UNIT V DEFORMATION MECHANISMS AND TESTING OF MATERIALS

Mechanisms of plastic deformation, slip and twinning – Types of fracture – fracture

mechanics- Griffith’s theory- Testing of materials under tension, compression and
shear loads – Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell), Micro and nano-hardness
tests, Impact test lzod and Charpy, fatigue and creep failure mechanisms.

MECHANISMS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION:

Deformation:

Deformation refers to the distortion or change in shape of an object due to applied

forces or loads. Deformation occurs when external forces cause stress within an object that
exceeds its elastic limit. The object then undergoes a permanent change in shape. Deformation
can be elastic if the material returns to its original shape when the forces are removed. But
plastic deformation results in a permanent change in shape. Most materials exhibit both types
of deformation.

Plastic Deformation:

The plastic deformation process is when an object undergoes an irreversible change in size or
shape due to the application of force. According to the theory of material science, plastic
deformation occurs when a metal is subjected to enough stress to result in persistent
deformation. Additionally, plastic deformation refers to the breakdown of a small number of
atomic bonds caused by the movement of dislocations. Such a tremendous amount of power is
needed to shatter the bonds of every atom on a crystal plane. Numerous items exhibit plastic
deformation, including

 Rocks
 Soil
 Plastics
 Metals
 Concrete

The bending of a steel rod is an example of Plastic deformation. The ability of a material
to withstand pressure-induced distortion is known as plasticity. It refers to the condition or
quality of plastic material, notably its ability to be reshaped and altered. When the distortion
persists even after the applied forces have been removed, it is irreversible, which happens in
the case of Plastic deformation.

There are many different ways that plastic deformation is caused. While in brittle
materials like concrete, rock, and bone, plasticity results from the slippage of microcracks,
dislocations cause plasticity in metals. A material’s plasticity is directly inversely correlated
with its malleability and ductility. Ideal material plasticity requires that it experience
irreversible deformation without experiencing an increase in load or stress. Plasticity may
lead to material rupture or fracture. Deformation caused by plasticity occurs during numerous
metal-forming procedures, including forging, pressing, rolling, swaging, etc.

Plastic Deformation Examples

Some examples of plastic deformation are given below.

 Metal forming - Permanently reshaping metals through extrusion, forging, and rolling.
The metals retain their newly formed shapes.
 Cold working - Processes like cold rolling and drawing strain and harden metals
through plastic deformation, which remains after processing.
 Necking and fracture - Materials neck and thin at the point of failure due to plastic
deformation building up strains.
 Creep - Under high temperatures and sustained loads, some materials continue to
slowly deform over time through creep, a type of plastic deformation.

Slip and Twinning

In metals, there are two main mechanisms for plastic deformation:

 Slip
 Twinning

The primary process of deformation in metals is slip. A slip is the sliding of crystal blocks over
one another along various crystallographic planes referred to as slip planes.

In twinning, a portion of the crystals adopts an orientation that is clearly and symmetrically
connected to the direction of the remaining untwined lattice. Comparatively, twinning is
determined by the defects, crystal axis shift, visibility, and occurrence threshold value in
stress slip.
SLIP

Slip is the most common mechanism of plastic deformation in crystalline solids and
occurs when one plane of atoms slides over another along specific crystallographic directions.
This process takes place on well-defined planes called slip planes and along directions known
as slip directions. Together, they form a slip system. Slip is facilitated by the movement of
dislocations, which are line defects in the crystal structure. When stress is applied,
dislocations move step-by-step across the crystal, allowing deformation to occur at much
lower stress levels than would be required to move an entire plane of atoms simultaneously.

In slip, the atomic arrangement above and below the slip plane remains unchanged
except for a relative displacement equal to a multiple of the interatomic spacing. The direction
of slip is typically the direction of highest atomic packing density, as it requires the least
energy. For example, in FCC metals, slip occurs along {111} planes and ⟨110⟩ directions,
making them highly ductile due to the availability of multiple slip systems. The amount of
plastic deformation depends on how easily dislocations can move; obstacles such as
impurities, precipitates, and grain boundaries hinder dislocation motion, thereby increasing
strength (strain hardening).

