CYBER SECURITY
Complete Exam Study Notes
UNIT 1 — Fundamentals of Cyber Security
All Topics Explained for Quick Revision
1. CYBER SECURITY — INTRODUCTION & IMPORTANCE
What is Cyber Security?
Cyber Security is the practice of protecting computers, networks, systems, and data from unauthorized access,
attacks, damage, or theft. As digital technologies are deeply integrated into everyday life — banking,
communication, healthcare, education, and governance — cyber security has become essential for individuals,
organizations, and governments.
Why is Cyber Security Important?
• Protects sensitive data — personal information, financial records, intellectual property.
• Prevents cyber crimes — hacking, fraud, identity theft, ransomware attacks.
• Ensures business continuity by reducing downtime caused by cyber attacks.
• Maintains trust in digital systems, online services, and e-governance platforms.
2. TYPES OF CYBER THREATS
1. Malware
Malicious software designed to harm systems or steal data.
• Virus — attaches to files; spreads on execution.
• Worm — self-replicates across networks without user action.
• Trojan Horse — disguises as legitimate software.
• Spyware — secretly monitors user activities.
• Ransomware — encrypts data; demands payment (e.g., WannaCry 2017).
• Botnet — network of compromised machines used for DDoS or spam.
2. Phishing
Social engineering: tricks users into revealing sensitive info.
• Email Phishing — fake bank/authority emails.
• Smishing (SMS) — fake delivery SMS with malicious link.
• Vishing (Voice) — fake phone calls impersonating banks.
• CEO Fraud / Spear Phishing — targeted; impersonates executives.
3. Ransomware
Encrypts victim data; demands ransom for decryption.
• Spreads via email attachments or malicious links.
• WannaCry (May 2017) — worldwide Windows attack.
• India: AIIMS Delhi crippled for weeks; SpiceJet disrupted (2022).
4. DoS / DDoS Attack
Floods a system with traffic to make services unavailable.
• DoS — single attacker; DDoS — botnet of compromised machines.
• 2016 Dyn DNS attack (Mirai botnet) took down Twitter, Netflix.
• India: SBI, HDFC, ICICI websites hit by hacktivists (2020-22).
5. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM)
Secretly intercepts communication between two parties.
• Common on unsecured Wi-Fi; steals credentials or session tokens.
• Covered under IT Act Section 43 (civil) & Section 66 (criminal).
6. Insider Threat
Misuse of authorized access by employees or contractors.
• Intentional leak/theft or accidental disclosure.
• Aadhaar operators sold data (2017-19); ICICI Bank staff shared customer data (2018).
7. SQL Injection
Injects malicious SQL code into web forms to access/alter databases.
• Can bypass logins, extract or delete records.
• Covered under IT Act Sections 43 & 66.
8. Password Attacks
Attempts to gain access by cracking credentials.
• Brute Force, Dictionary Attack, Credential Stuffing, Keylogging.
3. CORE OBJECTIVES — THE CIA TRIAD
Principle Definition Real-World Example
Confidentiality Info accessible only to authorized Online banking — only you and the bank see account details;
users protected via encryption & MFA.
Integrity Data remains accurate and University exam results — marks entered by evaluators cannot
unaltered be changed by students or attackers.
Availability Systems and data accessible when ATM / mobile banking accessible 24×7; DoS attacks violate
needed availability.
4. MAJOR AREAS OF CYBER SECURITY
Network Security
• Protects networks from intrusions using Firewalls, IDS/IPS, VPN, encryption.
• Types of Firewalls: (a) Packet Filtering — checks IP/port; (b) Stateful — tracks connections; (c)
Proxy/Application Gateway — deep inspection; (d) NGFW — combines firewall + IDS/IPS + deep packet
inspection (e.g., Palo Alto, Fortinet).
• IDS — detects suspicious activity and alerts; IPS — detects AND blocks in real time.
• NIDS/NIPS = network-level; HIDS/HIPS = host-level.
• Best practices: MFA, RBAC, Least Privilege, network segmentation (VLANs), regular patching, SIEM monitoring.
Application Security
• Protects software from vulnerabilities throughout the development lifecycle.
• Key areas: Database security, Email security, Internet security, E-commerce security.
• OWASP Top 10 vulnerabilities: SQL Injection, XSS, CSRF, Insecure Deserialization, etc.
Information Security
• Protects data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction.
• Controls: Administrative (policies, training), Technical (encryption, firewalls), Physical (locks, CCTV).
