HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING

Instructor: Engr. Mary Joy Fruelda

BASIC CONCEPTS IN RAILWAY RAILWAY TRACK

TRANSPORT SYSTEM
DEFINITION − The “railway” is a terrestrial
mass transport system. Trains move on their
own (diesel traction) or remotely transmitted
power (electrical traction) using steel
wheels* on a dedicated steel guideway
defined by two parallel rails.
CONSTITUENTS OF RAIL TRANSPORT
SYSTEM

• RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE
• ROLLING STOCK
• RAILWAY OPERATION

RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE

• The term, railway infrastructure, describes

the railway track and all the civil engineering
structures and systems/premises that
ensure the railway traffic TRACK STRUCTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
• The railway track comprises successively 1. ‘Plain’ track (line): a segment of a
from top to bottom the rails, the sleepers, the railway track that does not have any
ballast, the sub−ballast, the formation layer junctions, crossovers, or points on it
and the subgrade 2. ‘Open’ track: a segment of a
railway track that does not have
• The upper section of the track any tunnels, bridges, overpasses,
superstructure that comprises the rails, the high embankments, deep cuttings
sleepers, the fastenings and the rail pads and stations/stops on it.
forms what could be commonly called the
‘track panel’. ROLLING STOCK
• The lower part of the track − Rolling stock is the term employed to
superstructure that comprises the
ballast and its sublayers is called describe all railway vehicles, both
‘trackbed layers’. The trackbed layers powered and hauled, used either as
and the track subgrade, considered as power, trailer or engineering vehicles.
a whole, are called ‘trackbed’.
CATEGORIES OF ROLLING STOCK BASIC PARTS OF RAILWAY VEHICLE
• The car body (body shell)
• The bogies (trucks)
• The wheelsets (axle + 2 wheels)
MAIN PARTS OF A RAILWAY VEHICLE

ROLLING STOCK COMPONENTS

POWER VEHICLES
− Serve the sole purpose of hauling
the trailer vehicles, and are then
called ‘locomotives’ (or traction
units).
− Transport a number of passengers,
and are then called either ‘single
railcars’ (they have a driver’s cab at
one or both ends) or motor cars.
− To be used for shunting, hence they are
called ‘shunting locomotives’ RAILWAY OPERATION
TRAILER VEHICLES The term railway operation describes
all activities through which a railway
− Passenger vehicles (or cars or company secures revenue service.
coaches) intended to transport
passengers

− Freight vehicles (or wagons) intended

to transport goods (common or
general use freight wagons).
− Specific−use freight wagons intended
for the transportation of certain types
of freight only.
RAILWAY OPERATION Average running speed (𝑽𝒂𝒓), which is
defined as the quotient of the length of a line
segment (usually between two successive
stations), to the time taken to pass this
segment, considering normal traffic
conditions (e.g., no unforeseen delays).
Rolling stock design speed (𝑽𝒓𝒔), which is
defined as the maximum speed that,
according to the manufacturer, can be
developed by a particular type of locomotive,
or with which a trailer vehicle can move, or,
finally, the maximum speed that can be
Classification of Railway Systems developed by a multiple unit of given
Speed in Railway Engineering formation taking into consideration the
traction system (diesel or electric power), the
Track design speed (𝑽𝒅), which is defined as hauled weight, the track geometry alignment
the speed the track alignment and design and considering the track to be of very
corresponding railway infrastructure as a good ride quality.
whole (superstructure, substructure, civil
engineering structures, systems/premises) Classification Based on Functionality
has been designed and constructed for. Interurban Railway - serves trips greater
Permissible track speed (𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒕𝒓), which is than 150 km and usually links major urban
centres. It comprises high−speed trains
defined as the maximum speed that may be
developed on a railway track section at the (Vmax ≥ 200 km/h, Vc ≥ 150 km/h) and
time a given rolling stock is commissioned. conventional speed trains (Vmax < 200
km/h).
Maximum running speed (𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙), which is
Suburban Railway
defined as the maximum speed developed by
a particular train type on a given line, while − Is a railway means of transport usually
performing a scheduled route. running on electrified lines with
Operating speed (𝑽𝒐𝒑), which is defined as characteristics adapted to commuter
services within the impact limits of major
the speed that is developed at the biggest
urban areas (suburbs and satellite regional
part of the route (e.g., at 2/3 of the route
centres). Its range can exceed 100 km and
length) by a particular train type while
may even reach up to 150 km.
performing a scheduled route.
− ‘commuter (urban) railway’ covers 30−50 km
Passage speed (𝑽𝒑), which is defined as the
constant speed with which a train passes − ‘regional railway’ covers longer distances
from a particular, characteristic segment of
the line which is of small length (e.g., passing
through a tunnel, passing through stations,
etc.).
Commercial speed (𝑽𝒄), which is defined as
the ratio of the length of a railway route
(usually between the two terminals or
between two important intermediate stations)
to the time it takes to cover it, including halt
times at all intermediate stations and delays.
Urban Railway “Monorail System”
“The Metro”

