Module 4

•Communication Schèmes:
• Modern Communication System Schème

• Information Source, An Input Transducer, Transmitter, Channel Or Medium – Hardwired And Soft
Wired, Noise, Receiver,

•Multiplexing,
•Types Of Communication Systems.

•Types Of Modulation – AM, FM,

• Concept Of Radio Wave Propagation (Space, Sky)

•Elementary Concepts Of

1. Satellite Communication,

2. Mobile Communication
3. Fiber Optic Communication.

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 MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM SCHEME
• Communication -is the science and practice of transmitting information
from one point to another.
• Communication engineering - The techniques of transmitting information.
• Eg: Electrical communication, in which information is transmitted through
electrical signals.
– Electrical communication is a process by which the information/message is
transmitted from one point to another, from one person to another, or from
place to another in the form of electrical signals, through some
communication link.
• A basic communication system provides a link between the information
source and its destination. The process of electrical communication
involves sending, receiving, and processing information in electrical form.
• A basic communication system consists of certain units, called
constituents, subsystems, or stages.
• The information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages of
the communication system prior it reaches its destination.

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Block Schematic Diagram Of The Most General Form Of Basic Communication System

Information Input Output Final

Transmitter Channel Receiver
source Transducer Transducer Destination

r(t)
Noise

Message Recovered Original signal

Baseband/ Transmitted Received
Signal
Message Signal baseband/
signal Message

Communication system transmits information from an information source to a destination

The main constituents (stages) of basic communication system
1. Information source and input transducer
2. Transmitter
3. Channel or medium
4. Noise
5. Receiver
6. Output transducer and final destination
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Information Source and Input Transducer

• First stage of a communication system is the information source.

• The physical form of information is represented by a message that is originated by
an information source,
– sentence or paragraph spoken by a person (information source) is a message
that contains some information.
– Examples of messages : voice, live scenes, music, written text, and e-mail.
• A communication system transmits information in the form of electrical signal or
signals. If the information produced by the source is not in an electrical form, a
transducer, to convert the information into electrical form.
• A transducer - Converts a non-electrical energy into its corresponding electrical
energy called signal and vice versa,
• Example :During a telephone conversation, the words spoken by a person are in the
form of sound energy. This has to be converted to its equivalent electrical form
prior it is transmitted.

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• An example of a transducer :
– microphone. Microphone converts sound signals into the corresponding
electrical signals.
– Television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals into its corresponding
pictures.
– Movie cameras, Video Cassette, Recorder (VCR) heads, tape recorder heads,
and loudspeakers
• The information produced by the information source is applied to the next stage,
termed the information or Function input transducer.
• This in turn, produces an electrical signal value corresponding to the information
as output. This electrical signal is called the baseband signal. It is also called a
message signal, an information signal, an intelligent signal, or an envelope.
• In the communication theory, the baseband signal is usually designated by s(t).
• Types of communication systems,
– e.g. analog, digital, radio, and line communication systems.
• The different communication systems apply different principles of operation and
physical appearance to each constituents, in accordance with its type

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 1. Analog Signal

• An analog signal is a function of time, and has a continuous range of

values. There is a definite function value of the analog signal at each point
of time.
• An example of analog signal or analog wave form is a pure sine wave form. A
practical example of an analog signal is a voice signal.
• When a voice signal is converted to electrical form by a microphone, we get
a corresponding electrical analog signal. One can see this electrical signal on
an oscilloscope. An analog signal, this wave form has definite values at all
points of time.

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 2. Digital Signal

• Does not have continuous function values on a time scale. It is discrete in nature,
i.e., it has some values at discrete timings.
• In between two consecutive values, the signal values is either zero, or different
value. A familiar example of a digital signal is the sound signal produced by
drumbeats.
• • Figure shows a graphical representational of a digital signal.
• Digital signals in their true sense correspond to a binary digital signal, where the
discrete amplitude of the signal is coded into binary digits represented by '0' and '1 '.
• The analog signal, which is continuous in time, is converted to discrete time, using a
procedure calling sampling.
• The continuous amplitude of the analog signal is converted to discrete amplitude
using a process called quantization.
• Sampling and quantization are together termed as analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
and the circuitry that performs this operation is called an analog to-digital
converter.
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 Transmitter
• The base band signal, which is the output of an input transducer, is
input to the transmitter.
• The transmitter processing depends on the type of communication
system.
• The processing carried out for signal transmission in the analog form
is different from signal transmission in the digital form.
There are two following options for processing signals prior transmission

