Design Thinking Process Model Review

A systematic literature review of current Design Thinking models in practice

Lukas Waidelich1, Alexander Richter1, Bernhard Kölmel1 and Rebecca Bulander1

1
IoS3 - Institute of Smart Systems and Services
Pforzheim University, Tiefenbronner Str. 65
Pforzheim, Germany
{[Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]}@[Link]

Abstract— The presented research provides an overview of One approach for solving this problem is the DT method
thirty-five analyzed process models in the field of Design Thinking [2]. DT can be used as a team-based process model, which
for application in a practical environment. The overall objective is supports interdisciplinary teams during the problem solution
a comparison of Design Thinking process models according to a phase of a design process. Thereby the expression “design” is
number of process steps and their specific terminology. The
not only applied in terms of designing a product, service or
structure of the paper is as follows: First, an introduction helps the
readers to become involved in the topic. Second the methodology business model but the focus is also on the manner in which
of the systematic literature review and the focus of this paper are designers work, meaning the perspective is not the object which
explained. Afterwards, the results of the literature review are a designer creates but the approach how designers solve
presented. Then in the next step the key findings are discussed. problems is at the centre of the DT method. As a practical
The paper concludes with a summary of the main findings and example, design thinkers develop empathy for the end user,
provides an outlook of future research tasks. redefine the problem, combine different perspectives,
brainstorm solutions and develop prototypes í which is beyond
Keywords—Design Thinking, Literature review, Design the scope of designing a product[3].
Thinking models, Design Thinking process model, Design Thinking
characteristics. Design Thinking methods. Design Thinking phases. This approach allows the discussion of diverse issues,
Uebernickel et al. [4] elucidated that the DT method included
I. INTRODUCTION questions like: “How could families and married couples design
Lauded as a panacea Design Thinking (DT) is one of the furniture which is attractive for both young and old people as
most promising concepts in today’s business world in the well as being useful and suitable for the disabled” or “How
context of innovation methods. Coming from the heart of could the traceability of medical samples in hospitals be
Silicon Valley in California, developed at Stanford University, significantly improved by digitalization” or “A medicine must
refined by IDEO and supported through Hasso Plattner, one of not cost more than one euro per bottle. The available
the founders of SAP, to Germany, this is the briefly summarised components already cost more than two euros today. How do
story of DT [1]. you solve the problem?” [4]. This demonstrated the vast areas
of application the DT method could be used for.
Nowadays, a complex framework of different factors is
affecting the business world. Besides new trends driven by Once more, a practical example of developed products is
emerging technologies, globalization processes, changing given by using the DT approach. The impressive success story
customer requirements of private, business and governmental of Apple as the most powerful brand in the world in 2017 has
customers, companies have had to adjust their offers to provide already been written, the products, the services and the
new solutions to the market. As a consequence, the product or ecosystem are well known [5]. Moreover, Apple’s innovations
service life cycle is becoming shorter, stiff competition prevails are triggered and performed using the DT approach. The first
and a major effort for winning customers and maintain market Apple computer mouse can be seen as an example. The
shares has started. This has proved more of a challenge for the innovation was a creation of Apple engineers and members of
current business environment than ever before. Overall, the IDEO which was a part of Stanford University, regarded as the
current situation are leading to a conflict among existing inventor of the DT method [1,6].
business tools and methods, which were used in the past, but It is recognized that DT has been experiencing a boom in the
will not fit with future requirements of product or service economy in the last decade, because its practical framework
development. To sustain and improve competitiveness and leads to clear benefits for companies as displayed above [1].
profitability permanently, companies should seek new Nevertheless, the DT process varies considerably and a
possibilities by applying a new tool and method set to create consistent and coherent model does not exist so far. This paper
(added) value to their customers [2]. focuses on different published DT process models and displays
the different characteristics. The study described in this paper