“Driverless Railway System”

“Light Metro”

Steep Gradient Railway

− The ‘steep gradient railway’ serves small−
distance connections with an important
“Tramway” difference of altitude between the two edges
of the railway line.
− They are separated into rack railways
and cable−propelled railway systems.
Rack Railway
“Cable −Propelled Railway” Meter Tracks
− Meter tracks or meter track gauge: This
category mainly comprises the following
gauges: 914 mm, 950 mm, 1,000 mm
(meter),
1,050 mm, 1,067 mm (Cape gauge).
Narrow Tracks
− Narrow tracks or narrow track gauge: This
category comprises gauges from 600 to 900
mm and mainly 600 mm (Decauville), 700
mm, 750 mm, 760 mm (Bosnian gauge).
These gauges are usually used for secondary
Classification Based on Track Gauge lines (industrial area, factory, mine service
lines). Meter and narrow tracks are also
THE TRACK GAUGE IS THE DISTANCE
termed as small gauge tracks
BETWEEN THE INNER EDGES OF THE
HEADS OF THE TWO RAILS MEASURED Mixed Gauge Tracks
AT 14–16 MM BELOW THE ROLLING
SURFACE PLANE − Mixed gauge tracks: This category
comprises tracks on which trains of
Track Gauge different gauge category may run
simultaneously.
Classification Based on Traffic
1. EXCLUSIVELY USED BY FREIGHT
TRAINS (FREIGHT−DEDICATED
NETWORK/CORRIDOR)
2. MAINLY USED BY FREIGHT TRAINS
3. NETWORK/CORRIDOR WITH MIXED
TRAFFIC OPERATION
4. MAINLY USED BY PASSENGER TRAINS
5. EXCLUSIVELY USED BY PASSENGER
Standard Tracks TRAINS (PASSENGERDEDICATED
NETWORK/CORRIDOR
− Standard tracks or standard track gauge:
This category mainly comprises the 1435 mm
gauge. This distance (4 feet and 8 inches) ➢ The term ‘mixed traffic operation’
was established by the British engineer commonly describes the routing of
George Stephenson (1781–1848). both freight and passenger trains on
Broad Tracks the same track.
➢ The term ‘exclusively used or
− Broad tracks or broad track gauge: This dedicated’ describes the exclusive
category mainly comprises the following routing of either passenger or freight
gauges: 1,520/1,524 mm (former Soviet trains on the track
countries), 1,600 mm (Irish gauge) and
1,665 mm, 1,667 mm
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING • As of 31 March 2013, 23,541 km
(14,628 mi) (36%) of the total 65,000
Amongst the different modes of km (40,000 mi) km route length was
transport, Railways have their greatest electrified. Since 1960, almost all
utilization in the transport of large volumes of electrified sections on IR use 25,000
heavy and bulk commodities and Volt AC traction through overhead
passengers over long distances with safety, catenary delivery
comfort and convenience.
DEFINITION
Adhesion of wheels − Resistance offered by
HISTORY OF RAILWAYS the friction between the metal surface of the
rail and the wheel
