
Z 0 0
2
(a) F(0) = t dt = 0
Z0 2 8
(b) F(2) = t 2 dt =
0 3
12.1 The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 186
Z x
2. Let F(x) = 2tdt. What is F(−2)?
6
Z −2 Z 6
F(−2) = 2tdt = − 2tdt = −32
6 −2
Z x
 Example 12.2 Let F(x) = 2tdt.
0
1. If x > 0, then F(x) gives the area of the triangle under the curve f (t) = 2t in the interval
[0, x].
2. But the area is also given by F(x) = 12 · x · 2x = x2 .
3. Note that F 0 (x) = 2x = f (x).

Theorem 12.1.1 — The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Let f be a function contin-
uous on [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by F(x) =
Z x
f (t)dt, then F 0 (x) = f (x).
a

Z x
 Example 12.3 If F(x) = t 2 dt, then F 0 (x) = x2 .
0
Z x
 Example 12.4 If F(x) = cos(t 2 + 1)dt, then F 0 (x) = cos(x2 + 1).
−π
Z 3
 Example 12.5 Find F 0 (x) if F(x) = sin 2tdt.
x
Solution: First, we switch the limits of integration:
Z 3 Z x
F(x) = sin 2tdt = − sin 2tdt
x 3
 Zx 
Then F 0 (x) = D x − sin 2tdt = − sin 2x
3
Z g(x)
Suppose F(x) = f (t)dt. What is F 0 (x)?
Z x a
Let H(x) = f (t)dt. Then,
a
Z g(x)
H(g(x)) = f (t)dt = F(x).
a

By the Chain Rule, F 0 (x) = H 0 (g(x)) · g0 (x). By the FFTOC, H 0 (x) = f (x). Therefore,
F 0 (x) = f (g(x)) · g0 (x).
Z x2
 Example 12.6 If F(x) = t 2 dt, then F 0 (x) = (x2 )2 · 2x = 2x5 .
−1
 12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 187
Z cos x
dt
 Example 12.7 If F(x) = , then F 0 (x) = 1
cos x · (− sin x) = − tan x.
1 t
Z 0
t
 Example 12.8 Find F 0 (x) if F(x) = dt.
2x+1 t2 + 1
Solution: First switch the limits of integration:
Z 2x+1
t
F(x) = − dt
0 t2 + 1
2x + 1 2x + 1
Therefore, F 0 (x) = − 2
·2 = − 2 .
(2x + 1) + 1 2x + 2x + 1
Z x
 Example 12.9 Find F 0 (x) if F(x) = sin2 tdt.
1−x
Solution: Split the interval at a number in the domain of the integrand:
Z 0 Z x
2
F(x) = sin tdt + sin2 tdt
1−x 0

Then, switch the limits of integration:

Z 1−x Z x
F(x) = − sin2 tdt + sin2 tdt
0 0

Therefore, F 0 (x) = −[sin2 (1 − x)](−1) + sin2 x = sin (1 − x) + sin2 x.

2

12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Theorem 12.2.1 — The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Let f be a function
continuous on [a, b]. If F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F(x)|x=b
x=a = F(b) − F(a).
a

Note that F(x)|x=b

x=a is read "F(x) evaluated from x = a to x = b."

Z 2
 Example 12.10 Evaluate x2 dx.
0
x=2
x3
Z 2    
2 8 8
Solution: x dx = +C = +C − (0 +C) =
0 3 x=0 3 3
Z 6
 Example 12.11 Evaluate 2xdx.
−2
Z 6
x=6
Solution: 2xdx = x2 x=−2
= 36 − 4 = 32
−2
12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 188
Z 3
dx
 Example 12.12 Evaluate 3
.
−1 (x + 2)
Solution: Let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. Hence,
dx
Z Z
= u−3 du
(x + 2)3
u−2
= +C
−2
1
=− +C
2(x + 2)2
Thus,
Z 3 x=3
dx 1
3
=−
−1 (x + 2) 2(x + 2)2 x=−1
1 1
=− +
50 2
12
=
25

If F is an antiderivative of f , then by the SFTOC and the Substitution Rule,

Z b
f (g(x))g0 (x)dx = F(g(x))|x=a
x=b
= F(g(b)) − F(g(a)).
a

Note that
Z g(b)
u=g(b)
f (u)du = F(u)|u=g(a) = F(g(b)) − F(g(a)).
g(a)

Thus,
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du.
a g(a)

Let u = g(x). Then, du = g0 (x)dx. When x = a, u = g(a). When x = b, u = g(b). (With a

change of variable comes a change in the limits of integration.)
Z 3
dx
 Example 12.13 Evaluate .
3
−1 (x + 2)
12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 189

Solution: Let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. For the limits of integration, when x = −1, we have
u = 1 and when x = 3 we have u = 5. Thus,
Z 3 Z 5
dx
3
= u−3 du
−1 (x + 2) 1
u=5
u−2
=
−2 u=1
1 1
= −
−50 −2
12
= .
25

Z √11
 Example 12.14 Evaluate 2x(x2 − 3)1/3 dx.
2
Solution: Let u = x2 − 3.
Then du = 2xdx. For the limits of integration, when x = 2, we have
√ √
u = 1 and when x = 11 we have u = ( 11)2 − 3 = 8. Thus,
Z √11 Z 8
2 1/3
2x(x − 3) dx = u1/3 du
2 1
u=8
3u4/3
=
4
u=1
3
= 12 −
4
45
= .
4

Z π2 √
sin t
 Example 12.15 Evaluate √ dt.
π2 t
4
√ dt dt
Solution: Let u = t. Then du = √ .
2 t
Thus, 2du = √
t
. For the limits of integration, we have

π2
t= 4 ⇒u= π
2 t = π 2 ⇒ u = π.
12.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 190

Thus,
Z π2 √
sin t
Z π
√ dt = 2 sin udu
π2 t π
4 2

= 2(− cos u)|u=π

u= π 2

= 2−0

= 2.

Z 1
 Example 12.16 Evaluate |x|dx.
−2

x, x≥0

Solution: Recall that |x| =
−x, x < 0.