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 was conducted in the form of a rigorous literature review. The TABLE 1 APPLIED TAXONOMY OF COOPER [7]
paper is structured as follows. First, the research methods are
described and in the following step the initial results of the Characteristic Categories
search for relevant literature are summarized. Afterwards key Resaerch Research Applications
(1) Focus Theories
outcomes methods
findings are presented which are based on the analysis of the Central issues
(2) Goal Integration Criticism
literature. Finally, the results of this analysis are summarized
and discussed, and conclusions are drawn. Moreover, the Methodology-
(3) Organisation Historical Conceptual
ical
conclusion provides an outlook and the proposed next research
steps. (4) Perspective Neutral representation Espousal of position
Specialsied General Practioners/ General
(5) Audience
II. METHODOLOGY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW scholars scholars politicians public
Exhaus- Central/
Literature research can be considered as a summary of Representa-
(6) Coverage Exhaustive tive and pivotal
tive
existing literature and at the same time creates a broad selective
framework for the following investigation [7].
The perspective of the authors is considered to be a neutral
The applied method of literature research is based on representation, because of the authors’ aim to provide a non-
Brocke et al [7], that combines the process models of Cooper committed point of view for the reader. The paper addresses
[8] and Webster & Watson [9]. As a result of this combination, readers who are interested in the DT topic and who are looking
Brocke et al. defines a five-phase model which is displayed in for knowledge on the existing models and how they differ. The
figure 1. underlying literature research is not exhaustive, as the recent
increase in publications is beyond the scope of this paper.
Hence, an overview of current theories and practical
applications is presented, aiming for a representative literature
search within the established priorities.

B. Conceptualisation of the topic

The topic is conceptualized in phase II. This is done in the
current paper by means of brainstorming and systematic
mapping of topics on a canvas that helped the research team to
generate a common point of view on the analysed subject.

C. Literature search
Phase III describes the procedure during the literature
search. To provide a better understanding how the authors
performed the systematic literature search figure 2 displays the
overall literature search process in detail.
First of all, the framework conditions are defined.
Therefore, the key terms are set. The underlying literature
research uses the combination of two keywords sets. The first
set is “Design Thinking” which is linked by OR with the second
set which contains different terms like “Process”, “Model”,
Fig. 1 Process Model used for literature research according
to Brocke et al. [7] “Practice”, “Practitioners” and “Application” to set the focus on
the topic of the paper. The terms are searched for in both
English and German.
A. Definition of review scope
Phase I defines the different characteristics of the literature In addition, the media types are established based on Brocke
review. This method is based on the taxonomy of Cooper [8] et al. [7]. The sources of the current paper consist of textbooks
and illustrated in table 1. The focus of this academic paper is on (including chapters of textbooks), latest journals papers as well
DT theories, which are highlighted in table 1. In addition, DT as web documents. The aim of this selection is to cover a wide
applications are also in the scope of this paper. The target of the range of perspectives and to include practice relevant models.
paper is to highlight central issues on DT process models. Different databases are selected for all three source types. Peer-
Besides this main objective, a comparison of existing models is reviewed papers in a journal are searched for in up-to-date
conducted and the individual models are subsequently databases such as, ScienceDirect, Emerald Insight and the
criticised. Furthermore, the concept style is characterized as search engine Google Scholar. Springer is used as the central
conceptual. The different models are listed in a table which database for the research of textbooks. Web documents are
allows a comparison. researched through the support of a web search engine like
Google.

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 Subsequently, the relevant literature is transferred into a
Microsoft Excel table where the findings are firstly compared
by means of type of publication, year of publication and
language. Thereafter, the table is extended with information
about the individual models like number of process steps and
exact definition. The table is displayed in the third chapter.

E. Research Agenda
Finally, phase V aims to identify research fields using the
so-called Research Agenda. It deals with the topics that are
underrepresented in current literature. Thereby, a
recommendation can be given which concepts can be
components of future research. The findings for the research
agenda are summarized and explained in the following chapters.

III. RESULTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter comprises the outcomes of the research agenda
which is described in chapter two. First, the different DT
Fig. 2 Process of literature search, analysis and synthesis of underlying process models and their characteristics are introduced in a
systematic literature review in detail literature context. Thereafter the focus is on a content-wise
basis, considering the comparison of different models along the
The next process is the performing of the electric search. DT stages including the number of process steps per model as
Besides the entered keywords the search settings in the database well as the definition per stage. Thereafter, a description of the
for papers are set to journals and conferences, books and DT phases and the applied methods during the different stages
chapters in books are focussed on in database for textbooks are provided in brief.
whereas the web search focusses on documents. Moreover, the
timeframe is set taking the last ten years into account. The first A. DT process models in a literature context
100 hits of all kinds of researched publications are taken into As stated in chapter two the aim of this paper is to identify
account, which are sorted by relevance in advance. In total 500 different DT process models. Therefor several sources were
sources are identified within that step with the objective to taken into account. Overall, thirty-five different models from
identify as many DT process models as possible in the course several authors were identified during the literature analysis and
of this work. synthesis phase described in section II.D. Table 2 visualizes the
D. Literature analysis and synthesis result of the literature research sorted in alphabetical sequence.
However, a closer consideration of the sources indicates that
Phase IV covers the literature analysis and synthesis of the Plattner, Meinel and Weinberg published one DT process
collected literature. This is done by a four-step filter approach model in 2009 based on their experience from the Hasso-
to obtain the final document list. These steps are valid for all Platter-Institute and Stanford University [10]. Later, all authors
three types of research (journal papers, textbooks and internet published advancements of the origin process model. In 2011
sources) (refer to figure 2). Platter and Meinel released their updated DT model, Weinberg
The first kind of filter refers to the published title. The followed in 2012 and Meinel published an advanced DT model
presence document must be related to the DT topic. If this with Thienen in 2016 [11–13]. In total, Meinel is considered in
requirement is fulfilled the literature is taken into account this literature review three times. Taking a closer look at the
further. Second, the abstract is researched. There, the existing various types of publications it can be stated that journal papers
literature must show elements of DT referring to process, are the main basis for this literature review. Seventeen DT
model, practice or applications. If this requirement is also process models were found in journal papers. Journal papers are
fulfilled the literature is considered further. Further on, the full followed in this list by textbooks with thirteen entries. Eleven
text is filtered. If the document contains or refers to a DT of them are full textbooks on this topic and two are included as
process model it is put into the final selection. The final step is a chapter in a textbook. Furthermore, four citations are web
the redundancy analysis, where redundant entries from journal documents. One model refers to the publication type of a thesis.
papers, textbooks and internet sources are eliminated. This Considering the year of publication, the following statements
process step leads to the result of the final generation of relevant can be made. The first analysed release was in 2008, followed
literature for DT process models. Overall, the final document by two publications in 2009, 2010 and 2011 as well as three
list contains thirty-five DT process models, thereof seventeen releases in 2012, 2013 and 2014. The year 2015 displays four
are journal papers, thirteen are textbooks and five are internet publications. The DT theme is topical; this shows the number
documents. of publications of six releases in the years 2016 and seven
published documents in 2017 respectively.

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 TABLE 2 ANALYSED DESIGN THINKING MODELS Even two documents out of 2018 are considered. Finally, yet
Characteristics of the model importantly, the publishing language was reviewed. Seventeen
Process model after Type of Year of literary compositions are written in the English language, the
Language
publication publication rest is authored in German.
Ambrose and Harris [14] Textbook 2010 English
B. DT process models in a content-related context
Avenarius [15] Web document 2012 German
This section elucidates the researched DT process models in
Beaird et al.[16] Journal paper 2018 English a content-related context. After providing an overview of the
number of process steps, the terminology of DT phases is
Brown [10] Textbook 2008 German
discussed. Finally, the description of the DT phases and the
Chou [17] Journal paper 2018 English applied methods are discussed with an example.
Clune and Lockrey [18] Journal paper 2014 English
1) Terminology comparison of DT process phases
Engchuan [3] Thesis 2012 German
The objective of this paper is to identify, present and
Ewin et al. [19] Journal paper 2017 English
compare the different DT process models available in literature.
Fabri et al. [20] Journal paper 2016 English Therefore, table 3 Design Thinking stages according to
Geissdoerfer et al. [21] Journal paper 2016 English investigated models was created to provide an overview.
Besides the authors, it contains the number of process steps and
Gerstbach [22] Textbook 2016 German the name of each phase. The terms of the German process
Gloger [23]
Chapter in
2017 German models were translated according to the best of the authors’
Textbook knowledge and belief plus checked by a native speaker.
Goodspeed et al. [24] Journal paper 2016 English
Before the individual process models are discussed in detail,
Grots [6] Journal paper 2009 German figure 3 displays an exemplary process model. In this case
Gürtler and Mayer [25] Textbook 2013 German Plattner and Meinel have been used [11].
IDEO [26] Web document 2013 English