Stage 1 → Perfect crystal without slip

Stage 2 → Deforming shear force is

applied to the crystal

Stage 3 → Slip taking place along the slip

plane

Stage 4 → Permanent deformation when

deforming forces are removed.

TWINNING

Twinning is another mechanism of plastic deformation in which a portion of the crystal

undergoes a specific and coordinated atomic displacement, resulting in a mirror-image
orientation of the original lattice across a plane known as the twin plane. Unlike slip, where
atoms move by whole multiples of atomic spacing, twinning involves a small, progressive
displacement of atoms, with each atom moving a fraction of the interatomic distance. This
creates a reoriented region within the crystal that is symmetrical to the parent structure.
 Twinning occurs under conditions where slip is difficult, such as in materials with
fewer slip systems (e.g., hexagonal close-packed metals like magnesium and zinc), at low
temperatures, or under high strain rates. It contributes less to plastic deformation compared
to slip but plays a crucial role in accommodating strain and improving ductility in certain
materials. The formation of twins also changes the crystal orientation, which can activate new
slip systems, thereby enhancing further deformation.

Comparison of Slip and Twinning

Aspect Slip Twinning

Plastic deformation by sliding Plastic deformation by
Definition of atomic planes over each formation of a mirror-image
other region in the crystal
Atoms move by an integral
Atoms move by a fraction of
Atomic Movement multiple of interatomic
interatomic spacing
spacing
Occurs by coordinated atomic
Mechanism Occurs by dislocation motion
displacement
No change in crystal Crystal orientation changes
Crystal Structure Change
orientation (mirror symmetry formed)
Stress Requirement Requires lower stress Requires higher stress
Produces large plastic
Extent of Deformation Produces limited deformation
deformation
Common in most metals Occurs in HCP metals and
Occurrence
(especially FCC, BCC) under special conditions
High temperature, low strain Low temperature, high strain
Conditions Favoring
rate rate
Occurs along slip plane and Occurs along a specific twin
Slip/Twin Plane
direction (slip system) plane
Relatively slow and
Speed of Process Rapid and instantaneous
progressive
Can improve ductility by
Effect on Properties Increases ductility
activating new slip systems
Examples Aluminum, Copper, Iron Magnesium, Zinc, Titanium
TYPES OF FRACTURE

FRACTURE

Fracture is the separation of a material into two or more parts under the action of
applied stress. It occurs when the stress in a material exceeds its strength, leading to crack
initiation and propagation. In engineering materials, fracture does not happen
instantaneously; it usually begins with the formation of microscopic cracks at defects such as
voids, inclusions, or grain boundaries. These cracks grow under continued loading until final
failure occurs. The fracture behavior of materials depends on several factors including
temperature, strain rate, microstructure, and the presence of stress concentrations.
Understanding fracture is essential for designing safe and reliable structures, as unexpected
failure can lead to catastrophic consequences.

TYPES OF FRACTURE

Fracture is commonly classified as ductile fracture and brittle fracture. Ductile fracture
happens after a large amount of plastic deformation, so the material stretches, necks, and
gives warning before failure. Brittle fracture happens with very little plastic deformation and
is usually sudden, with cracks propagating rapidly through the material. Another useful
classification is based on the crack path: transgranular fracture, where the crack passes
through grains, and intergranular fracture, where the crack follows grain boundaries. In
ductile metals, the fracture surface often looks like a cup-and-cone shape because of necking
and shear deformation.

1. Ductile Fracture
 Ductile fracture is characterized by significant plastic deformation before failure and
usually provides visible warning signs such as necking. The fracture process occurs in three
stages: void nucleation, void growth, and void coalescence. Initially, small voids form around
inclusions or second-phase particles. As stress increases, these voids enlarge and eventually
join together, forming a crack that leads to fracture. The fracture surface typically shows a
cup-and-cone appearance, with a rough and fibrous texture indicating high energy absorption.
Materials like mild steel, aluminum, and copper commonly exhibit ductile fracture. This type
of fracture is desirable in engineering applications because it allows time for detection and
prevention of failure.