Then
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
|x|dx = (−x)dx + xdx
−2 −2 0
x=0 x=1
x2 x 2
=− +
2 x=−22 x=0
 
1
= (0 + 2) + −0
2
5
= .
2

R • The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus assumes that f continuous

on [a, b]. For instance,
1 x=2
Z 2
1 1
2
dx 6
= − = .
−1 x x x=−1 2
• The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus establish a close connection between
antiderivatives and definite
Z integrals.
(a) The antiderivative f (x)dx is also referred to as an indefinite integral.
(b) The process of antidifferentation is also referred to as integration.
 12.3 Area of a Plane Region 191

12.3 Area of a Plane Region

Recall that the definition of the definite integral is given by

Z b n
f (x)dx = lim ∑ f (xi∗ )∆x
a ||∆||→0 i=1

If f is a continuous function, we can use a regular partition and we have

Z b n

a
f (x)dx = lim
n→∞
∑ f (xi∗)∆x
i=1

If the graph of y = f (x) lies entirely above the x-axis on the interval [a, b], then the area of the
Z b
region bounded by y = f (x), the x-axis, x = a and x = b is given by AR = f (x)dx.
a
A general problem in finding the area of a plane region is to find the area bounded by
several curves.

Figure 12.1: Region bounded by two curves y = f (x) and y = g(x)

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b],
to find the area of the given plane region R bounded above by y = f (x) and below by y = g(x)
and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, we have the following steps to follow.
• Divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Let xi∗ be an arbitrary
point in the ith subinterval.
• The height of the ith rectangle is hi = f (xi∗ ) − g(xi∗ )
• The area of the ith rectangle is Ai = [ f (xi∗ ) − g(xi∗ )]∆x
• Approximate area of R:
12.3 Area of a Plane Region 192

Figure 12.2: Region covered with circumscribed rectangles

n
AR ≈ ∑ [ f (xi∗ ) − g(xi∗ )]∆x
i=1
• Let n → ∞ to get the area of the region.
n
AR = lim
n→∞
∑ [ f (xi∗) − g(xi∗)]∆x
i=1
• Since f (x) and g(x) are continuous,
Z b
AR = [ f (x) − g(x)]dx.
a

Definition 12.3.1 — Area of a Plane Region. If f and g are continuous functions on the
interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area of the region R bounded
above by y = f (x), below by y = g(x) and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is AR =
Z b
[ f (x) − g(x)]dx.
a

 Example 12.17 Find the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , the x-axis and x = −2.

Solution: Note that I = [−2, 0] and h = 0 − x3 = −x3 . Then

Z 0
AR = (−x3 )dx
−2
x=0
−x4
=
4 x=−2

= 0 − (−4)

= 4 square units .
12.3 Area of a Plane Region 193

 Example 12.18 Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2 + 2, y = −1, x = −1 and x = 2.

Solution: Note that I = [−1, 2] and h = (x2 + 2) − (−1) = x2 + 3. Then

Z 2
AR = (x2 + 3)dx
−1
x=0
x3
 
= + 3x
3
   x=−2 
8 1
= +6 − − −3
3 3
= 12 square units .
12.3 Area of a Plane Region 194

 Example 12.19 Find the area of the region bounded by y = 2 − x2 and y = −x.

Solution: To find the points of intersection, we have

2 − x2 = −x ⇒ x2 − x − 2 = 0

⇒ (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0

Then x = −1 or x = 2. Thus,
Z 2
(2 − x2 ) − (−x) dx

AR =
−1
Z 2
−x2 + x + 2 dx


=
−1
 3  x=2
x x2
= − + + 2x
3 2
   x=−1 
8 1 1
= − +2+4 − + −2
3 3 2
9
= square units
2

R
12.3 Area of a Plane Region 195

• In the formula for the area of a plane region, the upper curve y = f (x) is
always above the lower curve y = g(x) in [a, b].
• That is, the formula for the height h of a rectangle at an arbitrary x is the
same throughout the region.

What if the formula for h is not the same throughout the region? We will divide the region
into subregions such that the formula for h in each subregion is consistent.

Figure 12.3: A region divided into subregions

 Example 12.20 Find the area of the region below, with boundaries y = cos x, y = sin x, x = 0
and x = 2π.

Solution: We divide the region into three subregions R1 , R2 and R3 so that formula for the
height h in each subregion is consistent. To find the points of intersection of y = cos x and
12.3 Area of a Plane Region 196

y = sin x, we have
1 1
sin x = cos x ⇒ sin x · = cos x ·
cos x cos x
⇒ tan x = 1
π 5π
Thus, x = 4 or x = 4 . Hence,
Z π Z 5π Z 2π
4 4
AR = (cos x − sin x)dx + π
(sin x − cos x)dx + 5π
(cos x − sin x)dx
0 4 4
√
= 4 2 square units

 Example 12.21 Find the area of the region shown below. The boundaries are y = x2 , y = 2x
and 7x + 4y = 15.

Solution: We divide the interval into two subregions R1 and R2 so that formula for the height
h in each subregion is consistent. To find the points of intersection of y = x2 and 7x + 4y = 15,
we have

7x + 4x2 = 15 ⇒ 4x2 + 7x − 15 = 0

⇒ (4x − 5)(x + 3) = 0.
5
Thus, x = 4 or x = −3. To find the points of intersection of y = 2x and 7x + 4y = 15, we have

7x + 4 · 2x = 15 ⇒ x = 1.
 12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles 197

To find the points of intersection of y = x2 and y = 2x, we have

x2 = 2x ⇒ x2 − 2x = 0

⇒ x(x − 2) = 0.

Thus, x = 0 or x = 2. Hence,
Z 1  Z 2
15 − 7x 2
2x − x2 dx


AR = − x dx +
−3 4 1
40
= square units .
3

12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles

An alternative method to find the area of a region is using horizontal rectangles. Given
x = u(y), the coordinates of a point in terms of y is (u(y), y).

Figure 12.4: Region bounded by x = u(y) , x = v(y), y = c and y = d

Definition 12.4.1 — Area of a Plane Region (Horizontal Rectangles). If u and v are continu-
ous functions of y on the interval [c, d] and v(y) ≥ u(y) for all y ∈ [c, d], then the area of
the region R bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right by x = v(y) and the horizontal
lines y = c and y = d is
Z d
AR = [v(y) − u(y)]dy.
c
12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles 198

 Example 12.22 Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y2 and the line y = x − 1.

