 Describe the evolution of Global Cuisine (C2, A2)

Historical background  Explain the relation of cultural background to the Global cuisine (C1,
Global food culture & A2)
Ethics
 Explain the food ethics around the world (C2, A2)

Module 1: Food Culture, Food Ethics and Identity

Chapter 1: Historical background

GASTRONOMY
Most dictionaries define gastronomy as "the art and science of good eating," or "the art and
science of fine eating."
The etymology of the word is generally attributed to the title of a poem by French attorney
Joseph Berchoux, "Gastronomie" (1801).
One versed in gastronomy is said to be a gastronome,
A gastronomist is one who unites theory with practice in the study of gastronomy and thus
becomes a gourmand (gourmet)
Gastronomy is the study of food and culture, with a particular focus on gourmet cuisine.
Gourmet is a cultural ideal associated with the culinary arts of fine food and drink, or haute
cuisine(Haute cuisine is characterized by meticulous preparation and careful presentation of
food, at a high price level, accompanied by rare wines.) which is characterized by refined,
even elaborate preparations and presentations of aesthetically balanced meals of several
contrasting, often quite rich courses.
The term and its associated practices are usually used positively to describe people of refined
taste and passion.
The term "gastronomy" comes from the Greek word "nomos," meaning "laws that govern."
This has led to the idea that gastronomy is all about fancy and expensive meals. It often
suggests that enjoying good food is only for those who indulge in complex dishes served on
fine china.
An early food enthusiast thought that real food lovers should focus on only a few styles,
which doesn’t match how we view food today.. Today, gastronomy is better explored by
looking at different food cultures and their unique practices..

The term nomos means 'the total knowledge of a particular subject.' In this way, gastronomy
refers to a person's complete understanding of the art and science of good food and eating.
Gastronomy is more than just enjoying food; it involves understanding how food is prepared
and produced. A good gastronomist should know about food chemistry, food history, and
culinary traditions. It’s also important to connect with different cultures through technology.
One should seek a better understanding of agriculture, aquaculture, and the technology of
newer cooking methods and equipment, as well as information on the impact of eating and
diet upon health, including foodborne disease and worldwide ecology.
Gastronomy should teach us how to enjoy food fully, whether it's a family meal at home or a
special dinner out. Simple meals deserve the same appreciation as grand banquets. Tasting a
fresh oyster from a seaside market can be just as enjoyable as a lavish three-hour dinner in a
banquet hall.

People often judge food only by its appearance. When dining out, taste and smell take a
backseat to how food looks.
Many Americans are losing the ability to truly taste and enjoy their food. The joy of sharing a
meal and having good conversations seems to be fading. Food trends come and go quickly,
not allowing any dish to really establish itself.

We need to relearn how to use our senses to enjoy and appreciate the pleasures of eating. We
have the tools to turn a routine meal into one of life’s greatest joys.

Historic evolution of gastronomy: when why and how cuisines have evolved
Gastronomy, or the art and science of good eating, has evolved over centuries from basic
survival to a sophisticated cultural experience. Here's a simplified breakdown of how and
why cuisines have changed through history.

1. Early Beginnings: Food as Survival

 Hunter-Gatherer Era: Early humans ate what they could find, hunt, or gather in
their local environment. Terrain and climate determined their food options.
 Gastro-Geography: This refers to how the land and weather influenced the types of
food available, both wild and cultivated.

2. Trade and Exploration: Learning New Ways

 Gastro-History: Trade and exploration introduced new ingredients, cooking
techniques, and recipes.
o Greek Civilization: Ancient Greeks valued fine dining and emphasized
quality over quantity. Sicilian chefs were famous for their skills.
o Roman Empire: Romans adopted and spread foods from the lands they
conquered. For example, they introduced apples, garlic, and even chickens to
Britain.
 Portuguese Explorers: Brought new ingredients to Europe, like potatoes, tomatoes,
and peppers, which are now staples.

3. Big Changes in Society: New Ways to Eat

French Revolution (1700s):
Aristocratic chefs ( Elite chefs, Upper class chefs, High-society chefs, Noble household
chefs, Royal chefs, Chefs to the aristocracy) who lost their jobs opened restaurants, making
dining out more accessible to the public.