2. Brittle Fracture

Brittle fracture occurs with little or no plastic deformation and happens suddenly
without warning. In this type of fracture, cracks propagate rapidly along specific
crystallographic planes known as cleavage planes. The fracture surface appears flat, smooth,
and shiny, often showing river patterns that indicate the direction of crack propagation. Brittle
fracture is commonly observed in materials such as cast iron, ceramics, and glass. It is more
likely to occur at low temperatures, high strain rates, and in the presence of stress
concentrations such as sharp notches or cracks. Due to its sudden nature, brittle fracture is
dangerous and can lead to catastrophic failures.

FRACTURE MECHANICS

Fracture mechanics is the study of the behavior of cracks in materials and provides a
scientific method to predict failure. Unlike conventional strength-based approaches, fracture
mechanics considers the presence of pre-existing flaws or cracks in materials. It focuses on
how these cracks grow under applied stress and how they lead to failure. The central idea is
that stress is highly concentrated at the tip of a crack, making it the most critical region in
determining fracture.

GRIFFITH’S THEORY OF FRACTURE

Griffith’s theory of fracture is a fundamental concept in fracture mechanics that

explains why materials fail at stress levels much lower than their theoretical strength.
Proposed by A. A. Griffith in 1920, the theory is based on the presence of microscopic cracks
or flaws within a material. According to Griffith, these cracks act as stress concentrators, and
fracture occurs when the energy available in the system is sufficient to propagate the crack.
The theory introduces an energy balance approach, stating that crack growth occurs when the
decrease in elastic strain energy is equal to or greater than the energy required to create new
surfaces.
 Griffith considered a brittle material containing a small crack subjected to tensile
stress. When stress is applied, elastic strain energy is stored in the material. As the crack
begins to grow, some of this stored energy is released. However, creating new crack surfaces
requires energy, known as surface energy. The critical condition for crack propagation occurs
when the energy released due to crack extension equals the energy required to form new
surfaces. If the released energy exceeds the surface energy, the crack will grow spontaneously,
leading to fracture.

GRIFFITH’S FRACTURE EQUATION

Griffith derived an expression for the critical stress required for crack propagation. In
this equation, σC is the critical stress, E is the modulus of elasticity, γ is the surface energy per
unit area, and a is half the crack length. The equation shows that the fracture stress decreases
as the crack length increases, meaning that even a small flaw can significantly reduce the
strength of a material.

ENERGY BALANCE APPROACH

The energy balance approach is central to Griffith’s theory. As the crack grows, the
elastic strain energy decreases, while the surface energy increases due to the formation of
new crack surfaces. The point at which these two energies are equal defines the condition for
crack propagation. This concept is often represented graphically, where the intersection of
energy curves indicates the critical crack length or stress required for fracture.
ASSUMPTIONS OF GRIFFITH’S THEORY

Griffith’s theory is based on several assumptions. It applies primarily to brittle

materials, where plastic deformation is negligible. The material is assumed to be perfectly
elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. The cracks are considered to be sharp and elliptical in
shape, and the loading is assumed to be uniform and tensile. These assumptions simplify the
analysis but limit the direct applicability of the theory to real engineering materials, especially
ductile ones.

TESTING OF MATERIALS

Testing of materials is the process of evaluating the mechanical, physical, and

sometimes chemical properties of materials to determine their suitability for engineering
applications. It helps engineers understand how a material behaves under different loading
conditions such as tension, compression, shear, impact, and cyclic loading. Material testing is
essential for quality control, design validation, safety assurance, and research and
development. The tests are generally carried out using standardized methods (such as ASTM
or ISO standards) to ensure accuracy and consistency of results.

Material testing can be broadly classified into destructive testing (DT) and non-
destructive testing (NDT). In destructive testing, the specimen is subjected to loads until
failure occurs, while in non-destructive testing, the material is evaluated without causing any
damage. Both methods play a crucial role in ensuring the reliability and performance of
engineering materials.

1. DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (DT)

Destructive testing involves applying loads to a material until it deforms or fractures.

This type of testing provides detailed information about the strength and failure
characteristics of materials. Common destructive tests include tensile testing, compression
testing, hardness testing, impact testing, and fatigue testing.