Solution: We will find first the points of intersection. Then

3 − y2 = y + 1 ⇒ y2 + y − 2 = 0

⇒ (y + 2)(y − 1) = 0

Thus, y = 1 or y = −2. Now, h = (3 − y2 ) − (y + 1) = −y2 − y + 2 and I = [−2, 1]. Hence,

Z 1
AR = (−y2 − y + 2) dy
−2
 3 y=1
y2

y
= − − + 2y
3 2 y=−2
9
= square units .
2

2
 Example 12.23 Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x = 4−y2 and x = 2− y2 .

Solution: We will find first the points of intersection. Then

4 − y2
4 − y2 = ⇒ 8 − 2y2 = 4 − y2
2
⇒ y2 − 4 = 0.
12.4 An Alternative Method:Using Horizontal Rectangles 199

Thus, y = −2 or y = 2. Hence,
y2
Z 2  
2
AR = (4 − y ) − 2 − dy
−2 2
y2
Z 2 
= 2− dy
−2 2
 y=2
y3

= 2y −
6 y=−2
16
= square units .
3

 Example 12.24 Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x2 = 4y and y2 = −4x.

Solution: Note that

√ √
x2 = 4y ⇒ x = ±2 y ⇒ x = −2 y
 12.5 Exercise 200

Then to find first the points of intersection, we have

√ √
y2 = −4(−2 y) ⇒ y2 = 8 y
⇒ y4 = 64y

⇒ y4 − 64y = 0
⇒ y(y3 − 64) = 0

Thus, y = 0 or y3 = 64 ⇔ y = 4. Hence,
Z 4 2 
y √
AR = − − (−2 y) dy
0 4
Z 4 2 
y √
= − + 2 y dy
0 4
! y=4
y3 4y3/2
= − +
12 3
y=0
16
= square units
3

12.5 Exercise
Z πp
Exercise 12.1 If F(x) = t 2 + 1dt, find F 0 (x).
x2

Z π
2
Exercise 12.2 Evaluate π
sin2 2x cos 2xdx.
4

Z 4p
Exercise 12.3 What is the value of 16 − x2 dx?
−4

Exercise 12.4 Set up the definite integral to find the area of the region bounded by f (x) =
x2 − 2x + 1 and g(x) = 7 − x.
XIII
Week Thirteen

13 Integrals Involving Circular and Exponen-

tial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
1
13.1 Integrals of f (x) =and of the other Circular Functions
x
13.2 Integrals of Exponential Functions
13.3 Inverse Circular Functions
13.4 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions
13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions
13.6 Exercises
 13. Integrals Involving Circular and Exponential Func

At the end of this topic you will:

• Integrate circular functions.
• Integrate exponential functions
• Study integrals and derivatves involving the inverse circular functions

1
13.1 Integrals of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions
x
Recall that
un+1
Z
un du = +C whenever n 6= −1
n+1

Theorem 13.1.1
1
Z
du = ln |u| +C
u
1
The theorem is true since Du (ln |u|) = , u 6= 0.
u
6
Z
 Example 13.1 Evaluate dx
3x + 2
 1
13.1 Integrals of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions 203
x
Solution: Let u = 3x + 2. Then du = 3 dx. Thus,
6 2
Z Z
dx = du
3x + 2 u
= 2 ln |u| +C

= 2 ln |3x + 2| +C.

Z 4
x
 Example 13.2 Evaluate 2
dx.
3 4−x
Solution: Let u = 4 − x2 . Then du = −2x dx. If x = 3, then u = −5. If x = 4, then u = −12.
Thus,
1 −12 1
Z 4
x
Z
dx = − du
3 4 − x2 2 −5 u
u=−12
1
= − ln |u|
2 u=−5
   
1 1
= − ln | − 12| − − ln | − 5|
2 2
r
5
= ln .
12

1
Z
 Example 13.3 Evaluate dx.
x log2 x
1
Solution: Let u = log2 x. Then du = dx. Thus,
x ln 2
1 1
Z Z
dx = ln 2 du
x log2 x u
= (ln 2) ln |u| +C
= (ln 2) ln | log2 x| +C.

2x3 + 9x2 − 3x + 2
Z
 Example 13.4 Evaluate dx.
2x − 1
 1
13.1 Integrals of f (x) = and of the other Circular Functions 204
x
Solution:
2x3 + 9x2 − 3x + 2
Z  
3
Z
2
dx = x + 5x + 1 + dx using long division
2x − 1 2x − 1
3
Z Z
x2 + 5x + 1 dx +


= dx Let u = 2x − 1, du = 2dx
2x − 1
3 1
Z Z
2


= x + 5x + 1 dx + du
2 u
x3 5x2 3
= + + x + ln |u| +C
3 2 2
x3 5x2 3
= + + x + ln |2x − 1| +C
3 2 2

x−1
Z
 Example 13.5 Evaluate dx.
x2 + 2x + 1
Solution: Let u = x + 1. Then du = dx. Also, x − 1 = u − 2. Thus,
x−1 x−1
Z Z
2
dx = dx
x + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
u−2
Z
= du
u2
Z  
1 2
= − du
u u2
1 1
Z Z
= du − 2 du
u u2
2
= ln |u| + +C
u
2
= ln |x + 1| + +C.
x+1

Z
Theorem 13.1.2 1. tan u du = − ln | cos u| +C = ln | sec u| +C
Z
2. sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u|
Z
3. cot u du = ln | sin u| +C
Z
4. csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| +C

Z
 Example 13.6 Evaluate x3 csc(x4 )dx.
 13.2 Integrals of Exponential Functions 205

Solution: Let u = x4 . Then du = 4x3 dx. Thus,

1
Z Z
x3 csc(x4 )dx = csc u du
4
1
= ln | csc u − cot u| +C
4
1
= ln | csc(x4 ) − cot(x4 )| +C.
4

x
Z+4 2π
3
sin
Example 13.7 Evaluate2  dx

π x
2 cos
2
x 1 π π 2π π
Solution: Let u = . Then du = dx. If x = , then u = . If x = , then u = . Thus,
2 2 2 4 3 3
x
Z 2π sin +4 Z π
3
2  dx = 2 3 sin u + 4 du
π x π cos u
2 cos 4
2
Z π
3
=2 π
(tan u + 4 sec u) du
4
u= π3
= 2(ln | sec u| + 4 ln | sec u + tan u|)
u= π4
√ √ √
= 2(ln |2| + 4 ln |2 + 3| − ln | 2| − 4 ln | 2 + 1|)
√ !
2(2 + 3)8
= ln √
( 2 + 1)8

13.2 Integrals of Exponential Functions

Z
Theorem 13.2.1 1. eu du = eu +C
au
Z
2. au du = +C
ln a
Z
 Example 13.8 Evaluate 7x dx.