• Key components: People + Processes + Technology.
Endpoint Security
• Secures desktops, laptops, servers, mobile phones, USB, IoT devices.
• Threats: Malware, ransomware, zero-day exploits, insider misuse.
• Techniques: OS updates, strong auth, disk encryption, EDR tools, continuous monitoring.
Cloud Security
• Protects cloud-based data, applications, and infrastructure.
• Key concepts: Shared Responsibility Model, IAM with Least Privilege, encryption, network firewalls.
• Cloud users: Finance, e-commerce, healthcare, public sector.
• Challenges: Third-party access, AI-based threats, misconfiguration, account hijacking.
5. ENCRYPTION & CRYPTOGRAPHY BASICS
Cryptography — science of securing information by converting it into unreadable form. Encryption = converting
plaintext → ciphertext (using algorithm + key). Decryption = ciphertext → plaintext.
Type Key Usage Speed Examples Use Case
Symmetric Same key for encrypt & Fast AES, DES Bulk data encryption
decrypt
Asymmetric Public key encrypts; Private Slower RSA, ECC Key exchange, digital signatures
key decrypts
Hash Functions One-way — cannot be Very fast SHA-256, MD5 Password storage, integrity
reversed verification
6. CYBER ATTACK TECHNIQUES & METHODOLOGIES
Attack Techniques
Social Engineering — Manipulating people into revealing confidential info. Methods: Phishing, Vishing,
Smishing, Pretexting (fabricated scenario), Baiting (free download with malware).
Malware-Based — Viruses, Worms, Trojans, Spyware, Ransomware, Botnets. Example: Trojan hidden in
cracked software.
Network-Based — IP Spoofing, ARP Poisoning, Packet Sniffing, DNS Spoofing. Can redirect users to fake
websites.
Web Application Attacks — SQL Injection (database access), XSS (Cross-Site Scripting — injecting malicious
scripts), CSRF (Cross-Site Request Forgery — tricks browser into executing unwanted actions).
Password Attacks — Brute Force, Dictionary, Credential Stuffing, Keylogging.
DoS / DDoS — Floods system with traffic; botnet amplifies DDoS attacks.
Cyber Kill Chain (Lockheed Martin — 7 Stages)
'Breaking the chain at any stage stops the attack.'
Stage Goal Example
1. Reconnaissance Gather intel on target OSINT: emails, IPs, job postings, technologies
2. Weaponization Create attack payload Malicious document, phishing page, exploit kit
3. Delivery Send weapon to victim Phishing email, malicious USB, drive-by download
4. Exploitation Trigger the payload User enables macros; browser exploit fires
5. Installation Install malware/backdoor RAT (Remote Access Trojan), web shell, persistence
6. C2 (Command & Communicate with attacker Compromised system beacons out; receives commands
Control)
7. Actions on Objectives Achieve mission Data exfiltration, ransomware, lateral movement
Other Attack Methodologies
MITRE ATT&CK; Framework — Knowledge base of real adversary tactics & techniques. Tactics = WHY (e.g.,
Initial Access, Privilege Escalation). Techniques = HOW (e.g., Phishing, Credential Dumping).
OWASP Methodology — Focused on web applications. Tests input validation, authentication, session
management. OWASP Top 10 is globally referenced.
APT (Advanced Persistent Threat) — Long-term, stealthy, targeted attacks by organized/state-sponsored
groups. Focus on continuous monitoring and sensitive data. Example: State-sponsored cyber espionage.
7. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT, 2000 (INDIA)
India's primary cyber law. Enacted on 17 October 2000. Supports e-commerce, e-governance, and addresses
cyber crimes. Amended significantly in 2008 to add cyber terrorism, identity theft, and stronger data protection.
