4.

1 Research Skills

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 Sampling:

Sampling is the process of selecting a

small group from a Population to represent
the whole.

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 Sample:
Population

Sample
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•

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 What is a sample
• It is a small number of elements selected from a big
population which must be studied, which will be
representative of the characteristics of the big population.

Why sample?

1. Because the population is too big to measure as a whole.

2. It is quicker and cheaper to work with the smaller sample.
3. It is still possible to make statistically valid inferences
(conclusions) from the smaller sample which you study
when it is impossible to study the whole population.
4. A carefully selected sample can give a result which is close
to the result you obtain if every item of the population was
measured.
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What is the correct size of a sample?

1. It is about 20 -30 % of the population.

2. A bigger sample includes more characteristics of
the population, which makes it more
representative of the population.
3. If the population is bigger, then the sample must
be bigger.
4. If the investigator works alone on the study, the
sample can be smaller; if the investigator work in
a group, the sample can be bigger.
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What is bias?
1. Bias is prejudice which, like personal choice or other
influences, which can jeopardize the validity of the
results of the study.
2. Data can be biased in its nature, e.g. to sample telephone
numbers from directory reveals bias against poor people
who do not own telephones.
3. When certain groups or areas are excluded in the study,
the results also become biased.
4. Insufficient care in the selection of a sample, e.g. when
certain groups or areas are excluded in the study, also
create bias.
5. Timing of the sampling also produce bias e.g. when
shoppers are sampled in the morning it excludes school
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children from the sample.
 General Objectives

❖ Know how to carry out research

projects (geographical enquiries)

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 Specific Objectives

➢ What is a geographical enquiry

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 What is a geographical enquiry

• A geographical enquiry is a systematic

investigation used in Geography to ask
questions, collect information, analyse data,
and draw conclusions about places,
environments, and human–environment
interactions.
• In simple terms, it is how geographers find
out about the world.

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 Specific Objectives

➢ Identify a problem area/research

topic and state the objectives

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• Ask questions
– Identify a geographical problem or issue
e.g. Why is rainfall higher in coastal areas than inland
areas?
• Collect information (data)
– Using maps, photographs, fieldwork, surveys, graphs, or
statistics
• Analyse the data
– Look for patterns, trends, similarities, and differences
• Draw conclusions
– Explain findings using geographical concepts and
evidence
• Evaluate
– Reflect on reliability, limitations, and possible
improvements
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 Specific objectives

➢ differentiate between random,

systematic and stratified sampling

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Types of sampling methods:

1. Random sampling
2. Systematic / Ordered sampling
3. Stratified / Layered sampling
4. Clustered sampling.

NB: sampling methods are techniques used to select a

representative subset (sample) from a larger population to
participate in a study.
Sampling occurs first to determine the subset before data
collection occurs. Compiled by A. M. Amukanda
1. Random sampling:

• It constitutes a sampling method in which the

investigator has no control over the choice of the
elements in the sample, e.g. when interviewing people in
a shop, then every next person is interviewed.
• Each element in the population has an even chance of
being selected in the sample.
• The selection of one element does not influence the
selection of the next element.
• It often is carried out with a table of random numbers
to assist in the selection of the sample.

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 Random sampling
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Free of bias / prejudice • Can be misleading if used in
• Good method to use in a big small population
population (e.g. pebbles on • It takes up a lot of time and
a beach) energy when carried out in
the field.
• Can lead to clustering if
used over larger area.

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 NB: Random sampling
• Every member has an equal chances of being
selected.
• Selection is done by chance,
• Reduces, bias

• Example: picking names from a box.

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 2. Systematic / Ordered sampling
• Selection of the elements of the sample occurs
according to an agreed interval, e.g. every
tenth person.
Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. It is easy /simple to carry 1. All elements do not have an equal

out. chance of being selected.
2. It is quicker to chose / 2. May over stress or miss an
locate sites. underlying pattern, e.g. male /
3. Works best to cover large female.
areas sufficiently. 3. May inadvertently pick up a
regularity and bias, e.g. every 10th
person may be female
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NB: Systematic Sampling

• Select every nth member from a list.

• Requires an ordered list.
• Easy and quick to use,

Example: choosing every 5th when learner on a

class list

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 3. Stratified / Layered sampling
• The large population is made up of strata, e.g.
males, females, age groups, income groups, etc.
• The sample must reflect the same strata
proportionately.
Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. It includes all important 1. May be difficult to identify

layers. the correct strata.
2. Makes the sample more 2. Difficult to distinguish
representative / fair. between the strata e.g.
3. It is flexible to be used different ages groups.
together with other sampling
methods.
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NB: Stratified sampling

• Population is divided into groups (strata).

• Samples are taken from each group.
• Ensures fair represent representation of all
groups.

Example: selecting Learners from each grade or

gender group

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 4. Clustered sampling
• When the investigation focuses on only one
group in a large population, e.g. shopping habits
of male young adults are investigated.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Focuses only on one 1. Excludes other
group. groups.