Adzing of sleepers − In order to obtain an
inward slope of 1 in 20 for the rail, the
sleepers are cut to form a table. The process
of cutting the wooden sleeper or casting the
concrete sleepers accordingly is known as
Adzing of sleepers.
Ash Pits − Long masonry pits, constructed
longitudinally inside and under the track to
− In India first railway was built between collect the ash from steam locomotives
Mumbai and Thane in 1852 and the first Ballast − Granular material used in packing
passenger train ran between the two under and around the sleepers to transfer
stations, covering a distance of 34 km, on load from the sleepers.
April 16,1 853.
Check rails
• Railways were first introduced to
India in 1853 from Bombay to The rails, which are introduced along the
Thane inner rail of a track on sharp curves for
• A British engineer, Robert reducing the wear of rails, are called ‘check
Maitland Brereton, was rails.
responsible for the expansion of
the railways from 1857 onwards. Check rails are also provided along the
• The Allahabad-Jabalpur branch straight rails opposite the crossings in
line of the East Indian Railway had turnouts
been opened in June 1867 Bearing plates
• In 1951 the systems were
nationalized as one unit, the Indian Mild steel, or cast−iron plates used for fixing
Railways, becoming one of the the rail with wooden sleepers.
largest networks in the world.
• Indian Railways is the world's ninth The rectangular plates made of either mild
largest commercial or utility steel, cast iron, wrought iron, or malleable
employer, by number of employees, steel which are interposed between the foot
with over 1.4 million employees. As of a flat− footed rail and wooden sleeper to
for rolling stock, IR holds over distribute the load on a larger area, are called
239,281 Freight Wagons, 59,713 bearing plates.
Passenger Coaches and 9,549 Chairs − For keeping the bull−headed rail in
Locomotives (43 steam, 5,197 diesel proper position, special devices are provided
and 4,309 electric locomotives) in between the sleepers and the rails which
is known as the Chairs.
Coning of wheel − "Coning of wheels" is − It usually includes both powered and
what allows a train to take a turn without unpowered vehicles, for example
slipping off its tracks. locomotives, railroad cars, coaches, and
wagons
Creep of rails - The longitudinal movement
of rails, in a track is known as creep of rails Stock rail − This is the main rail at the switch
where the tongue rail fits against it.
Drop Pits − Pits constructed in the loco shed
for taking down wheels of the locomotive Tongue rail − Tapered rail used in switch
during repair
Tube railways − Underground railways at
Examination Pits − Pits constructed for about 27m or more in depth below the
examination of the engines underneath ground