Solution:
7x
Z
7x dx = +C
ln 7
13.2 Integrals of Exponential Functions 206

Z
 Example 13.9 Evaluate e1−4x dx.

Solution: Let u = 1 − 4x. Then du = −4 dx. Thus,

−1
Z Z
1−4x
e dx = eu du
4
1
= − eu +C
4
e1−4x
=− +C
4

Z
 Example 13.10 Evaluate 22x · 5x dx.

Solution:
Z Z
2x x
2 · 5 dx = 4x · 5x dx
Z
= 20x dx
20x
= +C
ln 20

Z
3
 Example 13.11 Evaluate x2 · 25−x dx.

Solution: Let u = 5 − x3 . Then du = −3x2 dx. Thus,

1
Z Z
2 5−x3
x ·2 dx = − 2u du
3
1 2u
=− · +C
3 ln 2
3
25−x
=− +C
3 ln 2

Z e
1
 Example 13.12 Evaluate dx.
1 x · 2ln x
 13.3 Inverse Circular Functions 207

1
Solution: Let u = ln x. Then du = dx. If x = 1, then u = 0. If x = e, then u = 1. Thus,
x
Z e Z 1
1 1
dx = du
1 x · 2ln x 2u
0
1 u
Z 1  
= du
0 2
1 u=1
2
= 1


ln 2 u=0
1


2 1
= 1

− 1


ln 2 ln 2
1
=−
2 ln 12

1
=
2 ln 2

ex
Z
 Example 13.13 Evaluate dx.
ex + e−x
Solution: Let u = e2x + 1. Then du = 2e2x dx. Thus,
ex ex e2x
Z Z
· dx = dx
ex + e−x ex e2x + 1
1 1
Z
= du
2 u
1
= ln |u| +C
2
1
= ln |e2x + 1| +C
2

13.3 Inverse Circular Functions

Note that the circular functions are not one-to-one. In order to define the inverse of each
circular function, we restrict its domain to a set over which
1. it is one-to-one
2. and its range remains the same.
 13.4 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions 208

Definition 13.3.1 1. The inverse sine function, denoted sin−1 , is defined as follows:
h π πi
−1
y = sin x if and only if x = sin y, y ∈ − , .
2 2
2. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined as follows:

y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π] .

The other circular functions are defined similarly:

 π π
−1
y = tan x if and only if x = tan y, y∈ − , .
2 2
y = cot−1 x y ∈ (0, π) .
if and only if x = cot y,
h π   3π 
−1
y = sec x if and only if x = sec y, y ∈ 0, ∪ π, .
2 2
 πi  πi
y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y, y ∈ −π, − ∪ 0, .
2 2
 Example 13.14 Evaluate the following.
√ !
3 π
1. sin−1 =
2 3
√ !
3 π
2. tan−1 − =−
3 6
 √  5π
3. sec−1 − 2 =
 √  4
3π
4. csc−1 − 2 = −
4

13.4 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions

1
1. Dx sin−1 x = √


Theorem 13.4.1
1 − x2
1
2. Dx cos−1 x = − √


1 − x2
1
3. Dx tan−1 x =


1 + x2
1
4. Dx cot−1 x = −


1 + x2
1
5. Dx sec−1 x = √


x x2 − 1
 13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions 209

1
6. Dx csc−1 x = − √


x x2 − 1

dy
 Example 13.15 Find dx .
1. y = sin−1 (3x)

dy 1 3
=p ·3 = √
dx 1 − (3x)2 1 − 9x2
2. y = cot−1 (ln x)

 
dy 1 1
= − 2
·
dx 1 + (ln x) x
 y
1
3. = log2 (x − y) − [csc−1 (3x2 )]2
5
 y      
1 1 dy 1 dy −1 2 1
ln = · 1− − 2 csc (3x ) · − √ · 6x
5 5 dx (x − y) ln 2 dx 3x 2 9x4 − 1
 
1 −1 2 6x
− 2 csc (3x ) · − √
dy (x − y) ln 2 3x2 9x4 − 1
=  y  
dx 1 1 1
ln +
5 5 (x − y) ln 2

13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions

The formulas below follow directly from the differentiation formulas we have derived previ-
ously.
du
Z
Theorem 13.5.1 1. √ = sin−1 u +C
1 − u2
du
Z
2. 2
= tan−1 u +C
1 + u
du
Z
3. √ = sec−1 u +C
2
u u −1

If the constant involved is no longer equal to 1, we can use the following generalization.
Theorem 13.5.2 Let a > 0. Then
du u
Z
1. √ = sin−1 +C
a 2 − u2 a
du 1 −1  u 
Z
2. = tan +C
a2 + u2 a a
13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions 210

du 1 u
Z
3. √ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a

1 −1 x
Z  
 Example 13.16 √ dx = sin +C
4 − x2 2
dx
Z
 Example 13.17 Evaluate
2
9x + 25
Solution: Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx. Thus,
dx 1 du
Z Z
2
= 2
9x + 25 3 u + 25
1 1 u
= · tan−1 +C
3 5  5
1 −1 3x
= tan +C
15 5

dx
Z
 Example 13.18 Evaluate p
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8
1
Solution: Let u = ln x. Then du = dx. Thus,
x
dx du
Z Z
p = √
x ln x (ln x)2 − 8 u u2 − 8
 
1 −1 u
= √ sec √ +C
2 2 2 2
 
1 −1 ln x
= √ sec √ +C
2 2 2 2

dx
Z
 Example 13.19 Evaluate √
4x − 4
13.5 Integrals Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions 211

Solution: Let u = 2x . Then du = 2x ln 2 dx. Thus,

dx 2x ln 2
Z Z
√ = p dx
4x − 4 2x ln 2 (2x )2 − 4
1 du
Z
= √
ln 2 u u2 − 4
1 u
= sec−1 +C
2 ln 2 2 x 
1 2
= sec−1 +C
2 ln 2 2
1
sec−1 2x−1 +C


=
2 ln 2

For our next example, we will recall the notion of completing squares. Let a > 0. Express
ax2 + bx + c as a sum (or difference) of a square and a constant.
Technique:
• Divide b by 2
• Square
• Divide by a
b2
 
• Add and subtract the number obtained to the polynomial above.
4a
Hence,
2
b2 b2 √ 4ac − b2