Ingle [27] Textbook 2013 English

Katoppo and Sudradjat
Journal paper 2015 English
[28]
Kretzschmar [29] Web document 2015 German

Lewis et al. [30] Journal paper 2017 English

Liedtka and Ogilvie [10] Textbook 2011 German

Fig. 3 Exemplary presentation of a process model [11]
Liedtka [31] Journal paper 2014 English

McCarthy [32] Journal paper 2017 German

Brown’s, Chou’s and Whang’s et al model consist in total
of three stages, which describe the whole process [10,17,38].
Meinel and Thienen [13] Journal paper 2016 German Clune and Lockrey, Gerstbach, Liedtka and Ogilvie, Liedtka,
Nielsen and Stovang [33] Journal paper 2015 English McCarthy and Sonntag use four stages in their model
[10,18,22,31,32,36]. The authors Beaird et al., [Link], Ewin
Plattner and Meinel [11] Textbook 2011 English
et al., Fabri et al., Gloger, Goodspeed et al., IDEO, Ingle, Lewis
Plattner, Meinel and et al., Meinel and Thienen, Shapira et al. as well as Uebernickel
Textbook 2009 German
Weinberg [10]
propose 5 stages per model [4,10,13,16,19,20,23,24,26,27,30,
[Link] [10,34] Textbook 2010 German
35]. In total twelve process models consist of six stages among
Schallmo [10] Textbook 2017 German the models of Avenarius, Engchuan, Geissdoerfer et al., Grots,
Gürtler and Mayer, Katoppo and Sudradjat, Kretzschmar,
Shapira et al. [35] Journal paper 2017 English
Nielsen and Stovang, Plattner and Meinel, Plattner, Meinel and
Sonntag [36] Journal paper 2014 German Weinberg, Weinberg and Weissmann [3,6,10–
Uebernickel [4] Textbook 2015 German 12,15,21,25,28,29,33,37]. The most extensive models
Chapter in
according to number of process steps with seven steps refer to
Weinberg [12] 2012 German Ambrose and Harris as well as Schallmo [10,14]. In doing so,
Textbook
Weissmann [37] Web document 2016 German particularly closely related terms are grouped together. The
most mentioned term is “Ideation/Ideate” with thirty mentions,
Whang et al.[38] Journal paper 2017 English followed by “Prototype/Prototyping” with twenty-two counts.
Ranked in third to fifth position the terms “Testing/Test”,
“Define” and “Understand/Understanding” with twenty,
seventeen and fourteen citations.

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 TABLE 3 DESIGN THINKING STAGES ACCORDING TO INVESTIGATED MODELS

Characteristics of investigated Design Thinking model stages

Process model after Number of
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 7
process steps
Ambrose and Harris [14] 7 Define Research Ideate Prototype Select Implement Learn

6 Understanding Studying/ Definition Ideation Prototyping Testing

Avenarius [15]
observation
Beaird et al.[16] 5 Empathize Define Ideate Prototype Test

Brown [10] 3 Inspiration Ideation Implementing

Chou [17] 3 Inspiration Ideation Implementation

Why are the
Problem Problem Definition/ practices as they Validating alternatives
Clune and Lockrey [18] 4
Exploration Synthesis are, what are the and developing a plan
alternatives?
5 Emphasize Define Ideate Prototype Test
[Link] [10,34]
(task)
6 Understand Studying/ Define point of Ideation Prototyping Testing
Engchuan [3]
Observation view
Ewin et al. [19] 5 Empathise Define Ideate Prototype Test