The tensile test determines properties such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
ductility, and Young’s modulus by pulling a specimen until fracture. The compression test
evaluates material behavior under compressive loads, especially for brittle materials like
concrete. Hardness tests (such as Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers) measure resistance to
indentation and provide an indication of wear resistance. Impact tests (Izod and Charpy)
assess the toughness of materials by measuring the energy absorbed during fracture. Fatigue
testing determines the behavior of materials under cyclic loading, which is important for
components subjected to repeated stresses such as shafts and aircraft parts.
2. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

Non-destructive testing (NDT) refers to techniques used to evaluate materials without

causing any damage. These methods are widely used in industries where maintaining the
integrity of components is critical, such as aerospace, nuclear, and construction industries.

Common NDT methods include ultrasonic testing (UT), radiographic testing (RT),
magnetic particle testing (MPT), and dye penetrant testing (DPT). In ultrasonic testing, high-
frequency sound waves are used to detect internal flaws. Radiographic testing uses X-rays or
gamma rays to identify defects inside materials. Magnetic particle testing is used for detecting
surface and near-surface defects in ferromagnetic materials. Dye penetrant testing involves
applying a liquid dye to reveal surface cracks. NDT techniques are essential for ensuring safety
without compromising the usability of components.

TESTING OF MATERIALS UNDER TENSION, COMPRESSION AND SHEAR LOADS

1. TENSILE TEST
 The tensile test is one of the most widely used methods to determine the mechanical
properties of materials. In this test, a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial
tensile load until fracture occurs. The test is typically carried out using a Universal Testing
Machine (UTM). As the load is applied, the specimen elongates, and the corresponding stress
and strain are recorded to obtain the stress–strain curve.

Initially, the material behaves elastically, meaning it returns to its original shape upon
unloading. Beyond the yield point, plastic deformation begins, and the material undergoes
permanent deformation. With further loading, the specimen reaches the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), after which necking occurs, leading to fracture. Important properties obtained
from the tensile test include Young’s modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, percentage
elongation, and reduction in area. This test is essential for understanding the ductility and
strength of materials such as metals and polymers.

2. COMPRESSION TEST

The compression test evaluates the behavior of materials under compressive loads,
where the material is squeezed rather than stretched. In this test, the specimen is placed
between two platens and subjected to an increasing compressive force. Compression testing is
particularly important for materials such as concrete, ceramics, and cast iron, which are
stronger in compression than in tension.
 During the test, the specimen shortens in length and may expand laterally. In ductile
materials, a phenomenon called barreling may occur due to friction between the specimen
ends and the testing machine plates. Brittle materials, on the other hand, fail by cracking
without significant deformation. The compression test provides important properties such as
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and deformation behavior under load. It is widely
used in civil engineering and materials science.

3. SHEAR TEST

The shear test determines the material’s ability

to resist forces that cause sliding between parallel
planes. In this test, forces are applied tangentially to
the surface of the material, resulting in shear stress.
Shear testing is commonly performed on fasteners
such as bolts, rivets, and pins, as well as on materials
subjected to torsion.

During the test, the material experiences

deformation where one part slides relative to another.
The relationship between shear stress and shear
strain is used to determine the shear modulus and
shear strength of the material. In torsion tests,
circular shafts are twisted to evaluate shear
properties.
HARDNESS TESTING OF MATERIALS

Hardness is the ability of a material to resist localized plastic deformation, typically in

the form of indentation, scratching, or abrasion. Hardness testing is widely used in
engineering because it is simple, quick, and often non-destructive, while also providing a good
indication of strength, wear resistance, and overall material quality. In most hardness tests, a
hard indenter is pressed into the surface of a material under a specified load, and the size or
depth of the indentation is measured. The three most commonly used hardness tests are
Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell tests, each differing in indenter type, load application, and
method of measurement.

Hardness Testing Machine

1. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST (BHN)

In the Brinell hardness test, a large portion of pressure and force, up to 3,000 kgf, is
applied, and an impression of a ball (usually 10 mm) of hardened steel or tungsten carbide is
made on the surface of the material and allowed to stay in place between 10 and 30 seconds.