2 2 b
ax + bx + c = ax + bx + − + c = ax + √ +
4a 4a 2 a 4a
. For example,
• 9x2 − 12x + 1 = 9x2 − 12x + 4 − 4 + 1 = (3x − 2)2 − 3
• 9 + 8x − x2 = 9 − (x2 − 8x + 16 − 16) = 9 − (X 2 − 8x + 16) = 25 − (x − 4)2
dx
Z
 Example 13.20 Evaluate √
7 + 6x − x2
 13.6 Exercises 212

Solution:
dx dx
Z Z
√ = p Complete squares!
7 + 6x − x2 7 − (x2 − 6x)
dx
Z
= p
7 − (x2 − 6x + 9 − 9)
dx
Z
= p Let u = x − 3, du = dx
16 − (x − 3)2
du
Z
= √
16 − u2
u
= sin−1 +C
4
 
−1 x − 3
= sin +C
4

8x + 1
Z
 Example 13.21 Evaluate dx
4x2 + 12x + 10
Solution: Let u = 4x2 + 12x + 10. Then du = (8x + 12) dx. Thus,
8x + 1 8x + 12 11
Z Z Z
dx = dx − dx
4x2 + 12x + 10 4x2 + 12x + 10 4x2 + 12x + 10
Let u = 4x2 + 12x + 10, du = (8x + 12) dx
du dx
Z Z
= − 11 dx
u 4x2 + 12x + 9 − 9 + 10
dx
Z
= ln |u| − 11 dx Let v = 2x + 3, dv = 2 dx
(2x + 3)2 + 1
11 1
Z
= ln |u| − 2
dv
2 v +1
11
= ln |u| − tan−1 v +C
2
11
= ln |4x + 12x + 10| − tan−1 (2x + 3) +C
2
2

13.6 Exercises
Exercise 13.1 Evaluate the following integrals:
2−x
Z
1. 2 − 4x
dx
x
log(x3 )
Z
2. dx
x
13.6 Exercises 213

sin(2x) cos(2x)
Z
3. dx
Z 1 + cos(4x)
4. (5cot x − sin x) csc2 x dx

Exercise 13.2 Perform the integration.

2−x
Z
1. dx
x2 − 4x
log4 (x2 )
Z
2. dx
x
1
Z
3. 1 dx
x2 e x
sin(2x) cos(2x)
Z
4. dx
1 + cos(4x)
√ √ !
Z √ 2 x 3 x
5. 3− x √ + dx
x sin(2x)

Exercise 13.3 Perform the antidifferentiation.

8
Z
1. 2
dx
Z x − 6x + 25
2x
2. √ dx
4x − x2

Exercise 13.4 Evaluate the following integrals.

sin(cot−1 (x))
Z
1. dx
x2 + 1
x(x − 2)sec(2x2 e−x )
Z
2. x
dx
e
sec2 x
Z
3. 2
dx
Z 1 − 16 tan x
x
4. √ dx
x2 − 8x
XIV
Week Fourteen

14 Other Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . 215

14.1 Integration by Parts
14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
14.3 Exercises
 14. Other Methods of Integration

At the end of this topic you will:

• Derive the formula for integration by parts.
• Solve integrals by using integration by parts.
• Integrate rational functions by partial fractions.

14.1 Integration by Parts

In this section, we develop a very useful technique, called integration by parts, that will
enable us to find integrals such as
Z Z Z
2 x
x ln x dx x e dx ex cos x dx

Integration by parts is based on the formula for the derivative of a product

d dv du
[uv] = u + v = uv0 + vu0
dx dx dx
where u and v are differntiable functions of x. After integrating both sides of the above
equations we obtain
Z Z Z Z
0 0
uv = uv dx + vu dx = u dv + v du
14.1 Integration by Parts 216

or
Z Z
uv − v du = u dv

and so we have the following theorem.

Theorem 14.1.1 (Integration by Parts)
If u and v are functions of x and have continuous derivatives, then
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

Z
Example 14.1.1 Find xex dx

Solution: So we need to form the integral as in the above theorem. There are only two things
to pick at first, those are, u and dv. Usually, we select u to be the function with a much simpler
derivative and the reamining parts of the integral will be our dv. In our case,

Let u=x and dv = ex dx

Then we differentiate u and we integrate dv. This gives us,

du = dx and v = ex

We will just remove the constant on integration C for v since it will just cancel out in the
integration process later.
Thus we can form now our integral as,

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du
Z Z
xex dx = xex − ex dx

= xex − ex +C

Have you ever wondered on what is the integral for the function f (x) = ln x? Integration
by parts will give us the answer.
Z
Example 14.1.2 Find ln x dx

Solution: So let us form the formula by choosing our u and dv.

14.1 Integration by Parts 217

Let u = ln x and dv = dx

Then we differentiate u and we integrate dv. This gives us,

du = 1x dx and v=x

Thus we can form now our integral as,

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du
1
Z Z
ln x dx = x ln x − x · dx
Z x
= x ln x − dx

= x ln x − x +C

There are times when the integration by parts are to be performed twice as in the following
example.
Z
Example 14.1.3 Find x2 sin x dx

Solution: So let us form the formula by choosing our u and dv.

Let u = x2 and dv = sin x dx

Then we differentiate u and we integrate dv. This gives us,

du = 2x dx and v = − cos x

Thus we can form now our integral as,

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du
Z Z
x2 sin x dx = −x2 cos x − (−2x cos x) dx
Z
= −x2 cos x + 2x cos x dx

Note that the integral on the right-hand-side calls for another integration by parts. So let ud
focus on this integral
 14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 218

Let u = 2x and dv = cos x dx

Then we differentiate u and we integrate dv. This gives us,

du = 2 dx and v = sin x

So,
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du
Z Z
2x cos x dx = 2x sin x − 2 sin x dx

= 2x sin x + 2 cos x +C

Therefore,
Z
x2 sin x dx = −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x +C

14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by
expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know
how to integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions 2/(x − 1) and
1/(x + 2) to a common denominator we obtain
2 1 2(x + 2) − (x − 1) x+5
− = = 2
x−1 x+2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x +x−2
If we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the function on the right side of
this equation:

Z  
x+5 2 1
Z
2
dx = − dx
x +x−2 x−1 x+2
= 2 ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 2| +C

To see how the method of partial fractions works in general, let’s consider a rational
function
P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)
 14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 219

where P and Q are polynomials. It’s possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions
provided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Such a rational function is called
proper. Recall that if

P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where an 6= 0, then the degree of P is n and we write deg(P) = n.