(The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of major political and social change in
France that drastically transformed the country's political structure and society. It marked the
end of absolute monarchy, challenged the traditional privileges of the aristocracy and clergy,
and led to the rise of modern democratic ideas. Here's a simple overview:

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Social Inequality: French society was divided into three estates:
o The First Estate (clergy) and Second Estate (nobility) had privileges,
including tax exemptions.
o The Third Estate (common people) bore the tax burden and faced economic
hardships.
2. Economic Crisis:
o France was in debt due to costly wars (e.g., American Revolution) and
extravagant royal spending.
o Food shortages and rising bread prices caused widespread unrest.
3. Enlightenment Ideas:
o Philosophers like Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu promoted ideas of
liberty, equality, and fraternity, inspiring people to challenge traditional
authority.
4. Weak Leadership:
o King Louis XVI was seen as indecisive, and Queen Marie Antoinette was
unpopular for her perceived extravagance.

Key Events
1. Storming of the Bastille (1789):
o Seen as the start of the revolution, this event symbolized the fight against
oppression.
2. Abolition of Feudal Privileges (1789):
o The National Assembly ended feudal rights and privileges of the nobility.
3. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789):
o A key document that proclaimed freedom, equality, and the protection of
individual rights.
4. Execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1793):
o The monarchy was abolished, and the king and queen were executed during
the radical phase of the revolution.
5. The Reign of Terror (1793–1794):
o A period of political purges where suspected enemies of the revolution were
executed, led by Robespierre.

Impact of the French Revolution

 End of Absolute Monarchy: Established France as a republic.
 Rise of Democratic Ideals: Inspired other revolutions and movements worldwide.
  Social Reforms: Feudal privileges were abolished, and rights for ordinary citizens
improved.
 Napoleon’s Rise: The instability after the revolution eventually led to the rise of
Napoleon Bonaparte as a ruler.

Legacy
The French Revolution remains a powerful symbol of the fight for equality and justice. It
reshaped France and influenced global politics, setting the stage for modern democracies._

 Tourism (1960s–Present): As more people traveled, they experienced new cuisines

and wanted to recreate those experiences back home. This increased the demand for
diverse and adventurous food.

4. Media and Modern Influences

Cinema and TV: Films, newsreels, and travel shows helped people learn about food from around the
world without traveling.
Modern Tourism: Some destinations now focus on local food to showcase their culture and heritage,
appealing to tourists who want authentic experiences.
Many tourism destinations have developed gastronomic provision through delivering an international
menu – ensuring the food is recognisable and acceptable to visiting tourists.
While some tourists will always seek out the familiar, more and more are looking for something
different Food which represents both the heritage and culture of the destination. Not just national
dishes but regional specialities as well.
As our concern for the environment grows, issues such as food miles – the distance that food travels
from production to consumption – are reaching public consciousness.
The promotion of local cuisine satisfies environmental criteria, as well as cultural ones. Additionally,
the benefits of tourism are that much greater if economic leakages are reduced as more food is
produced locally, and less is imported.
 In summary, The greatest influence on the development of gastronomy has come from the
movement of people. This movement can occur for various reasons, including trade, war,
tourism, and economic migration. Since the movement of people is unlikely to stop, the
evolution of gastronomy will continue as well.

 The cuisine of a region plays a vital role in its culture and heritage. As culture evolves, so
does cuisine.

5. Environmental concerns regarding food production and distribution

have gained increased attention in recent years, particularly with the
concept of “food miles.”
Food miles refer to the distance food travels from where it is produced to where it is
consumed. As awareness of climate change and environmental degradation grows, many
people are recognizing the significant impact that transporting food over long distances can
have on our planet.
When food is transported over long distances, it often requires considerable amounts of
energy, particularly fossil fuels, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. This transportation
can occur via trucks, ships, or planes, each of which has a different carbon footprint
associated with it. The longer the distance, the greater the emissions. By contrast, locally
grown food generally travels shorter distances, meaning it has a lower carbon footprint. This
is one of the primary reasons why many consumers are opting for local produce, as it aligns
with their desire to reduce their environmental impact.
In addition to environmental benefits, locally grown food also carries cultural significance. In
many communities, local food systems support traditional farming practices, preserve
regional biodiversity, and maintain culinary traditions. Eating locally can foster a sense of
community, as consumers often develop connections with local farmers and producers. This
relationship not only helps support the local economy but also builds awareness of seasonal
eating and the importance of preserving local agriculture.
Moreover, locally sourced food can be fresher and more nutritious. It often goes from farm to
table in a much shorter time frame, minimizing the time spent in storage and transit, which
can lead to a higher quality product. Freshly harvested produce is often richer in flavor and
nutrients compared to items that have traveled long distances.
In summary, the growing awareness of food miles and their environmental impact has led to a
rising appreciation for local food. By supporting local agriculture, consumers can not only
enjoy the benefits of fresher, more flavourful food but also contribute to efforts aimed at
reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainable practices. This shift reflects a broader
movement towards eco-friendly choices that honour cultural significance and foster
community connections.