Principle

The Brinell hardness test relies on the ability of a material to resist the ability to change
shape permanently by inserting a highly hard object (a tungsten carbide ball 10 mm in
diameter) during a given period of time against its surface under a given heavy load.
Standard

The Brinell hardness test is indicated in ASTM E10 and ISO 6506 and involves pressing
a carbide ball (diameter ranging between 1 mm and 10 mm) into a material with a specified
amount of load to ascertain the hardness of a specific material, depending on the diameter of
the formed indentation.

Applications

The hardness of the surface of a rough or coarse piece of metal (such as a casting, a
forging product, or a steel product) can be determined by the diameter of an indentation
produced by means of a deep, heavy carbide ball, the Brinell hardness test. This test has
become one of the most widely used methods for quality control as well as inspecting and
controlling the manufacturing of large industrial parts.

3. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST (HR)

The Rockwell hardness test is a fast and non-destructive method of determining the
hardness of metals and polymers through an assessment of the depth of an indentation
created by either a diamond cone or a steel ball using a two-stage indentation load.

Principle

The Rockwell hardness tester is based on the principle of measuring the difference
between the two depths of indentations. This indicates the amount of permanent indentation
that will remain after applying a major load to the sample versus what would occur if only a
minor load were applied first.
Standard

ASTM E18: Standard test method for metallic materials (Rockwell hardness).

ISO 6508-1/2/3: Test methods for metallic materials (Rockwell hardness).

JIS Z2245: Rockwell hardness, Japanese industrial standard.

Applications

The Rockwell hardness test is applied in most industries, like manufacturing,

metallurgy, and engineering, to determine the characteristics of materials, like hardness and
quality. Uses are most frequent in the measurement of heat-treated steels and automotive and
aerospace components, and these are all produced using this technique of measurement.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness testing system is an accurate method of determining material

hardness using an indentation method. The method utilizes a diamond indenter (the shape of
a square pyramidal configuration) with a 136° angle across the face to create an indentation
on the polished surface of the test material.
Principle

Vickers hardness is calculated using the capacity of the material to withstand

permanent deformation under the influence of the diamond that is pressed against its surface
at an angle of 136 degrees (the bottom of the pyramid). The hardness number is calculated by
the amount of force applied on the surface divided by the area of the indent made on the
surface by the diamond indenter.

Standard

The international standards ISO 6507 (1-4) and ASTM E384/E92 set forth the use of a
pyramid-shaped diamond indenter for the Vickers hardness test. The testing is performed by
applying a measured force between 0.001 kg and 120 kg (typically between 0.001 kg and 100
kg) for 10 to 15 seconds.

Applications

The Vickers hardness test is a very reliable, non-destructive way of determining the
hardness of materials (metals & ceramics and plastics) by means of a diamond pyramid-
shaped indenter under different forces/sizes (micro to macro). This test is used in
applications such as testing welds, coatings and the investigation of microstructure.
COMPARISON OF HARDNESS TESTS

Aspect Brinell Test Vickers Test Rockwell Test

Steel/Tungsten carbide Steel ball / Diamond
Indenter Diamond pyramid
ball cone

Diameter of Diagonal length of

Measurement Depth of indentation
indentation indentation

Wide range (micro to

Load Range High loads Minor + major loads
macro)
Accuracy Moderate High Moderate

All materials, thin Quick industrial

Application Castings, forgings
sections testing

Surface Damage Large indentation Small indentation Very small indentation

IMPACT TESTING OF MATERIALS

Impact testing is used to determine the toughness of a material, i.e., its ability to absorb
energy during sudden or shock loading. Unlike static tests (tension/compression), impact
tests evaluate material behavior under high strain rate conditions, which is important for
components subjected to dynamic loads such as bridges, automotive parts, and aircraft
structures. The test measures the energy absorbed during fracture, giving an indication of a
material’s resistance to brittle failure. The two most commonly used impact tests are the Izod
test and the Charpy test, both of which use a pendulum-type impact testing machine.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IMPACT TEST

In impact testing, a pendulum hammer is raised to a known height, thereby possessing

potential energy. When released, it strikes the specimen and breaks it. After fracture, the
pendulum swings to a lower height. The difference in height (or energy) before and after
impact represents the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture. This absorbed
energy is a measure of the material’s toughness. A higher energy absorption indicates a
tougher (more ductile) material, while low energy absorption indicates brittle behavior.