Detectors - A defect detector is a device Railroad station

used on railroads to detect axle and signal
− Set of installations of a railway, where
problems in passing trains.
passengers embark and disembark and
Hogged Rails − A Hogged Rail is the goods are loaded and unloaded.
surface defect of the rail in which the rail ends
are bent downward at the joints. Water tower – water container.

Kinks - Lateral shift in rails due to loose Tunnel – underground passage.

joints and defective gauge is called as Kinks
Viaduct − railway bridge
Flag Stations − A railroad station where
Bridge − Construction that allows passage
trains stop only when a flag or other signal
between two points separated by a
is displayed or when passengers are to be
depression or an obstacle
discharged
Overpass − Elevation of a railway over a
Fouling Mark − It is the point beyond the highway so they do not intersect
converging point of two or more tracks
before which train on one of those tracks Engine shed − Place where
have to be stopped so that train movement locomotives are stored
is not obstructed in other tracks.
Rails − A steel bar or continuous line of bars
Gang Hut − Residential quarters provided laid on the ground as one of a pair forming a
near the centre of the gauge beat are railway track
called gang hut.
Sleeper − It is one of the cross braces that
Guard Rails − Extra rails provided over support the rails on a railway track
bridges to prevent damage and derailment
on the bridge Ballast − Track ballast forms the track bed
upon which railway sleepers are laid
Heel - Tapered rail fixed to the main rails
Gauge − Rail gauge is the distance between
Level crossing − Place when the road and the inner sides of the two parallel rails that
railway line cross each other at the same make up a single railway line.
level.
Turn out − A complete set of points and
Rolling stock crossings along with a lead rail
- Rolling stock comprises all the vehicles that Right Hand Turn out − If a train from main
move on a railway track is diverted to the right of the main route
in the facing direction
Left Hand Turn out − If a train from main 1. Broad Gauge
track is diverted to the left of the main route
− When the clear horizontal distance
in the facing direction
between the inner faces of two parallel
Points and Crossing − Special rails forming a track is 1676mm the gauge
arrangement on railway track for enabling is called Broad Gauge (B.G)
trains to divert from one track to another
− This gauge is also known as standard
Yards − System of tracks for various gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of
purposes such as receiving, storing and the world.
dispatch of goods, wagons and passenger
− The Other countries using the Broad Gauge
Signals − Device by which movement of are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Brazil,
train is controlled Argentine, etc.50% India’s railway tracks
have been laid to this gauge.
Rail Gauges
2. Metre Gauge
- Rail gauge is the distance between the inner
sides of the two parallel rails that make up a − When the clear horizontal distance
single railway line between the inner faces of two parallel rails
forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is
− Rail gauge is the distance between two known as Metre Gauge (M.G)
rails of a railroad.
− The other countries using Metre gauge are
− Sixty percent of the world's railways use a France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc. 40% of
4 feet 8½ inch (1435 mm) gauge, which is India’s railway tracks have been laid to this
known as standard gauge or international gauge.
gauge.
3. Narrow Gauge
− Rail gauges larger than standard gauge
are called broad gauge, and rail gauges − When the clear horizontal distance
smaller than standard are called narrow between the inner faces of two parallel rails
gauge. forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm,
the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G)
− A dual gauge railway has three or four rails
positioned so that trains of two different − The other countries using narrow gauge
gauges can use it. are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India’s
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
−A place where different gauges meet is
called a break of gauge. Loading gauge
− A loading gauge defines the maximum
height and width for railway vehicles and their
Types of Rail Gauges loads to ensure safe passage through
The different gauges prevalent in India are of bridges, tunnels and other structures.
the following these types: − The loading gauge determines the sizes of
• Broad gauge (1676), passenger trains and the size of shipping
• Metre gauge (1000), containers that can be conveyed on a section
• Narrow gauge (762 mm & 610 mm) of railway line and varies across the world
and often within a single railway system.
− A loading gauge is the envelope or Bull headed rails
contoured shape within which all railroad
In this type of rail the head was made a little
cars, locomotives, coaches, buses, trucks
thicker and stronger than the lower part by
and other vehicles, must fit.
adding more metal to it, so that it can
− It varies between different countries and withstand the stresses.
may also vary on different lines within a
Flat footed rails
country. For example, metro trains might
have smaller loading gauge than − These rails are also called as vignole's rails.
conventional trains to allow smaller tunnels.
– Initially the flat footed rails were fixed to the
− In that case metro trains may run on sleepers directly and no chairs and keys were
conventional tracks, but not vice versa. required.
Construction gauge − Later on due to heavy train loads problems
arose which lead to steel bearing plates
− By adding suitable clearance at the top side
between the sleeper and the rail. at rail joints
of the loading gauge construction gauge is
and other important places these are the rails
obtained.
which are most commonly used in india
− It decides the dimensions such as height
Hogged rails − A hogged rail is one with its
and width of structures in bridges and tunnels
end or ends bent in vertical direction. Caused
along the track so that all wagons may pass
due to battering action of wheels
through them without damage to the
structures SLEEPERS AND BALLAST
− Sleepers are used as a base for laying
railway tracks. Sleepers were traditionally
RAILS made from wood but are now usually made
General from concrete.
− Ties are laid on top of sand, gravel or heavy
− Rail is similar to steel girders. These are crushed stone − called ballast
placed end to end to provide continuous and
level surface for the trains to move
Types of rail sections Sleepers depending on the location