Key Point: Movement of People Drives Gastronomy

Whether for trade, exploration, war, or tourism, people have carried their food traditions with
them and borrowed from others. This constant movement keeps gastronomy evolving,
making it a living part of culture and heritage.

Why It Matters
Understanding gastronomy helps us appreciate:
 How food connects to culture and history.
 The importance of sustainable and local food.
 How global influences shape what we eat today.
By learning about the past, we can better understand the role of food in our lives and
communities.
Gastronomy should teach us how to enjoy food fully, whether it's a family meal
at home or a special dinner out. Simple meals deserve the same appreciation as
grand banquets. Tasting a fresh oyster from a seaside market can be just as
enjoyable as a lavish three-hour dinner in a banquet hall.

People often judge food only by its appearance. When dining out, taste and smell
take a backseat to how food looks. Many Americans are losing the ability to truly
taste and enjoy their food. The joy of sharing a meal and having good
conversations seems to be fading. Food trends come and go quickly, not allowing
any dish to really establish itself.

We need to relearn how to use our senses to enjoy and appreciate the pleasures
of eating. We have the tools to turn a routine meal into one of life’s greatest joys.

ORIGIN OF GASTRONOMY

The term "gastronomy" first appeared about 200 years ago in France, in a poem by Jacques
Berchoux (1804). While it has become popular, defining gastronomy is still challenging
(Santich 1996a:1). The word comes from ancient Greek, where "gastros" means stomach and
"nomos" means law. However, its meanings extend beyond this literal translation.
Gastronomy can be categorized into two main areas:
1. Enjoyment of high-quality food and drink.
2. A broader study that includes all aspects of food, including its production, storage,
cooking, and cultural significance.
This broader view emphasizes "reflective eating," which involves thinking about food and its
quality (Santich 1996b:180).
Gastronomy analysis looks at how food is produced, treated, and consumed, as well as its
nutritional and cultural implications (Santich 1996b:2).

GASTRONOMY - BY DEFINITION
Definition: Gastronomy is the art and science of selecting, preparing, serving, and enjoying
good food.
Origins: It comes from traditional knowledge and is closely tied to culture and food
traditions.
Alternative Term: "Culinaria" refers to a country's unique recipes, meals, and cooking
methods, which shape its culinary identity.

Gastronomy and Tourism

 Culinary Tourism: This term was introduced in 1998 to describe how tourists
explore different cultures through food.
 Purpose: People travel to experience a destination’s unique food and drinks, creating
unforgettable and personal memories.

Why Food Matters in Tourism

 1. Emotions and Memories: Food creates unique experiences for tourists, especially
when they are traveling. These memories make their trips special.
2. Popular Food Destinations: Some places are famous for their gastronomy, like
Tuscany in Italy or Lyon in France. These destinations use their food culture as a key
attraction.
3. Improved Living Standards: As people’s living standards improve, food is no
longer just for basic needs but also a way to enjoy life and express culture.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COOKERY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COOKERY

Introduction: Cooking started with the introduction of fire more than one million years
ago. Early man discovered that the meat of an animal cooked by fire, not only tasted good
but required less effort to chew. These factors increased the range of food supply helping
early man to transform from a hitherto solely vegetarian diet. Cooking with fire
revolutionized early man’s life, as the protein and fat of meat provided more energy in a
compact form than did vegetarian food. Weaker and older members of the tribe could now
survive longer with the new foods. Following the invention of cookery, man’s appearance
changed his teeth, jaws and face becoming smaller.