1. IZOD IMPACT TEST

In the Izod impact test, the specimen is mounted vertically and fixed at one end,
forming a cantilever beam. The notch is positioned facing the pendulum and located near the
fixed end. When the pendulum strikes the specimen above the notch, it causes fracture at the
notched section. The energy absorbed during fracture is recorded directly from the machine
scale.
 The Izod test is commonly used for testing polymers and metals, particularly for
quality control in manufacturing. It is sensitive to notch geometry and provides information
about the material’s resistance to crack initiation.

2. CHARPY IMPACT TEST

In the Charpy impact test, the specimen is placed horizontally and supported at both
ends, forming a simply supported beam. The notch is located at the center of the specimen,
facing away from the pendulum. The pendulum strikes the specimen opposite the notch,
causing fracture at the notched region.

The Charpy test is widely used in engineering to evaluate the ductile-to-brittle

transition temperature (DBTT) of materials, especially steels. It provides valuable information
about material behavior under different temperature conditions and is commonly used in
structural and construction applications.

KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IZOD AND CHARPY TESTS

Aspect Izod Test Charpy Test

Specimen Position Vertical Horizontal

Simply supported (both
Support Condition Cantilever (fixed at one end)
ends)
Notch Position Facing the striker Opposite to striker

Point of Impact Above the notch Behind the notch

Applications Polymers, metals (quality control) Metals, especially steels

Common Use Material comparison DBTT determination

FATIGUE AND CREEP FAILURE MECHANISMS

In engineering materials, failure does not always occur due to a single application of
load. Many components fail under repeated loading (fatigue) or prolonged exposure to stress
at high temperature (creep). These failure mechanisms are time-dependent and often occur at
stress levels much lower than the material’s ultimate strength. Understanding fatigue and
creep is essential for designing reliable components such as aircraft parts, turbine blades,
bridges, and engine components.

FATIGUE FAILURE

Concept of Fatigue

Fatigue failure occurs when a material is subjected to repeated or cyclic loading,

leading to progressive and localized structural damage. Even when the applied stress is below
the yield strength, failure can occur after a large number of cycles. Fatigue failure typically
occurs in three stages: crack initiation, crack propagation, and final fracture. Initially,
microscopic cracks form at stress concentration points such as surface defects, inclusions, or
notches. These cracks gradually grow with each loading cycle and eventually reach a critical
size, leading to sudden fracture.

Fatigue fractures often show characteristic features such as beach marks and
striations, indicating the progressive nature of crack growth. Fatigue is a major concern in
rotating machinery, aircraft structures, and bridges where components experience repeated
loading.
S–N Curve (Fatigue Life)

The fatigue behavior of materials is represented by the S–N curve, which plots stress
amplitude (S) against the number of cycles to failure (N). Some materials, such as steel, exhibit
an endurance limit, below which they can withstand an infinite number of cycles without
failure. Other materials, such as aluminum, do not have a clear endurance limit and will
eventually fail under cyclic loading. The S–N curve is essential for predicting the fatigue life of
components.

CREEP FAILURE

Concept of Creep

Creep is the time-dependent permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a

constant load at high temperature (typically above 0.4 times the melting temperature in
Kelvin). Unlike fatigue, creep occurs under steady stress rather than cyclic loading. Creep is
especially important in components such as turbine blades, boilers, and nuclear reactors,
where materials operate at high temperatures for long durations.

The creep process occurs in three stages. The primary stage shows a decreasing creep
rate due to strain hardening. The secondary stage is the steady-state region where
deformation occurs at a constant rate. The tertiary stage is characterized by an accelerating
creep rate leading to failure due to necking or internal damage.
Creep Mechanisms

Creep deformation occurs through different mechanisms depending on temperature

and stress. At high temperatures and low stress, diffusion creep (Nabarro–Herring and Coble
creep) dominates, where atoms diffuse through the lattice or grain boundaries. At higher
stress levels, dislocation creep occurs due to dislocation motion and climb. Another important
mechanism is grain boundary sliding, where grains slide past each other, leading to
deformation. These mechanisms contribute to the gradual elongation and eventual failure of
materials.