Double headed rails Longitudinal sleepers

− These were the rails which were used in the − These are earlier form of sleepers which are
beginning, which were double headed and not in use nowadays.
consisting of a dumb−bell section. − It consists of slabs or pieces of timber placed
− The idea behind using these rails was that parallel to the rails.
when the head was worn out in course of time, − To maintain the correct gauge cross pieces
the rail can be inverted and reused. were provided.
− But as time passed indentations were − These sleepers were costly
formed in the lower table due to which smooth
running over the surface at the top was − Noise created by the track is considerable
impossible.
Transverse sleepers Ballast

− Also known as cross sleepers. − It is a layer of broken stones, gravel or any

other such gritty material laid and packed
− Placed at right angles under the rails. below and around sleepers.
− Eliminated the inconvenience of longitudinal − The material used as an elastic cushion
sleepers between the sleeper and the top of the
Timber sleepers (Wooden sleepers) − formation, is called ‘Ballast’
Ideal type and universally used they are two
categories of hard wood sleepers such as
Sal, Teak, Kongu etc., and soft vwood TYPES OF BALLAST:
sleepers such as deodar, chir, treated − Keeping in vies the availability, workability,
timbers are use in these categories. durability and strength of the ballast different
materials have been used as ballast. The most
important types of ballast materials used in.
Steel sleepers - They are in the form of
steel trough on which rails are fixed by keys
or nuts or bolts (1) Broken stone:
Cast iron sleepers - Sleepers made of cast − Best material for railway track.
iron are called cast iron sleepers − Due to high interlocking action it holds the
track to the correct alignment and gradient
Concrete sleepers − Granite, Quartzite, hard stones, lime
stones are some of the varieties of stones
− R.C.C and pre−stressed concrete sleepers
are now replacing all other types of sleepers (2) Gravel:
except to some special circumstances such − Obtained from river beds or pits
as crossing bridges etc here timber sleepers − Cheaper than broken stone
are used. − Has excellent drainage property
− Requires screening before use
− They were first of all used in France round (3) Ashes and Cinder:
about in 1914 but are common since 1950. − Residue obtained from coal used
in locomotives is cinder
− They may be a twin block sleepers joined by
− Has good drainage property
an angle iron.
− Corrosive property
− It may be a single block pre−stressed type. − Should not be used where steel sleepers are
used
− Concrete sleepers are much heavier than
wooden ones, so they resist movement
(4) Sand:
better.
− Best materials for ballast
Pre-stressed concrete sleepers − Good drainage property
− Gives silent track
− The concrete is put under a very high initial − Good for packing of cast iron pot sleepers
compression. □
− All the disadvantages of RC sleepers have (5) Moorum:
been eliminated by pre stressing sleepers − Decomposed laterite rocks
− Red in colour
− Two types of pre stressed sleepers (i) Pre− − Under heavy loads crumbles to powder
tensioned sleeper (ii) Post tensioned sleeper − Used in sidings and embankments
 According to position of sleepers:
(6) Kankar:
− Found in the form of nodules of varying size (i) Suspended joints:
− Useful for metre gauge and narrow gauge − The rail joint when placed at the centre of
tracks with light traffic two consecutive sleepers is known as
suspended joints
(7) Brick ballast:
− Over burnt bricks are broken in to small − The load is evenly distributed on two sleepers.
pieces, used as ballast
− Fairly good enough drainage property − When joint is depressed both rails are pressed
− Becomes powder under heavy traffic down evenly
and tracks become dusty.
(ii) Supported joints:
(8) Selected earth: − When the sleeper is placed exactly below
− Good quality earth can be used for newly the rail joint, it is known as supported joint.
laid tracks and sidings
− Do not give sufficient support with heavy
axle loads
RAIL FASTENINGS AND PLATE LAYING
(iii) Bridge joints:
Rail joints
− Similar to suspended joint, but a metal
− Rail joints are necessary to hold the serving as a bridge to connect the ends of
adjoining ends of the rails in the correct two rails
position, both in the horizontal and vertical
planes − The bridge is placed at the bottom of rails
and it rests on two sleepers
− Weakest part of the track
− In order to Provide expansion and
Rail fastenings:
contraction due to variation in temperature,
certain gap is provided at each joint. − A rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails
to railroad ties.
− This gap causes a break in continuity of
− The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and
rails in horizontal as well as in vertical
track fasteners are used to refer to parts or all
plane, forming the weakest point of the
of a rail fastening system.
track.
− Various types of fastening have been used
Types of Rail Joints
over the years.
According to Position of joints Square Joints: Fish Plates:
− A fishplate, splice bar or joint bar is a metal bar
− Joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the that is bolted to the ends of two rails to join them
joint in the other parallel rail is called as together in a track
Square Joint
− The top and bottom edges are tapered
− Common in straight tracks inwards so the device wedges itself between
Staggered Joints: the top and bottom of the rail when it is bolted
into place.
− Joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the
centre of the other parallel rail is called as − In rail transport modelling, a fishplate is often a
Square Joint small copper or nickel silver plate that slips onto
− In India this type of joint is used in curves both rails to provide the functions of maintaining
alignment and electrical continuity
− It gives smoother running to the track.
Fish Bolts: − In new track sleepers are laid directly over
− Made up of medium or high carbon steel. the formation, after compaction the track is
− Fish bolts have to undergo shear due to then lifted and ballast is packed around the
heavy transverse stresses. sleeper
− Length depends on the type of fishplate
used Methods of plate laying:
− For 44.70Kg rail, a bolt of 2.5cm dia and Tram line method or side method:
12.7cm length is used
− These bolts get loose by the traffic − This method is used for plate laying in flat
variations and require tightening from country
time to time
− Used when new track is laid nest to the
Spikes: existing track
− A rail spike (also known as a cut spike or − For plate laying of new track, either of the
crampon) is a large nail with an offset head following two methods may be adopted
that is used to secure rails and base plates to (i)A service road is constructed parallel to the
railroad ties in the track. proposed track and the materials are
transported to the site of the work
Blocks:
(ii)A temporary rail line parallel to the
− To hold the check rail at the required proposed track and the materials are
distance, small blocks of steel are transported in wagons. This temporary line is
inserted in between two rails known as tram line
− These blocks may touch either the
webs or the fishing faces or both − In this method all the materials are taken from
the central depot in material trains on the existing
Elastic fastenings: track and are spread on the formation of new
− A rail fastening system is a means of track
fixing rails to railroad ties − After completing spreading, the work of
− The conventional rigid fastenings are assembling is started from one end manually
not able to meet the higher stresses. Telescopic method:
Therefore elastic fastenings are used
− This method is used very widely in India
− This may protest against the shocks,
vibrations − A large central depot is constructed near the
junction of the existing railway or highway and
Anchors and anti-creepers: the proposed railway line
− Creep can be checked by using − The manual force is divided in to Material gang,
Anchor and Anti−creepers. Linking−in−gangs and Packing−in−gangs
− Anchors are fastenings which are fixed
to the sleepers at foot of rails (i) Material gangs:

− Anchors are fixed at come required − These gangs unload the materials from the
intervals in the rails trains
− They depend up on the traffic, curves − They carry the materials to the rail head and
points, crossings supply them to the linking−in−gangs.
Plate laying: (ii) Linking−in−gangs:
− The operation of laying out and − These gangs mark the centre line of the
connecting sleepers and connecting rail proposed track and place the sleepers at
and sleepers is known as Plate laying required place
− The point of commencement of the new
track to be laid is the existing rail head
(iii) Packing−in−gangs:
− These gangs correct the rails to the
required level and gradients by packing
earth or ballast below and around the
sleepers
American method
− This method involves all mechanical work
− This method consists of fixing rails to
the sleepers and lifting the whole unit by
heavy cranes.
− First one is linked with the rail head,
then the train moves ahead by one rail
length and the same procedure is
repeated.
− This method is un−economical one
and is not used in India