If f is improper, that is, deg(P) ≥ deg(Q), then we must take the preliminary step of
dividing Q into P (by long division) until a remainder R(x) is obtained such that deg(R) <
deg(Q). The division statement is
P(x) R(x)
f (x) = = S(x) +
Q(x) Q(x)
where S and R are also polynomials.
x3 + x
Z
 Example 14.1 Find dx.
x−1
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we
first perform the long division. This enables us to write

x3 + x
Z  
2
Z
2
dx = x +x+2+ dx
x−1 x−1
x3 x2
= + + 2x + 2 ln |x − 1| +C.
3 2

In the case of a rational equations whose denominator is more complicated, the next step is
to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as possible. Then express the proper rational function
R(x)/Q(x) as a sum of partial fractions of the form
A Ax + B
or
(ax + b)i (ax2 + bx + c) j
A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this. We explain the details
for the four cases that occur.

14.2.1 Case I: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

This means that we can write
14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 220

Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk )

where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another). In this case the
partial fraction theorem states that there exist constants A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak such that
R(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + +···+
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 ak x + bk

x2 + 2x − 1
Z
 Example 14.2 Evaluate dx.
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we
don’t need to divide. We factor the denominator as

2x3 + 3x2 − 2x = x(2x2 + 3x − 2) = x(2x − 1)(x + 2)

Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of
the integrand has the form
x2 + 2x − 1 A B C
= + +
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) x 2x − 1 x + 2
To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by the product
of the denominators, x(2x − 1)(x + 2), obtaining

x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) +Cx(2x − 1)

Expanding the right side and writing it in the standard form for polynomials, we get

x2 + 2x − 1 = (2A + B + 2C)x2 + (3A + 2B −C)x − 2A

The polynomials in the previous equation are identical, so their coefficients must be equal.
The coefficient of x2 on the right side, 2A + B + 2C, must equal the coefficient of x2 on the left
side-namely, 1. Likewise, the coefficients of x are equal and the constant terms are equal. This
gives the following system of equations for A, B, and C:

2A + B + 2C = 1
3A + 2B −C = 2
−2A = −1
14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 221

Solving, we get A = 12 , B = 51 , and C = − 10

1
, and so

x2 + 2x − 1
Z  
A B C
Z
dx = + + dx
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x x 2x − 1 x + 2
 
11 1 1 1 1
Z
= + − dx
2 x 5 2x − 1 10 x + 2
1 1 1
= ln |x| + ln |2x − 1| − ln |x + 2| + K
2 10 10
In integrating the middle term we have made the mental substitution u = 2x − 1, which gives
1
du = 2dx and dx = du.
2

R We can use an alternative method to find the coefficients A, B, and C in the

previous example. Let’s choose values of x that simplify the equation

x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) +Cx(2x − 1).

If we put x = 0 in the equation, then the second and third terms on the right side
1
vanish and the equation then becomes −2A = −1, or A = 12 . Likewise, x =
2
1 1 1
gives 5B/4 = and x = −2 gives 10C = −1, so B = and C = − .
4 5 10
dx
Z
 Example 14.3 Find , where a 6= 0.
x 2 − a2
Solution: The method of partial fractions gives
1 1 A B
= = +
x2 − a2 (x − a)(x + a) x − a x + a
and therefore

A(x + a) + B(x − a) = 1

Using the method of the preceding note, we put x = a in this equation and get A(2a) = 1, so
A = 1/(2a). If we put x = −a, we get B(−2a) = 1, so B = −1/(2a). Thus,
Z  
dx 1 1 1
Z
= − dx
x2 − a2 2a x−a x+a
1
= (ln |x − a| − ln |x + a|) +C
2a
Since ln x − ln y = ln(x/y), we can write the integral as
 14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 222

dx 1 x−a
Z
= ln +C
x 2 − a2 2a x+a

14.2.2 Case II: Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.
Suppose the first linear factor (a1 x + b1 ) is repeated r times; that is, (a1 x + b1 )r occurs in the
factorization of Q(x). Then instead of the single term Ai /(a1 x + b1 ), we would use
A1 A2 Ar
+ + · · · +
a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 )2 (a1 x + b1 )r
By way of illustration, we could write
x3 − x + 1 A B C D E
2 3
= + 2+ + 2
+
x (x − 1) x x x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1)3
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z
 Example 14.4 Find dx.
x3 − x2 − x + 1
Solution: The first step is to divide. The result of long division is
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 4x
3 2
= x+1+ 3 2
x −x −x+1 x −x −x+1
The second step is to factor the denominator Q(x) = x3 − x2 − x + 1. Since Q(1) = 0, we
know that x − 1 is a factor and we obtain

x3 − x2 − x + 1 = (x − 1)(x2 − 1) = (x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 1) = (x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Since the linear factor x − 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is
4x A B C
2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 1) x − 1 (x − 1) x+1
Multiplying by the least common denominator, (x − 1)2 (x + 1), we get

4x = A(x − 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) +C(x − 1)2

= (A +C)x2 + (B − 2C)x + (−A + B +C)

Now we equate coefficients:

A +C = 0
B − 2C = 4
−A + B +C = 0
 14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 223

Solving, we obtain A = 1, B = 2, and C = −1, so

Z 4
x − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z  
1 2 1
dx = x+1+ + − dx
x3 − x2 − x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1
x2 2
= + x + ln |x − 1| − − ln |x + 1| + K
2 x−1
x2 2 x−1
= +x− + ln +K
2 x−1 x+1

14.2.3 Case III: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated
If Q(x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 − 4ac < 0, then, the expression for R(x)/Q(x)
will have a term of the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
where A and B are constants to be determined. For instance, the function given by f (x) =
x/[(x − 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)] has a partial fraction decomposition of the form
x A Bx +C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
(x − 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4) x−2 x +1 x +4
2x2 − x + 4
Z
 Example 14.5 Evaluate dx.
x3 + 4x
Solution: Since x3 + 4x = x(x2 + 4) can’t be factored further, we write
2x2 − x + 4 A Bx +C
= + 2
x(x2 + 4) x x +4
Multiplying by x(x2 + 4), we have

2x2 − x + 4 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx +C)x = (A + B)x2 +Cx + 4A