Fabri et al. [20] 5 Emphasise Define Ideate Prototype Test

Geissdoerfer et al. [21] 6 Understand Observe Define Ideate Prototype Test

4 Empathies Definition Ideation Experimentation

Gerstbach [22]
(Problem)
Gloger [23] 5 Discovery Interpretation Ideation Experimentation Evolution

Goodspeed et al. [24] 5 Empathize Define Ideate Prototype Test

Grots [6] 6 Understand Observe Synthesis Idea generation Prototyping Testing

Gürtler and Mayer [25] 6 Understand Research Synthesis Ideation Prototyping Testing

IDEO [26] 5 Discovery Interpretation Ideation Experimentation Evolution

Ingle [27] 5 Understand Define Ideate Prototype Test

Katoppo and Sudradjat 6 Understand Observe Define point of Ideate Prototype Test
[28] view
6 Understand Observe Define point-of- Ideate Prototype Iterate
Kretzschmar [29]
View
Lewis et al. [30] 5 Empathy Define Ideate Prototype Test

Liedtka and Ogilvie [10] 4 What is? What if? What wows? What works?

Liedtka [31] 4 What is? What if? What wows? What works?

McCarthy [32] 4 Discover Define Develop Deliver

Meinel and Thienen [13] 5 Emphasize Define persona Ideation Test prototypes Bring home

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 Characteristics of investigated Design Thinking model stages
Process model after Number of
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Phase 7
process steps
Envision the Sense future Interact with Novel
Nielsen and Stovang [33] 6 Go to theory Discover the present
future potential others artefacts
Plattner and Meinel [11] 6 Understand Observe Point of view Ideate Prototype Test

Plattner, Meinel and 6 Understand Observe Point of view Ideate Prototype Test
Weinberg [10]
7 Definition Understand (Design Define point of Ideate Prototyping Testing Integration
Schallmo [10] (Design challenge) view (Prototyping) (Prototyping)
Challenge)
Shapira et al. [35] 5 Discovery Interpretation Ideation Experimentation Evolution

Sonntag [36] 4 Understand Definition Ideation Prototyping

5 Problem Need Finding and Ideation Prototyping and Test

Uebernickel [4] definition / re- Synthesis Storytelling
definition
6 Understand Observe Define point of Ideate Prototyping Testing
Weinberg [12]
view
6 Understand Observe (Customer) Define Point-of- Ideation Prototyping Testing
Weissmann[37]
(Problem) View
Iteration/
Whang et al.[38] 3 Inspiration ideation
implementation