Key Sections at a Glance
Section Offense Punishment
Sec 43 (Civil) Unauthorized access, data damage, virus introduction, DoS Compensation to victim
Sec 66 Sec 43 acts done dishonestly/fraudulently Up to 3 years + fine up to ■5 lakh
Sec 66A Sending offensive/menacing messages online Up to 3 years (Note: struck down by
SC in Shreya Singhal case)
Sec 66B Receiving stolen computer resources Up to 3 years + fine up to ■1 lakh
Sec 66C Identity theft — misuse of password, OTP, Aadhaar Up to 3 years + fine up to ■1 lakh
Sec 66D Cheating by personation (phishing, online fraud) Up to 3 years + fine up to ■1 lakh
Sec 66E Violation of privacy (capturing/sharing private images) Up to 3 years + fine up to ■2 lakh
Sec 66F Cyber terrorism — attacks on national security / critical infra Life imprisonment
Sec 67 Publishing obscene content online Up to 5 years + fine up to ■10 lakh
Sec 67B Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) Up to 7 years + fine up to ■10 lakh
Sec 43A Company fails to protect sensitive personal data Compensation to affected persons
Sec 72 Breach of confidentiality — misuse of confidential data Up to 2 years + fine up to ■1 lakh
Sec 70B CERT-In established as national incident response agency Mandatory incident reporting
Sec 70A NCIIPC established to protect critical infrastructure —
IPC Sections for Cyber Crimes
IPC Section Offense
Sec 415/417/420 Cheating and dishonest inducement (online fraud, fake landlords)
Sec 405/406 Criminal breach of trust (misappropriating digital payments)
Sec 463/465/468/471 Forgery of digital documents, fake rental agreements, altered e-stamps
Sec 379/381/411 Theft and handling stolen property in digital context
Reporting Cyber Crime in India
• Online Portal: [Link]
• Emergency Helpline: 1930 (financial cyber fraud)
• Local Cyber Crime Police Station
8. REGULATORY BODIES IN INDIA
MeitY (Ministry of Electronics & IT)
• Nodal ministry; frames rules under IT Act; supervises CERT-In; issues cybersecurity guidelines for
intermediaries.
CERT-In (Sec 70B, IT Act)
• National incident response agency. Issues alerts, advisories, vulnerability notes. Mandates incident reporting
within prescribed timelines. Conducts cyber drills. Coordinates with ISPs, RBI, SEBI, international CERTs.
NCIIPC (Sec 70A, IT Act)
• Protects Critical Information Infrastructure — power, banking, telecom, transport. Identifies and secures CII
sectors.
Adjudicating Officers (Sec 46, IT Act)
• Appointed by State Governments. Handle civil contraventions (Sec 43). Impose penalties and compensation.
TDSAT (Formerly Cyber Appellate Tribunal)
• Hears appeals against Adjudicating Officers' orders under IT Act.
CCA (IT Act Ch. VI)
• Controller of Certifying Authorities. Licenses digital signature certificate providers. Ensures authenticity of digital
signatures.
RBI (Sectoral Regulator)
• Cybersecurity guidelines to banks; digital payment security; financial cyber fraud frameworks.
SEBI (Sectoral Regulator)
• Cybersecurity compliance for stock exchanges; protects investors from online fraud; cyber resilience guidelines.
Data Protection Board (DPDPA 2023)
• Enforces data protection compliance; imposes penalties for data breaches; protects citizens' personal data
rights.
9. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS
Budapest Convention on Cybercrime (2001)
• First international treaty on cybercrime; adopted by Council of Europe.
• Offences: Illegal access, data interference, system interference, fraud, CSAM, copyright infringement.
• Sets procedural standards: search, seizure, data preservation.
• Limitation: Not universally accepted — Russia, China not parties; sovereignty concerns.
UN Framework
• UN Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) — developed norms on responsible state behaviour.
• UN Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) — cyber stability, confidence-building, capacity building.
• Key principle: Existing international law applies to cyberspace.
Tallinn Manual (NATO CCDCOE)
• Expert analysis — NOT legally binding but highly influential.
• Tallinn 1.0 (2013): Cyber warfare rules.
• Tallinn 2.0 (2017): Peacetime cyber operations.
• Defines when cyber ops = use of force; explains due diligence and state responsibility.
International Humanitarian Law in Cyberspace
• Applies during armed conflict. Principles: Distinction, Proportionality, Military Necessity, Humanity.
• Cyber attacks on hospitals, dams, nuclear facilities are prohibited.
State Responsibility in Cyberspace
• Two elements: (1) Attribution — who did it? (2) Breach of international obligation.
• Challenge: Attackers use anonymity tools, proxies, state-sponsored hackers.
GDPR (EU)
• Applies to all companies handling EU citizens' data. Extraterritorial application.
• Rights: Access, Erasure (Right to be Forgotten), Data Portability, Object.
• Penalties: Up to €20 million or 4% of global annual turnover.
Important Cases for Exams
• Estonia cyber attacks (2007) — first state-level DDoS attacks, attributed to Russia.
• Stuxnet (2010) — first known cyber weapon; targeted Iran's nuclear centrifuges.
• SolarWinds supply chain attack (2020) — compromised thousands of organizations globally.