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 Specific Objectives

➢ apply methods of data collection such as

interviews, questionnaires, sampling,
observations, simple surveys (counts and
measurements) document studies and
recording sheet

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 Methods of Data Collection
• Data collection is the process of gathering information
for a study or investigation.
• Data collection methods are the specific tools, and
procedures e.g. surveys, interviews, questionnaires,
observations, focus groups and experiments used to
gather information from that chosen sample.
• Data collection determines how information is
measured or gathered.
• Data collection occurs second to gather data from
the sub set.
• Example: A researcher use, Stratified or random
sampling (sampling method) to pick, 100 students
then, uses online surveys (data collection method) to
get their opinions.

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 Methods of Data Collection
• Data collection is the process of gathering information
for a study or investigation.

1. Interviews
• A method where questions are asked directly to a
person.
• Can be face-to-face, by phone, or online.
• Allows detailed answers and clarification.

Example: Interviewing farmers about rainfall patterns.

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2. Questionnaires
• A set of written questions answered by
respondents.
• Can be open-ended or closed questions.
• Easy to collect data from many people.

Example: Questionnaire on transport used by

learners to school.

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3. Sampling
• Selecting a small group from a larger
population.
• Saves time and cost.
• Sample must be fair and representative.

Example: Surveying 30 learners out of 300 in a

school.

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4. Observation
• Collecting data by watching and recording
events or behaviour.
• Can be direct or using tools (camera, tally
sheet).
• Useful for real-life situations.

Example: Observing traffic flow at an

intersection.

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5. Simple Surveys (Counts and
Measurements)

• Involves counting or measuring physical

features.
• Data is usually numerical.
• Accurate and easy to compare.

Example: Counting vehicles per hour or

measuring rainfall in mm.
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6. Document Studies

• Using existing information already recorded.

• Sources include books, maps, reports, census
data.
• Saves time but data may be outdated.

Example: Using population data from a census

report.

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7. Recording Sheets

• A prepared table or form to record data

systematically.
• Ensures data is organized and accurate.
• Used with observation or surveys.

Example: Tally sheet for counting shop

customers

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 Specific objectives

➢ demonstrate the ability to use and access

information from Information Technology
(where available) for data analysis and
interpretation

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Using information technology IT for, data analysis and
interpretation

• Information technology (IT) refers to the use of

computers and the digital tools, to collect, analyse, and
interpret data.

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1. Accessing information using IT,

• Use the Internet to find data (websites, online

reports).
• Use databases and digital documents.
• Save information using files and folders

Example: downloading rainfall data from a

weather website.

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2. Using IT for Data analysis

• Enter data into spreadsheets (e.g. tables).

• Use calculations (totals, averages,
percentages.
• Create graphs in the charts automatically.

Example: calculating average temperature using

a spreadsheet.

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3. Using IT for data interpretation

• Compare data using graphs in the charts.

• Identify patterns and trends
• Draw conclusions from digital data.

Example: interpreting a bar graph showing

population growth.

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4. Advantages of using IT:

• Saves the time and the effort.

• Improves accuracy.
• Makes data easy to understand.

Exam tip:
• Access = find and retrieve information
• Analyse = organise and calculate data
• Interpret = explain what the data shows,
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 Specific objectives

➢ describe the advantages and

disadvantages of data collection methods

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Advantages and disadvantages of
data collection methods

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 Questionnaires and Interviews:
• They are both data collection techniques whereby
individual people are approached to find out
information about people’s behaviour and opinions
which is not available from any source.
• This information is usually up to date.
• They are often used together e.g. one can conduct an
interview with questionnaire.
• Interview – when you ask people questions and
they answer.
• Questionnaire – a set of carefully designed
questions on [Link] by A. M. Amukanda
 1. Interviews,
Advantages Disadvantages
• Gives detailed • Time consuming.
information. • Can be expensive
• Allows clarification • Interviewer bias may
of answers, occur

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 Procedures to carry out an interviews:
1. A more open-ended approach is needed in interviews than
with questionnaires.
2. Write or call the person requesting an interview, explain
who you are, the purpose of the interview, when it will
suit him / her, how long it will last and make clear what
use will be made of the results.
3. Go with a list of questions, paper to write down answers
or a tape recorder (remember some people do not like to
be tape recorded)
4. In an interview you must listen carefully to the answers
and be ready to respond on it or to probe further.
5. Once the interview is over, it is good manners to write the
person afterwards and thank the person.
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 2. Questionnaires
Advantages Disadvantages
• Collects data from • Low response rate
many people. • Questions may be
• Cheap and quick misunderstood.
collect information. • Limited detail.
• Easy to analyse

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 Questionnaires: important things about
questionnaires:
1. Start by explaining the purpose of the questionnaire.
2. The respondent must be put at ease with easy opening
questions – the difficult probing questions should follow
last.
3. Keep questions short and clear.
4. Use tick boxes where possible.
5. Questions about age, address or income are too personal
and should be avoided.
6. Estimate age, sex, observe sex, estimate income by e.g.
type of occupation, car ownership, type of house, dress
code, etc.
7. Do not ask for information you can obtain from other
sources.
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Types of questions:
1. Closed questions – where possible answers are
made available by e.g. tick boxes.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Easy to answer. 1. Takes long to read through questions
2. Easy to analyse later. 2. Takes time to formulate questions and
3. The layout is clear options
and easy to follow. 3. Limits the answers from respondents
4. If options are poorly designed, the
respondent does not know how to
answer.