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 of a DT process model. During that stage, ideas are generated
Afterwards the terms “Observe” (ten citations), “Point of
to develop a suitable solution for the initial question. This is a
view” and “Emphasize” (both eight citations),
core element in the DT method which thirty out of thirty-five
“Discovery/Discover” (five citations), “Experimentation“ and
models have in common [14]. The term “Prototype/
“Implementation/Implementing” (both have four mentions),
Prototyping” is also crucial, a majority of the researched models
“Evolution”, “Inspiration” “Interpretation” and “Synthesis” (all
include the term. The ideas out of the ideation phase can be
four have three mentions), follow. Overall, the terms
prototyped in different ways to visualize a possible solution [6].
“Research”, “What works?” “What is?”, “What works?” and
“What wows?” are mentioned twice. In total, fifteen notions are This section deals with the evolution and the gradual
mentioned just once: “Bring home”, “Deliver”, “Develop”, development of the DT process models discovered. The origin
“Envision the future”, “Go to theory”, “Integration”, “Interact of DT is the design company IDEO with David Kelly as founder
with others”, “Iterate”, “Learn”, “Novel artefacts”, “Problem and his brother Tom Kelly, who coined the term DT as indicated
Exploration”, “Select”, “Sense future potential”, “Validating above. In 2008 David Brown, at that time CEO of IDEO
alternatives and developing a plan” and “Why are the published an article in the Harvard Business Review to explain
practices?”. the DT approach of IDEO and outlined a three step DT process
model [10]. Later in 2012, IDEO published a toolkit with the
2) Description of DT phases title “Design Thinking for Educators” with the purpose to show
As determined in the section Terminology comparison of how to use DT in the education system. This toolkit was
DT process phases there is no standardized model with defined updated in 2013 [26]. The process model according to Plattner,
phases. For this reason, each author has to explain exactly what Meinel and Weinberg, which was published in 2009, is based
is included in each individual phase and how the phases fit on experiences out of several DT projects. It was used in the
together. As an example, Schallmo provides a structured Hasso-Plattner-Institute School (HPI) of Design Thinking in
description of his model. First he elucidated the objectives of Potsdam as well as in Stanford University in Paolo Alto at the
each phase, explains the activities which have to be performed Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, which is called [Link] in
to reach the objectives and last he provides an overview of an abbreviated form [12]. In 2010 the [Link] [26] published a
expected results per phase [10]. A full comparison of DT further model which has conceptual similarities with Plattner,
descriptions is useful but out of the scope of this paper. Meinel and Weinberg [10] because of their cooperation. The
3) Applied methods in DT phases head of the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design is David Kelly
Furthermore, the DT process is a set of various methods, [10].
which are applied to achieve the best possible result. As Furthermore, a few of the researched models refer to the
mentioned in the preceding section, there is no standardized DT above mentioned models according to Plattner, Meinel and
process model, which leads to the result that there are no Weinberg, [Link] and from IDEO and show remarkable
standardized method sets in DT either. This is the reason why similarities. Overall Plattner, Meinel and Weinberg form the
each author uses different methods in different phases. basis for ten of the thirty-five models discovered. Besides
Continuing with the Schallmo example, he proposed different Engchuan,Geissdoerfer et al., Grots, Gürtler and Mayer,
methods per phase to reach the objective. For example, in the Katoppo and Sudradjat, Kretzschmar, Meinel and Thienen,
third phase “Define point of view” he recommends the Plattner and Meinel, Weinberg as well as Weissmann all refer
combination of the methods “User Empathy Map” and “User to the original model [3,6,11–13,21,25,28,29,37].Furthermore,
Journey” to concentrate the results through the method “User eight models including Beaird et al., Ewin et al., Fabri et al.,
Needs” [10]. Besides the description of DT phases, the applied Goodspeed et al., Gürtler and Mayer, Kretzschmar, Lewis et al.
methods in DT phases are an interesting research area, but are and Weissmann also refer to the approach of [Link]
not included in the scope of this paper. [16,19,20,24,25,29,30,37].Moreover, IDEO is also the basis for
IV. GENERATION OF KEY FINDINGS the process models of Gloger, Kretzschmar and Shapira et al.
[23,29,35]. Besides, the authors Chou and Whang et al. refer to
After the theoretical analysis of the twenty-two examined the original DT process model from Brown [17,38].
DT process models displayed in chapter three, this chapter deals As Conclusion, for the most parts English literature
with the interpretation of the findings. Besides finding referencing to [Link] and Brown, whereas German literary
similarities in the models, the focus is also on identified works are based on Plattner, Meinel and Weinberg respectively
differences during this research. HPI of Design Thinking in Potsdam.
A. Similarities of DT process models B. Differences of DT process models
First, the results of the subchapter terminology comparison This section investigates the differences of the DT process
of DT process phases are discussed, subsequent developed models discovered.
models are highlighted and finally similar models are
contrasted. First, the majority of the reviewed models starts with the
phase “Understand/ Understanding”. Ingle, Kretzschmar,
The phase „Ideation/ Ideate” is most frequently mentioned. Plattner, Meinel and Weinberg as well as Sonntag can be cited
This implies that the ideation phase is an essential component as examples [11,27,29,36]. In contrast, Ambrose and Harris,