Equating coefficients, we obtain A + B = 2, C = −1, and 4A = 4. Therefore, A = 1, B = 1,

and C = −1 and so,
2x2 − x + 4
Z  
1 x−1
Z
dx = + dx
x3 + 4x x x2 + 4
In order to integrate the second term we split it into two parts:
x−1 x 1
Z Z Z
dx = dx − dx.
x2 + 4 2
x +4 x2 + 4
 14.2 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 224

We make the substitution u = x2 + 4 in the first of these integrals so that du = 2xdx. We

dx 1 −1  x 
Z
evaluate the second integral by means of the previous result, dx = tan +C.
x2 + a2 a a
Therefore,
2x2 − x + 4 1 x 1
Z Z Z Z
dx = dx + dx − dx
x3 + 4x x x2 + 4 x2 + 4
1 1
= ln |x| + ln(x2 + 4) − tan−1 (x/2) + K
2 2

14.2.4 Case IV: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor

If Q(x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r , where b2 − 4ac < 0, then instead of the single partial
fraction, the sum
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ar x + Br
2
+ 2 2
+···+
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)r
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R(x)/Q(x). Each of the terms can be integrated
by using a substitution or by first completing the square if necessary.

 Example 14.6 Write out the form of the partial fraction decomposition of the function
x3 + x2 + 1
.
x(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 1)3
Solution:
x3 + x2 + 1 A B Cx + D Ex + F Gx + H Ix + J
2 2 3
= + + 2 + 2 + 2 2
+ 2
x(x − 1)(x + x + 1)(x + 1) x x − 1 x + x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)3
1 − x + 2x2 − x3
Z
 Example 14.7 Evaluate dx.
x(x2 + 1)2
Solution: The form of the partial fraction decomposition is
1 − x + 2x2 − x3 A Bx +C Dx + E
2 2
= + 2 + 2
x(x + 1) x x + 1 (x + 1)2
Multiplying by x(x2 + 1)2 , we have

−x3 + 2x2 − x + 1 = A(x2 + 1)2 + (Bx +C)x(x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x

= A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + B(x4 + x2 ) +C(x3 + x) + Dx2 + Ex
= (A + B)x4 +Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A

If we equate coefficients, we get the system

 14.3 Exercises 225

A + B = 0, C = −1, 2A + B + D = 2, C + E = −1, A=1

which has the solution A = 1, B = −1, C = −1, D = 1, and E = 0. Thus,

1 − x + 2x2 − x3
Z  
1 x+1 x
Z
dx = + + dx
x(x2 + 1)2 x x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
dx x dx xdx
Z Z Z Z
= − 2
dx − 2
+ dx
x x +1 x +1 (x + 1)2
2

1 1
= ln |x| − ln(x2 + 1) − tan−1 x − 2
+ K.
2 2(x + 1)

14.3 Exercises
Exercise 14.1 Find the following integrals.
Z
1. x2 ex dx
Z
2. e−x cos x dx

Exercise 14.2 Find the following integrals.

x4
Z
1. dx
Z x−1
2
2. dx
2x2 + 3x + 1
x2 + x + 1
Z
3. 2
dx
Z (x + 1) (x + 2)
y
4. dy
(y + 4)(2y − 1)
1
Z
5. 3
dx
x −1
x2 − 3x + 7
Z
6. dx
(x2 − 4x + 6)2
x4 + 9x2 + x + 2
Z
7. dx
x2 + 9
x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 5
Z
8. dx
x4 + 4x2 + 3
XV
Week Fifteen

15 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

15.1 Definition and Examples
15.2 Applications
15.3 Exercises
 15. Improper Integrals

Rb
In defining a definite integral a f (x)dx we dealt with a function f defined on a finite interval
[a, b] and we assumed that f does not have an infinite discontinuity. In this section we extend
the concept of a definite integral to the case where the interval is infinite and also to the case
where f has an infinite discontinuity in [a, b]. In either case the integral is called an improper
integral.
At the end of this topic you will:
• Learn to integrate improper integrals.

15.1 Definition and Examples

Consider the infinite region S that lies under the curve y = 1/x2 , above the x-axis, and to the
right of the line x = 1. You might think that, since S is infinite in extent, its area must be
infinite, but let’s take a closer look. The area of the part of S that lies to the left of the line
x = t (shaded in Figure 15.1) is
Z t t
1 1 1
A(t) = 2
dx = − = 1−
1 x x 1 t
Notice that A(t) < 1 no matter how large t is chosen. We also observe that
15.1 Definition and Examples 228

Figure 15.1: The graph of y = 1/x2

 
1
lim A(t) = lim 1 − =1
t→∞ t→∞ t
The area of the shaded region approaches 1 as t → ∞, so we say that the area of the infinite
region S is equal to 1 and we write
Z t
1 1
Z ∞
dx = lim dx = 1
1 x2 t→∞ 1 x2
Using this example as a guide, we define the integral of f (not necessarily a positive
function) over an infinite interval as the limit of integrals over finite intervals.
Definition 15.1.1
Z t
(1) If f (x)dx exists for every number t ≥ a, then
a
Z ∞ Z t
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
a t→∞ a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

Z b
(2) If f (x)dx exists for every number t ≤ b, then
t
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
−∞ t→−∞ t

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

Z ∞ Z b
The improper integrals f (x)dx and f (x)dx are called convergent if the correspond-
a −∞
ing limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.
Z ∞ Z b
(3) If both f (x)dx and f (x)dx are convergent, then we define
a −∞
Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
−∞ −∞ a
15.1 Definition and Examples 229

where a is any real number.