Example: how did you travel to the shop? (tick one box) walk
car
bicycle
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2. Open questions – a short, clear question with open
space for an answer.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Takes short time to ask the 1. Often open to vague answers.
questions 2. Answers cannot be analysed
2. Respondent can answer like easily.
he /she wishes / greater truth 3. Information gathered often
in these answers. not what study requires.
3. Does not take long to
formulate questions.

Example : What is your opinion about abortion?

Answer:………………………………………….
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Delivering the questionnaire:
1. How to administer the questionnaire:
a) In the street catching passerby
b) Houses – advantage: you can select houses and
streets you want to do.
c) Mailing the questionnaire: advantage: the
quickest method
Disadvantages: expensive.
✓ no high response.
✓ respondent cannot ask for
clarification.
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2. Plan the sample of respondent, e.g. strata based
on income, sex, age groups, etc.
3. Plan when and where: remember timing often
causes bias.
4. How many: if sample is too small, conclusions
can be prejudiced.

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 3. Observation
Advantages Disadvantages
• Data is first-hand. • Observer bias
• Shows real • Time consuming
behaviour. • Behaviour might
• No need for change if people
respondents to know they are
answer. watched.

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 4. Sampling
Advantages Disadvantages
• Savings time and • Maybe
cost unrepresentative
• Easier to manage • Sampling errors may
than, whole occur.
population

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 5. Simple surveys (Counts and
measurements)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Data is accurate and • Limited explanation
numerical • Only suitable for
• Easy to compare. measurable data.

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 6. Document studies
Advantages Disadvantages
• Quick and cheap to • Data may be
access. outdated.
• Uses, existing data, • Information may be
• Covers long periods. incomplete or biased.

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 Specific objectives

➢ demonstrate the ability to analyse and

present data collected in appropriate form
using for instance maps, graphs, tables,
isolines and flow charts

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 Analysing and presenting the data
• Data analysis is examining data to find patterns
and meaning.
• Data presentation is showing data clearly using
suitable formats.

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 Tables

• Organise data into rows and columns,

• Makes data easy to read and compare.
• Used as a base for graphs.

Example: table showing monthly rainy fall amounts.

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2. Graphs

• Show data visually

• Help identify trends and patterns

Types of graphs:

• Bar graph - compares quantities

• Line graph - shows change over time
• Pie chart - shows proportions

Example: line graph of temperature changes.

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3. Maps

• Show data according to location.

• Use symbols, colours or shading.
• Useful for spatial patterns.

Example: Population density map.

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4. Isolines

• Lines joining places with the same value,

• Used for continuous data.

Example:
• Isotherms – temperature
• Isohyets – rainfall.
• Contours - height

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5. Flow lines

• Show movement or processes

• Use arrows to show direction and the flow
• Easy to follow steps or relationships.

Example: flow chart showing migration movement.

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 Specific objectives

➢ Make effective conclusions and

evaluations, suggesting solutions were
appropriate.

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 Making conclusions and evaluations
1. Making effective conclusions

• A conclusion summarises the main findings of

the data.
• It is based on evidence, not opinions.
• It shows patterns, trends, or relationships.

Example: rainfall decreases from north to south,

showing a dry climate in the South.
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2. Making evaluations.

• An evaluation judges the quality and the

usefulness of the data and the methods,
• Identify strengths and the weaknesses.
• Consider accuracy, reliability and the
limitations.

Example:
The questionnaire was quick to use, but some
answers were incomplete.
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3. Suggesting appropriate solutions:

• Solutions must be realistic and practical.

• They should be linked to the findings.
• Consider local conditions.

Example
Water saving methods should be introduced in low
rainfall areas.

NB: Conclusion = what the data shows,

• Evaluation = how good the data/method was
• Solution = what can be done,
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 Pilot survey:
• This is a trial study assessing the validity of an enquiry and
gauging improvement that needs to be made.
• In other word, it is a preliminary piece of research
conducted before a complete survey to test the effectiveness
of the research methodology.

Advantages of pilot survey:

1. Enable to pick up some mistakes.
2. Allows to test the practically / relevancy of the assessment
tool.
3. Give you a chance for adjustments.
4. Highlights any questions which are difficult, poorly
worded or [Link] by A. M. Amukanda
Reasons why pilot survey can be conducted
before the survey:

• To test the questions

• To see if the questions are too long or too short.
• To see if the questions are clear
• To check the layout of the questionnaire.
• To see if the questions are appropriate.
• To test people’s views / responses
• To check whether information / data yielded is
what you are looking for.
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