• Sony Pictures hack (2014) — data deleted/leaked; attributed to North Korea.
• Colonial Pipeline ransomware (2021) — disrupted US fuel supply.
10. COMPARATIVE CYBER LAWS — COUNTRY WISE
Country / Region Key Law Highlights
India IT Act 2000 + DPDPA 2023 Sections 43–72A; CERT-In; Data Protection Board; weak
enforcement across borders.
USA CFAA + Sector-specific laws Criminalizes unauthorized computer access; FBI/DOJ enforcement;
no single federal privacy law.
EU GDPR (2018) Strongest privacy law globally; consent-based; Right to Erasure;
fines up to 4% global turnover.
UK Computer Misuse Act 1990 + UK Criminalizes hacking, data modification, DDoS; follows post-Brexit
GDPR GDPR.
China Cybersecurity Law 2017 + PIPL Strong state control; data localization; surveillance; strict penalties.
Australia Privacy Act (Amended 2022) Breach notification; access and correction rights; covers govt and
private sector.
Singapore PDPA Consent-based; data retention limits; breach notification
requirements.
11. PRIVACY & DATA PROTECTION
Key Definitions
Privacy — A person's right to control how their personal information is collected, used, shared, and stored.
Data Protection — Policies, processes, and technologies to safeguard personal and sensitive data from
unauthorized access, modification, loss, theft, or misuse.
Personal Data — Name, address, Aadhaar, phone, email, location, IP address, financial/health information.
Sensitive Personal Data — Biometrics, health records, financial details, passwords — requires special
protection.
7 Key Principles of Data Protection (GDPR-based)
Lawfulness, Fairness & Transparency — Data collected legally; user informed about usage.
Purpose Limitation — Collect data only for a specific, clear, stated purpose.
Data Minimization — Collect only the minimum data required.
Accuracy — Data must be kept accurate and up to date.
Storage Limitation — Do not store data longer than necessary.
Integrity & Confidentiality — Protect using encryption, access control, firewalls, etc.
Accountability — Organisations must demonstrate responsibility and compliance.
User Rights Under Privacy Laws
• Right to Access — request copy of data held.
• Right to Correction — fix inaccurate data.
• Right to Consent — data collected only with clear, informed consent.
• Right to Erasure ('Right to be Forgotten') — request deletion.
• Right to Data Portability — transfer data between service providers.
Data Protection Laws Comparison
Law Jurisdiction Key Feature
GDPR EU (2018) Strongest globally; extraterritorial; fines up to €20M or 4% turnover; 72-hour
breach notification.
DPDPA 2023 India Consent-based; Data Protection Board; Right to Erasure; penalties up to ■250
crore.
CCPA California, USA Right to know, opt-out, delete; applies to large businesses handling CA residents'
data.
HIPAA USA (Health) Strict confidentiality of medical records; hospitals, clinics, insurers.
PDPA Singapore Consent, breach notification, retention limits; balanced approach.
PIPL China (2021) Strict consent; limits cross-border transfer; heavy penalties.
12. CYBER SECURITY IN CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Critical Infrastructure (CI) — systems essential for society: power grids, water supply, transportation, healthcare,
banking. Their disruption causes economic loss, national security threats, or loss of life.
SCADA and ICS
• ICS (Industrial Control Systems) — controls industrial processes (manufacturing, power generation).
• SCADA (Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition) — remotely monitors and controls utilities (water,
electricity). Risks: default passwords, lack of encryption, remote access vulnerabilities.
Protection by Sector
Energy
• Separate IT and OT (Operational Technology) networks (segmentation).
• Real-time monitoring and intrusion detection for power grids.
• Strong encryption for SCADA communications.
• Real example: Ukraine power grid attack — caused large-scale outages.
Healthcare
• Encrypt Electronic Health Records (EHR).
• Role-based access control for medical systems.
• Backup systems for patient data; staff phishing training.
• Real example: AIIMS Delhi ransomware — operations disrupted for weeks.
Finance
• Multi-Factor Authentication on banking portals.
• AI-based fraud detection systems.
• Secure transaction protocols (SSL/TLS).
• Real example: Colonial Pipeline (2021) — disrupted US fuel supply.
Legal Challenges in Securing Critical Infrastructure
• Lack of uniform cyber laws across countries.
• Jurisdictional issues — attacks originate in one country, target another.
• Attribution problem — hard to identify the real attacker (proxies, botnets).
• Compliance burden — multiple, complex regulations across sectors.
• Privacy vs Security conflict — surveillance may violate civil liberties.