1
Z ∞
 Example 15.1 Determine whether the integral dx is convergent or divergent.
1 x
Solution: From the first part of the definition,
Z t
1 1
Z ∞
dx = lim dx
1 x t→∞ 1 x
t
= lim ln |x|
t→∞ 1

= lim (lnt − ln 1)
t→∞

= lim lnt
t→∞

=∞

1
Z ∞
The limit does not exist as a finite number and so the improper integral dx is divergent.
1 x
Z −2
1
 Example 15.2 Evaluate dx.
−∞ x2
Solution:
Z −2 Z −2
1 1
dx = lim dx
−∞ x2 t→−∞ t x2
  −2
−1
= lim
t→−∞ x t
 
1 1 1
= lim + =
t→−∞ 2 t 2
Since the limit exists, this integral converges.
It may seem puzzling that the areas under the curve f (x) = 1/x2 are finite, while f x) = 1/x
has an infinite amount of area. At first glance the graphs of these functions appear similar. The
difference is that although all two functions get small as x becomes infinitely large, f (x) = 1/x
does not become small enough fast enough.
Z ∞
 Example 15.3 Evaluate 4e−3x dx.
−∞
Solution: In the definition of an improper integral with limits of −∞ and ∞, the value of a is
arbitrary, so we’ll choose the simple value a = 0. Then
Z ∞ Z 0 Z ∞
4e−3x dx = 4e−3x dx + 4e−3x dx.
−∞ −∞ 0
15.1 Definition and Examples 230

1 1
Z ∞ Z ∞
Figure 15.2: (Left) 2
dx converges; (right) dx diverges
1 x 1 x

By definition,
Z ∞ Z t
−3x
4e dx = lim 4e−3x dx
0 t→∞ 0
−4 −3x t
 
= lim e
t→∞ 3
 0
−4 4
= lim +
t→∞ 3e3t 3
4 4
= 0+ =
3 3
and
Z 0 Z 0
4e−3x dx = lim 4e−3x dx
−∞ t→−∞ t

−4 −3x 0
 
= lim e
t→−∞ 3 t
 
4 4
= lim − + 3t
t→−∞ 3 3e
=∞

Since one of the two improper integrals diverges, the original improper integral diverges.
Z 0
 Example 15.4 Evaluate xex dx.
−∞
Solution: From the second part of the definition,
Z 0 Z 0
x
xe dx = lim xex dx.
−∞ t→−∞ t
15.1 Definition and Examples 231

We integrate by parts with u = x, dv = ex dx so that du = dx, v = ex :

Z 0 Z 0
x
xe dx = xex |t0 − ex dx
t t

= −te − 1 + et
t

We know that et → 0 as t → −∞, and by L’Hospital’s Rule we have

t
lim tet = lim
t→−∞ t→−∞ e−t
1
= lim
t→−∞ −e−t

= lim (−et ) = 0
t→−∞

Therefore,
Z 0
xex dx = lim (−tet − 1 + et )
−∞ t→−∞

= −0 − 1 + 0 = −1.

1
Z ∞
 Example 15.5 Evaluate 2
dx.
−∞ 1 + x
Solution: It’s convenient to choose a = 0:
Z 0
1 1 1
Z ∞ Z ∞
2
dx = 2
dx + dx.
−∞ 1 + x −∞ 1 + x 0 1 + x2
By definition,
Z t
1 1
Z ∞
dx = lim dx
0 1 + x2 t→∞ 0 1 + x2
t
= lim tan−1 x
t→∞ 0

= lim (tan−1 t − tan−1 0)

t→∞

= lim tan−1 t
t→∞
π
=
2
 15.2 Applications 232

and
Z 0 Z 0
1 1
2
dx = lim dx
−∞ 1 + x t→∞ t 1 + x2
0
= lim tan−1 x
t→∞ t

= lim (tan−1 0 − tan−1 t)

t→∞
 π
= 0− −
2
π
= .
2
1
Z ∞
π π
Therefore, 2
dx = + = π.
−∞ 1 + x 2 2

15.2 Applications

The following examples describe applications of improper integrals.

 Example 15.6 — Pollution. The rate at which a pollutant is being dumped into a stream at
time t is given by P0 e−kt , where P0 is the rate that the pollutant is initially released into the
stream. Suppose P0 = 1000 and k = 0.06. Find the total amount of the pollutant that will be
released into the stream into the indefinite future.

Solution: We are going to find

Z ∞ Z ∞
P0 e−kt dt = 1000e−0.06t dt
0 0

Now,
Z ∞ Z b
1000e−0.06t dt = lim 1000e−0.06t dt
0 b→∞ 0
1000 −0.06t b
 
= lim e
b→∞ −0.06 0
 
1000 1000
= lim −
b→∞ −0.06e0.06b −0.06e0
−1000
=
−0.06
≈ 16, 667

A total of approximately 16,667 units of the pollutant will be released over time.
 15.3 Exercises 233

The capital value of an asset is often defined as the present value of all future net earnings
of the asset. In other words, suppose an asset provides a continuous money flow that is invested
in an account earning a certain rate of interest. A lump sum is invested in a second account
earning the same rate of interest, but with no money flow, so that as t∞, the amounts in the
two accounts approach each other. The lump sum necessary to make this happen is the capital
value of the asset. If R1t2 gives the annual rate at which earnings are produced by an asset at
time t, then the present value formula gives the capital value as
Z ∞
R(t)e−rt dt
0
where r is the annual rate of interest, compounded continuously.

 Example 15.7 — Capital Value. Suppose income from a rental property is generated at the
annual rate of Php 400,000 per year. Find the capital value of this property at an interest rate
of 10% compounded continuously.

This is a continuous income stream with a rate of flow of Php 400,000 per year, so
R(t) = 400, 000. Also, r = 0.10 or 0.1. The capital value is given by
Z ∞
400, 000e−0.1t dt = lim 400, 000e−0.1t dt
0 b→∞
  b
400, 000 −0.1t
= lim e
b→∞ −0.1 0
−0.1b
= lim (−4, 000, 000e + 4, 000, 000) = 4, 000, 000
b→∞

or Php 4,000,000.

15.3 Exercises
Exercise 15.1 Determine whether each improper integral converges or diverges, and find
the value of each that converges.
1
Z ∞
1. 3
dx
Z3∞ (x + 1)
2
2. √
3
dx
27 x
Z −1
3. (x − 2)−3 dx
Z−∞
0
4. 5e60x dx
−∞
15.3 Exercises 234
Z −1
2x − 1
5. dx
−∞ x2 − x
 Bibliography

[1] James Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Eighth Edition, Cengage Learning,
USA, 2014.

[2] Margaret L. Lial, Raymond N. Greenwell, and Nathan P. Ritchey, Calculus with Applica-
tions, 11th edition, Pearson Education Limited , 2017.

[3] Raymond A. Barnett, Micahel R. Ziegler, and Karle E. Byleen, Calculus for business,
economics, life sciences, and social sciences, 13th edition, Pearson Education Inc., 2015.

[4] Laurence Hoffman, Gerald Bradley, Dave Sobecki, and Michael Price, Calculus for
business, economics, social and life sciences, 11th edition, The MC Graw Hill Inc., 2013.