1. Baseband Communication System:

• The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher
frequency spectrum.
• Some processing of the signal is required prior its transmission, e.g. a train
of pulses that are to be transmitted can be replaced by a series of two
sine waves of different frequencies prior to transmission.
• One of these two frequencies represent a low and the other represents a
high value of the digital pulse.
• The baseband signal is converted into a corresponding series of sine
waves of two different frequencies prior to transmission.
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 2. Carrier Communication System:
– The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is
translated to a higher frequency spectrum.
– In this system, the baseband signal is carried by a higher frequency
signal, called the carrier signal.
– The process of translating a low frequency baseband signal to higher
frequency spectrum using a high frequency carrier signal is called
Modulation.
Block diagram representing schematic of an analog transmitter section

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Modulated Stage
•Translates the baseband signal from its low frequency spectrum to high frequency
spectrum.
•This stage also receives another input called the carrier signal, c(t), which is generated
by a high frequency carrier oscillator.
•After modulation, Baseband signal is translated to a high frequency spectrum
•Carrier signal is said to be modulated by the baseband signal.
•The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as
x(t).
1. Digital communication system
• if the baseband signal is a digital signal
• The digital modulation methods are employed for this.
2. Analog Communication System
• If the baseband signal is an analog signal,
• For processing the analog modulation techniques are used.
Power Amplifier Stage
• The voltage of the modulated signal is amplified to drive the last stage of the transmitter
•This stage amplifies the power of the modulated signal and thus it carries enough power
to reach the receiver stage of the communication system.
•Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.

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 Channel Or Medium
• The signal propagates through the transmission medium and is received at the other side by
the receiver section.
• The transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver is called a channel.
• The channel characteristics add many constraints to the design of the communication
system, e.g. most of the noise is added to the signal during its transmission through the
channel.
• The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise.
• The bandwidth is the frequency range that can be transmitted by a communication system.
• The channel characteristics are also taken into consideration as a design parameter while
designing the transmitting and receiving equipment.
• The transmitting power, signal bandwidth, design and cost of the communication system are
affected by channel characteristics.

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• Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two groups:

1. Hardware Channels
• These channels are manmade structure which can be used as transmission medium.
• There are following three possible implementations of the hardware channels.
1. Transmission lines
• Example: twisted-pair cables used in landline telephony and coaxial cables used for cable
TV transmission.
• Transmission lines are not suitable for ultra high frequency (UHF) transmission.
2. Waveguides
• To transmit signals at UHF range, waveguides are employed as medium.
• Waveguides are hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures.
• The signals enter the waveguide, are reflected at the metallic walls, and propagate
towards the other end of the waveguide
3. Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
• Optical fiber cables are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the form of extremely
thin circular pipes. Signals are transmitted in the form of light energy in optical fiber
cables.
• There is always a physical link between the transmitter and receiver in hardware channels. A
communication system that makes use of a hardware channel is called as a line communication
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system, e.g. landline telephony and cable TV network.
2. Software Channels
• Natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals ,
such transmission media are called software channels. Example : Widely used
software channel is air or open space , and sea water.
• In communication systems that use software channels there is no physical
link between the transmitter and the receiver
• The transmitter passes the signals in the required form to the software
channel. The signals propagate through the natural resource and reach the
receiver.
• The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves', also
called radio waves. Radio waves travel through open space at a speed equal
to that of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s).
• The transmitter section converts the electrical signal into em waves or
radiation by using a transmitting antenna. These waves are radiated into the
open space by the transmitting antenna.
• At the receiver side, another antenna, called the receiving antenna, is used to
pick up these radio waves and convert them into corresponding electrical
signals.
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• Radio Communication Systems :Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open
space
• e.g. radio broad cast, television transmission, satellite communication, and cellular mobile
communication.
• Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic(em) waves, also referred as radio waves
• Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum: The wide frequency range of radio waves starting from a few ten
kilo Hertz (kHz) to several thousand Mega Hertz (MHz).
• The RF spectrum is classified according to the applications of the spectrum in different service areas

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 Noise
• Noise is defined as unwanted electrical energy of random and
unpredictable nature present in the system due to any cause.
• Noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any
useful information.
• Undesirable part of a communication system, and have to be
minimized
• Noise cannot be eliminated once it is mixed with the signal.
When noise is mixed with the transmitted signal, it rides over it
and deteriorates it waveform. This results in the alteration of
the original information so that wrong information is received

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• The receiver processes the signal to cover the original information
produced by the information source at the transmitter end.
• If the amplitude of the noise is comparable with that of the
signal, then the noise may render the transmitted signal
unintelligible, and the receiver recovers the noise.
• In order to avoid this, the system designer can make the signal
adequately powerful prior to transmitting it. This enables the
signal to withstand the noise.
• The system designer increases the power of the signal in
comparison with that of the noise. This increases the ratio of the
signal power to the noise power, i.e. SNR (signal to noise ratio:
The ratio of Signal power to the noise power).
• The designer provides adequate signal strength at the time of
transmission so that a high SNR is available at the receiver.
•

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• The total noise present in the system,
contributed by all the sources is called noise
signal n(t)
• The channel contributes the major part of the
noise.
• The noise may also be mixed with the signal
from within the transmitting and receiving
equipments.
• Not possible to show all the individual sources
of noise along the communication chain.