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 Clune and Lockrey, Schallmo and Uebernickel place the used in a majority of the models and it seems that they are
“(Problem) Definition” at the starting point of their models. In crucial elements in DT process models.
this case the starting position including an initial objective is
B. Discussion
not seen as a given and has to be developed in the first step
[4,10,14,18]. Kretzschmar describes a “Definition” phase, but It should be noted, as already mentioned, that this literature
does not explicitly dedicate an own stage for that phase [29]. review makes no claim to be complete but is instead intended
to provide a broad overview of DT process models in practice.
The second remark deals with the duration of the models
discovered. Most models like Avenarius, Engchuan and Grots Ten years have elapsed since the basic research of DT
end at least with the phase “Testing/ Test” [3,6,15]. process models arose from the IDEO, [Link] and Hasso-
Nevertheless, there are exceptional cases. According to the Plattner-Institute School of Design Thinking network. During
models discovered, some process models go along with the this period, DT has earned a reputation in the area/sector of
implementation phase. Ambrose and Harris, Brown, Meinel education and industry at the same time. Hasso Plattner claimed
and Thienen as well as Schallmo can be cited as authors who that more than 100 research projects have been conducted since
include the implementation and the planned market launch the Design Thinking research program was founded in 2008. In
phase as essential stages in the DT process [10,13,14]. Another parallel the DT approach has subsequently been further
difference is the fact that there is no clear separation in terms of developed by deepening the scientific understanding of the
“Prototype/ Prototyping” and “Testing/ Test”. Brown underlying principles gained out of the research projects. This
summarises ideate, prototype and test in the phase “Ideation”. knowledge was conveyed to both students and professionals,
At the same time the final prototype is described as a part of the who apply the DT concept in practice. This could probably be
phase “Implementing” [10]. There are parallels to Brown in one of the reasons why several process models are based on this
Gerstbach’s process model, where the “Prototype/ Prototyping” above-mentioned network [39].
and “Testing/ Test” phase is part of the phase As stated by Meinel and Thienen, there are several
“Experimentation” [22]. The four stages model according to comparable models available today [13]. This literature also
Sonntag does not include a test as a separate stage. Sonntag checks the claim that a few researchers have worked out
includes the test and evaluation in the “Prototyping” phase [36]. different process models with remarkably similar results.
The DT process model of Weinberg is visualized and refers Nevertheless, there are several approaches, which differ in a
to the Hasso-Plattner-Institute School of Design Thinking. The significant way to the original model of Brown.
individual phases are not clearly specified [12]. Moreover, there is a trend towards models with more phases
Nielsen and Stovang present a striking example of DT process describing the approach more in detail. In 2008, Brown
model, which was developed by DesUni. The six-step approach described the DT framework with three phases. In contrary
of DesUni education is addressed to teachers to provide Schallmo described the DT approach in an in-depth discussion
students with an understanding of DT [33]. in 2017 by using seven phases [10].
C. Further Research
V. CONCLUSION As has already been discussed in the chapter Results of
This chapter combines and concludes the literature review Literature Review in the section DT process models in a
of thirty-five published DT process models in practice. content-related context, the specific terms have been identified,
Beginning with the main findings of this paper, leading over to contrasted and compared within this paper. As a future research
a brief discussion as a result of chapter four. Afterwards, further task, it is intended to focus on the description of each phase per
research questions are formulated. This paper closes with an author identified in the present paper. This is an important area
outlook of future research tasks. for future research, as well as the applied method sets
established during each phase. As a further benefit, all three
A. Main findings
parts could form a unified DT picture. Out of this newly gained
The literature research of DT process models is based on a knowledge an own improved DT process model could be
broad range of published documents like journal papers, generated or an existing one could be improved through the
textbooks and web documents leading to the result of thirty-five recombination of different method sets or through new findings.
researched models. The models and terminology of the
individual phases are displayed in the subchapter terminology D. Outlook
comparison of DT process phases. The influence of the English The outcome of the described further research needs can be
authored publications is characterized through [Link]. On the a new or improved DT model. This model requires a validation
other side are DT process models in the German language in practice e.g. in cooperation with companies, start-ups or in
coined through Plattner, Meinel and Weinberg or the Hasso- education. Afterwards, the feedback from practice applications
Plattner institute who are the pioneers in the field of Design should be used to further improve the model. Subsequently a
Thinking in practice. Additionally Brown and IDEO are all best practice approach using the DT model should be published.
significant preconditions for other models. Furthermore, the This could conceivably be in the form of a DT guideline or
elements “Ideation/ Ideate” and “Prototype/ Prototyping” are handbook.

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