• Liability gaps — unclear responsibility between govt, private owners, and vendors.
• Rapid technology changes — laws lag behind AI, IoT, cloud developments.
• Cyber warfare legal gaps — no clear definition of 'cyber act of aggression'.
13. CYBER SECURITY IN EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
AI (Artificial Intelligence)
• Threats: Data poisoning, model theft, adversarial attacks (tricking AI), deepfakes.
• Defence: Secure training datasets, model validation, AI governance frameworks.
• AI also used offensively: automated phishing, advanced malware.
IoT (Internet of Things)
• Threats: Default passwords, lack of encryption, botnet attacks (e.g., Mirai), device hijacking.
• Defence: Strong authentication, regular firmware updates, network segmentation, secure device design.
Cloud Computing
• Threats: Data breaches, misconfigured settings, insider threats, account hijacking.
• Defence: Encryption at rest & in transit, IAM, MFA, regular security audits.
Blockchain
• Tamper-resistant — any change breaks the hash chain.
• Decentralized — no single point of failure; resilient against DDoS.
• Use in law: Smart Contracts (auto-execute when conditions met), tamper-proof evidence, land records, digital
identity.
• Security note: Smart contract bugs, 51% attacks remain risks.
5G Technology
• Threats: Increased attack surface, network slicing vulnerabilities, supply chain risks.
• Defence: Strong encryption protocols, secure architecture, vendor verification.
Big Data
• Threats: Privacy violations, unauthorized access, insecure storage.
• Defence: Data encryption, access control policies, anonymization, secure lifecycle management.
14. STANDARDS & BEST PRACTICES
Standard Issued By Key Focus
NIST CSF US National Institute of Standards 5 functions: Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, Recover. Risk-based
& Technology approach; widely adopted globally.
ISO/IEC 27001 International Organization for Information Security Management System (ISMS).
Standardization Certification-based; risk assessment; globally recognized.
GDPR European Union Data protection mandate; breach notification; heavy penalties.
PCI-DSS Payment Card Industry Applies to card-handling organisations; encryption, firewalls,
monitoring required.
CERT-In Guidelines India — MeitY Mandatory incident reporting timelines; log retention; security
controls for service providers.
RBI Cyber Security Reserve Bank of India Mandatory for banks/NBFCs; Security Operations Centre (SOC),
Framework risk assessment, reporting.
Core Best Practices
• Access Control: MFA, RBAC, Least Privilege principle.
• Network Security: Firewalls, IDS/IPS, VPN, network segmentation.
• Data Protection: Encryption (at rest & in transit), data classification, regular backups.
• Endpoint Security: Antivirus, EDR tools, patch management, device control.
• Incident Response Plan: Detection procedures, response team, communication strategy, forensic readiness.
• Security Awareness Training: Phishing simulation, password hygiene, social engineering awareness.
• Risk Management: Periodic vulnerability assessment, penetration testing, third-party risk evaluation.
• Emerging: Zero Trust Architecture ('Never trust, always verify'), AI-based threat detection, DevSecOps, DLP.
15. GLOBAL COOPERATION IN CYBER SECURITY
United Nations (UN/GGE/OEWG) — Develops global cyber norms; encourages responsible state behaviour;
capacity building for developing nations.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union) — UN agency; develops cyber security frameworks; Global
Cybersecurity Index.
INTERPOL — International police cooperation; cyber intelligence sharing; digital forensics; Global Complex for
Innovation (Singapore).
NATO (CCDCOE) — Cyber defence as national security threat; Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre; cyber
defence training.
ENISA (EU Agency for Cybersecurity) — Risk assessments; cybersecurity guidelines; incident response
coordination across EU.
CERTs (national teams) — Country-level incident response, vulnerability alerts, security advisories. India =
CERT-In; USA = US-CERT.
ISACs (Information Sharing & Analysis Centers) — Sector-based organizations sharing threat intelligence.
Examples: Financial ISAC, Energy ISAC, Health ISAC.
Important Agreements
• Budapest Convention (2001) — first international cybercrime treaty; harmonizes laws; promotes cooperation.
• Paris Call for Trust and Security in Cyberspace (2018) — prevent attacks on critical infrastructure; responsible
state behaviour.
• UN Charter Art. 2(4) — cyber operations causing physical destruction may qualify as 'use of force'.
• UN Charter Art. 51 — victim state may act in self-defence if cyberattack = 'armed attack'.