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 External Noise
• Introduced by the transmission medium.
• Transmission medium external to the receiver.
• Divide the external noise into the following three
groups:
1. Atmospheric or static noise
– Main source: lightning discharges and natural
electrical disturbances in the atmosphere.
– These electrical disturbances are received by the
receiving antenna and are mixed with the signal as
noise.
– Caused by nature and no way to eradicate it.
– Only remedy is that the receiver is provided with
ample gain so the atmospheric noise is countered.

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2. Man-made or industrial noise
– Main sources : automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors,
heavy electrical machines, switching gears, leakage from high-voltage
electrical supply lines, and fluorescent lights.
– Heavier in industrial areas than in non-industrial areas
– The transmitting equipment should be installed away from the
industrial areas to avoid this type of noise.
3. Extraterrestrial or Space noise
• Outer space is also a source of external noise that comes from sun
and stars.
• This noise is of two types:
a. Solar Noise,
• Source : the sun - continuously emits electrical energy which
gets mixed with the transmitting radio signal and appears as
noise.
b. Cosmic Noise.
• Source : stars, -also radiate electrical energy over a wide
frequency range covering the radio frequency spectrum.
• Galaxies are also the source of space noise.

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 Internal Noise
• The noise introduced within the receiver
• This noise can be grouped into:
1. Thermal or Johnson's noise or white noise
– Generated with resistors used in the circuit.
– Due to the random motion of electrons and molecules inside the
resistor.
– The resistive part of the complex impedance in a circuit is also a source
of thermal noise.
2. Shot or Transistor noise
– Generated inside a transistor used in an amplifier.
– Appears because of the random movement of electron and holes
inside the transistor and the presence of random electrons at the
output terminal of the transistor in an amplifier.

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 SNR :
• Ratio of the signal power to the noise power at a point in the circuit.
• The measure of the signal power relative to the noise power at a
particular point in a circuit.
• Now, if Ps is signal power and Pn is noise power, then SNR
𝑺/𝑵 = Ps / Pn = (Vs)2 R / (Vn)2 R
= (Vs)2 / (Vn)2
• Signal to noise ratio expressed in decibel
(S/N ) in dB = 10 log [ (Vs)2 / (Vn)2 ]
Noise Factor
• The ratio of SNR at the input to the SNR at the output’
• Noise figure is simply the noise factor expressed in decibels.
N = 10 log10 (Si/Ni) / (So/No)
where Si is the signal at the input, Ni is the noise at the input, So is the
signal at the output, No is the noise at the output.
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 Receiver
• Receiver is to provide the original information to the user.
• Information is altered due to the processing at the transmitter side.
So signal received by the receiver, does not contain information in its
original form.
• The receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs
some processing on it to recover the original baseband signal.
• The signal received by the receiver r(t) contains both the transmitted
signal, x(t), and the noise, n(t), added to it during transmission.
• The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from
the received signal, and then recover the original baseband signal by
performing some processing on it.
• The receiver receives a weak signal because the transmitted signal
loses its strength during its propagation through the channel. This
occurs due to the attenuation of the signal.
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 Block Diagram Of Receiver Section

Front-end Voltage Amplifier :

• The received signal, r(t), is first amplified by the front-end voltage amplifier to
strengthen the received signal, which is weak and to facilitate easy processing.
• Signal becomes strong enough for further processing.
Demodulator:
• Signal is given to the demodulator, which demodulates the received signal to recover
the original baseband signal.
• The type of demodulation is based on the type of modulation employed at the
transmitter.
• The original baseband signal is recovered by performing an operation opposite to the
one performed by the transmitter section.
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• The transmitter performs modulation on the baseband signal to
translate it to a higher spectrum from its low frequency spectrum.
• The receiver, performs an operation known as demodulation,
which brings the baseband signal from the higher frequency
spectrum to its original low-frequency spectrum.
Demodulation :
• Process removes the high frequency carrier from the received signal
and retrieves the original baseband in a carrier communication
system.
• Baseband communication systems: Assume that the transmitter
replaces the digital baseband signal with a series of two sinusoidal
wave forms of different frequencies .
• When the receiver receives this signal, it recovers the original
baseband pulse by replacing the two sinusoidal waveforms with the
corresponding original levels.