16. FUTURE TRENDS IN CYBER SECURITY & LAW
Rise of AI in Cyber (both sides) — Defenders use AI for threat detection, malware analysis, automated
response. Attackers use AI for advanced phishing, deepfakes, automated hacking.
Cybercrime-as-a-Service (CaaS) — Ransomware kits and hacking tools sold online; even non-technical
criminals can launch attacks. Legal response: stronger international laws, UN cybercrime conventions.
Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) — Traditional perimeter security obsolete. 'Never trust, always verify.' Focus:
identity verification, continuous authentication, least privilege.
Expansion of Privacy Laws — GDPR, DPDPA 2023, CCPA growing; stricter breach notification; data
localization; heavy penalties.
Quantum Computing Threats — May break RSA, ECC encryption. Legal response: post-quantum cryptography
standards; mandates to upgrade encryption.
IoT Security Legislation — Mandatory security standards for smart devices; manufacturer liability for insecure
products.
Supply Chain Security — Vendor accountability laws; cloud compliance frameworks; cross-border data transfer
regulations.
International Cooperation Growth — Global cyber treaties; harmonized cyber laws; joint investigations.
Human-AI Collaboration — AI handles routine detection; humans handle complex decisions — hybrid security
teams.
Evolving Role of Law — Laws adapting to AI governance, IoT liability, digital evidence forensics, cyber warfare
norms, data protection.
QUICK REVISION: KEY TERMS & CONCEPTS
Term One-Line Definition
Malware Malicious software (virus, worm, trojan, ransomware, spyware)
Phishing Trick users into revealing credentials via fake emails/SMS/calls
Ransomware Encrypts data; demands payment (WannaCry, AIIMS Delhi attack)
DDoS Botnet floods server with traffic to make it unavailable
MitM Attacker secretly intercepts communication between two parties
SQL Injection Malicious SQL code in web forms to access/alter databases
CIA Triad Confidentiality + Integrity + Availability — core security goals
Symmetric Crypto Same key for encrypt & decrypt (AES, DES) — fast
Asymmetric Crypto Public + Private key pair (RSA, ECC) — secure key exchange
SHA-256 / MD5 Hash functions — one-way, used for integrity & password storage
Kill Chain 7-stage attack model: Recon→Weaponize→Deliver→Exploit→Install→C2→Action
MITRE ATT&CK; Knowledge base of adversary tactics & techniques from real attacks
APT Advanced Persistent Threat — long-term stealthy attacks by skilled groups
Zero Trust 'Never trust, always verify' — continuous authentication
NGFW Next-Gen Firewall = Firewall + IDS/IPS + deep packet inspection
IDS vs IPS IDS detects and alerts; IPS detects AND blocks attacks
SIEM Security Info & Event Management — correlates logs for threat detection
IT Act Sec 43 Civil liability for unauthorized access; victim claims compensation
IT Act Sec 66F Cyber terrorism — attacks on national security; life imprisonment
IT Act Sec 43A Company fails to protect sensitive data; must compensate victims
CERT-In India's national cyber incident response agency (Sec 70B, IT Act)
NCIIPC Protects Critical Information Infrastructure (Sec 70A, IT Act)
GDPR EU data protection law; 72-hr breach notification; fines up to 4% turnover
DPDPA 2023 India's new privacy law; Data Protection Board; fines up to ■250 crore
Budapest Convention First international cybercrime treaty (2001); harmonizes cyber laws
Tallinn Manual NATO expert guide on international law in cyberspace; not binding
SCADA Remotely monitors and controls critical infrastructure (water, electricity)
Stuxnet First known cyber weapon; targeted Iran's nuclear centrifuges (~2010)
WannaCry 2017 global ransomware; exploited Windows SMB vulnerability EternalBlue
ISO 27001 International standard for ISMS; certification-based; globally recognized
NIST CSF US framework: Identify, Protect, Detect, Respond, Recover
PCI-DSS Payment card security standard; encryption, firewalls, monitoring
Blockchain Smart Contract Self-executing agreement on blockchain — auto-executes when conditions met
Deepfake AI-generated fake audio/video — emerging threat for misinformation
Post-Quantum Crypto New cryptographic algorithms resistant to quantum computing attacks
■ Exam Tips: Focus on IT Act section numbers and punishments. Know the CIA Triad with real examples.
Understand the 7-stage Kill Chain. Compare GDPR vs DPDPA 2023. Know CERT-In, NCIIPC, and MeitY
roles. For emerging tech: AI, IoT, Blockchain are high-scoring topics.