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Amplifier Stages :
• It is essential that enough signal power is given to the transducer so
that it satisfactorily reproduces the message.
• Prior to handing over the recovered baseband signal to its final
destination, the voltage and power are amplified by the amplifier
stages.
• After recovering the original baseband signal, its voltage and power
is amplified prior it to final destination block.
• The recovered baseband signal is then handed over to the final
destination, which uses a transducer to convert this electrical signal
to its original form.

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 Output Transducer And Final Destination
• The Final Destination is the last block of the communication chain. The destination is
the user that receives the information and interprets it for useful purposes.
• The constituents of the destination block
1. Output Transducer :Converts the baseband signals which contains information in
electrical form back into its original non-electrical form, to be delivered to the user
2. User.
• The user can either be a human being or a machine that can make certain decisions
based on the information received,
• if a message is transmitted in the form of spoken words, then the user can be a human
being who makes certain decisions on its reception.
• A live telecast of a football match is meant a human being as a user. In meant for a
human being as a user.
• In some cases, one can use a computer for the interpretation of the received
information and takes appropriate action based on the information.
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 MULTIPLEXING
• Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to
transmit through a single channel. So that multiplexing facilitates
the simultaneous transmission of multiple messages over a single
transmission channel. This makes the communication system
economical
• Multiplexing allows the maximum possible utilization of the
available bandwidth of the system. Bandwidth is an important
entity in any communication system.
• This is a technique that is most widely used in nearly all types of
communication systems, radio and line communication systems.
• Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through
modulation.

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• Example:
• If many people speak loudly and simultaneously, then it becomes nearly
impossible to understand their conversion because the overall result is noise. This
noise is the result of mixing of all the speeches. The human ear is not capable of
separating these intermingled speeches and therefore no intelligent words are
communicated to brain.
• The audio signals may come from, say ten different persons. While the speech
frequency of different persons will be different, all the ten signals will lie in the
same audio range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
• If all these baseband audio signals are simultaneously transmitted through a single
channel, then they will be mixed together.
• The transmitter will transmit these mixed signals, and the receiver will receive
them. The purpose of the receiver is to deliver the audio signals in their original
form.
• If all the received signals lie within the same audio range, the receiver is not
capable of separating them into individual signals, similar to the case with human
ears.

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• To avoid this difficulty, each signal can be translated to a different
frequency spectrum, such that every signal differs in its transmitted
frequency through modulation.
• If all the baseband signals are modulated, i.e., translated to higher
frequencies by using different carrier frequencies, then each signal
is easily distinguishable from the other although they all lie within
the same audio band. At the transmitter they can be mixed and
transmitted.
• At the receiver, the different signals can be easily separated
because they are at different frequencies, and these can be
delivered to the next stages of the receiver for further processing.
• Multiplexing becomes possible only because of modulation.

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Important Types Of Multiplexing
1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• The channel is divided into several time slots, and each

signal is transmitted during its allocated time slot.
• As a result, several signals share the channel without
interfering with each other.
• Eg: multiple users sharing the printer. The printer
processes the print jobs one at a time, in the order
they were received, during their allocated time slots.
• Eg: Traffic lights at an intersection use time division
multiplexing to manage the flow of traffic.
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 2. Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Divides bandwidth into subchannels of different frequencies, each

channel carrying a signal in parallel. Guard bands will be provided
between the channels to avoid mixing up of channels.
• Examples: Radio and television broadcasting, where multiple radio signals
at different frequencies are transmitted simultaneously.
• Cable television, which carries many television channels on a single cable.
• Commercial broadcast radio (AM and FM radio), where each station gets
its own frequency band.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Based on their Based on their

physical signal
infrastructure specification

Nature of Nature of
Line/Radio Simplex/Duplex
baseband transmitted
communication Communication
signal signal

Analog Digital Baseband Carrier

communication communication communication communication
system system system system

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Based on their Physical Infrastructure
type of channel used and the hardware design of the transmitting and receiving equipment
• In Line Communication System there is a physical link,(called the hardware channel)
between the transmitter and the receiver in the line communication systems. E.g.:
Landline telephony.
• In a Radio Communication System, there is no such link and natural resources, such
as space and water are used as software channels. E.g.: Radio broad cast
• A communication system can be simplex (one way transmission) or a duplex (two way
transmission. Some communication system can be half duplex (two-way transmission
is carried out, but not simultaneously) as well.
• Thus communication system can be grouped as:
1. Line/radio communication
2. Simplex/duplex communication
• TV communication system is a combination of the radio and simplex communication
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system & landline telephony is a combination of line & duplex communication
Based on their Signal Specification
• The signal specifications used to decide the type of communication include:
1. Nature of baseband or informal signal
– Analog communication systems
– Digital communication systems.
2. Nature of the transmitted signal.
• Based on the nature of the transmitted signal, the baseband signal can either be
transmitted as it is, without modulation, or through a carrier signal with modulation.
– Baseband communication system
– Carrier communication system
• Thus, four types of communication system categories based on signal specification are:
1. Analog communication system
2. Digital communication system
3. Baseband communication system
4. Carrier communication system
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• A particular communication system can be either an
analog communication system or a digital
communication system at a time.
E.g.: TV transmission is an analog communication
system while high definition television (HDTV) is a digital
communication system.
• Similarly, a particular communication system can be
either a baseband communication system or a carrier
communication system.
E.g. for baseband communication system: Landline
telephony and fax.
E.g. for carrier communication system: TV transmission,
Radio broadcast & Cable TV.
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 Modulation

• Modulation is the process in which any one of the

parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the
high frequency carrier signal is varied according to
the instantaneous values of the low frequency
message signal, keeping other parameters
constant.
Continuous wave modulation
1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation

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Amplitude modulation (AM)

• AM is defined as the modulation technique in

which the amplitude of carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the amplitude of analog
modulating signal to be transmitted while the
frequency and phase of carrier signal remain
unchanged.
• The modulating signal is the analog baseband
signal which is random and has low frequency
while the carrier signal is always a sinusoidal
wave with high frequency.
• The variations in the amplitude of carrier signal
represent the information carried.

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 • The figure shows the high
frequency carrier, modulating and
the modulated signal.
• The amplitude of the carrier
signal is varies in accordance with
the modulating signal while the
frequency & phase of the carrier
signal remain unchanged.
• The modulating signal is
superimposed on the carrier
signal.
• The amplitude variations in the
peak values of the carrier signal
exactly replicate the modulating
signal at different points in time
which is known as an envelope.

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Frequency Modulation (FM)

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• The frequency modulation is the process of changing the frequency
of the carrier voltage in accordance with the instantaneous value of
the modulating voltage, keeping the amplitude and phase constant .
• Original frequency of carrier signal is called centre or resting
frequency, denoted as fc.
• The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or
shifts above or below the resting frequency is termed as frequency
deviation (Δf).
• The total variation is frequency of FM wave from the lowest to the
highest is termed as carrier saving (CS), i.e.
CS= 2 x frequency deviation in centre frequency (Δf)
• Modulation index in F.M. is the ratio of frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency,

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 Phase modulation is the process
Phase Modulation (PM) in which the instantaneous
phase of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

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 Radio Wave Propagation
• In space communication electromagnetic
waves of different frequencies are used to
carry information through the physical
space acting as the transmission medium.
• EM waves with frequencies from about 10
kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves.
• On the basis of the mode of propagation,
radio waves can be broadly classified as:
i. Ground or Surface wave
ii. Space or Tropospheric wave
iii. Sky wave.
• Accordingly, we have three types of
propagation:

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1. Ground wave propagation:
• In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth
and move along its curved surface from the transmitter to the
receiver.
• As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground, ground
wave propagation is useful only at low frequencies.
• Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication
within distances of about 1500 km from the transmitter.
• AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local
areas and take place primarily by the ground wave.
• The ground waves at higher frequencies employed by frequency
modulation (FM) and television (TV) are increasing absorbed and
therefore become very weak beyond a distance of several
kilometers from the transmitter.
• Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the
atmospheric conditions be.

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2. Space or Tropospheric wave propagation
• When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a
straight line directly reaches the receiving antenna, it is termed as
space or tropospheric wave.
• In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the
earth's troposphere within about 15 km over the surface of the
earth.
• The space wave is made up of two components:
1. A direct or line-of sight wave form the transmitting to the
receiving antenna
2. The ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting
antenna to ground and reflected to the receiving antenna.
• Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted
through this mode.

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3. Sky wave propagation
• In this mode of propagation, radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna
reach the receiving antenna after reflection form the ionosphere.
• Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky wave via
successive reflections at the ionosphere and the earth's surface.
• The ionized region of the earth's upper atmosphere extending from about 40 km to
the height of a few earth radii above earth, is referred to as ionosphere.
• The ionosphere is made up of electrons, and positive and negative ions in the
background of neutral particles of the atmosphere.
• The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons
and ions in the ionosphere.

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Satellite Communication

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Mobile Communication

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Fiber Optic Communication.

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