Early History: The evolution of cookery has been molded by the development of cooking
methods, the invention of different means to cook food, the availability of food
commodities, herbs and spices, and influences from abroad in terms of fashions and
imported foodstuffs. By 4000 BC all the basic cookery methods – boiling, stewing,
braising, baking, roasting and grilling – were being used. Crops were grown, animals bred,
and stone pots were used for cooking and storage. The types of food available at this time
were wheat, barley, milk, meat, bread, porridge, cheese and butter.

Later, around 700 BC the Romans developed cookery to a high level and enjoyed a
sophisticated range of foods and dishes. The great banquets involved complex preparations
cooked on charcoal stoves and the cooks were well paid.

Eleventh to sixteenth centuries: In medieval times the food of the wealthy was varied and
substantial, main meals consisting of several courses including beef, pork, mutton, poultry
and game. In the typical kitchen the stores of fowl and vegetables would be lying around
on the floor. It would be very smoky with pots in which most of the cooking took place,
hanging over the fire. Also, there was a spit for roasting meat and fowl. The fire was kept
going day and night and this acted as a source of ignition for the rest of the household.
Food was prepared on large heavy oak tables, with the cooking done in pots made from
heavy iron, copper and brass.

Seventeenth to nineteenth centuries: The seventeenth century saw the replacement of

wood by coal, and the development of the stove in kitchens of the wealthy. A fuller range of
cutlery was also introduced from abroad and the knife, fork and spoon were used together for
the first time.
The nineteenth century was the time of the Industrial Revolution and many more labour-
saving devices were introduced into kitchens.

The Industrial Revolution refers to a period of significant economic, technological, and

social change that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century. It
marked the transition from agrarian economies, which were primarily based on manual
labor and handcrafted goods, to industrialized economies characterized by mechanized
production methods.

Key features of the Industrial Revolution include:

1. Technological Advancements: Inventions such as the steam engine, spinning jenny, and
power loom revolutionized manufacturing processes and increased production efficiency.

2. Factory System: The rise of factories brought about a shift in labor, with many people
moving from rural areas to urban centers to work in industrial settings.

3. Transportation Innovations: The development of railroads and steamships facilitated the

movement of goods and people, enhancing trade and commerce.

4. Economic Growth: The Industrial Revolution contributed to the growth of economies,

the rise of capitalism, and the creation of new job opportunities.

5. Social Changes: It led to changes in social structures, including the rise of a new working
class and shifts in living conditions, often resulting in poor urban living standards and labor
disputes.

The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on society and laid the groundwork for
the modern economic systems and technological advancements we see today. The closed-
top cooking range came into use and many different makers’ versions were available by the
end of the century. Refrigerators started to appear in some of the larger households in the
1880s. By the end of the nineteenth century gas cookers came into use, although these
were mistrusted at first largely because of fear of explosion. The introduction of electricity
gave rise to several electrical appliances including the electric stove, but these were not
used until the twentieth century.

Twentieth century: The initial factors that supported this market were the need for labour-
saving devices, because of the shortage of servants, and also, for less wealthy families, the
availability of hire purchase.

Kitchen planning as a science was introduced from America. It was based on the principles
of time and motion study (ergonomics). By the 1950s and 1960s, the fitted domestic
kitchen and mechanization in the form of kitchen machines were well established.
Apart from cooking and directly related tasks such as buying, storing, serving and washing
up, the domestic kitchen is also the center of many other household activities such as
laundering, maintenance and cleaning. It follows, therefore, that with most people’s
familiarity with the domestic kitchen from early childhood, it is natural to regard a kitchen
as a center of activity and a significant part of the household.

French Influence The predominant style of trade cookery in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries was formed on the basis of what later came to be established as the
international hotel and restaurant style of cookery. This traditional high class cookery is
sometimes loosely referred to as haute cuisine. Whilst this style of cookery still has a strong
influence today, there have been a number of additions, variations, alternatives and
revolutions. These developments have been influenced, to varying degrees by a number of
factors, such as:

1. An increased demand for eating-out

2. A wider range of customers from all social classes and nationalities
3. Commercial exploitation
4. Availability of new commodities not featured in traditional recipes
5. Differing views on healthy eating
Scope: Along with this French influence, a considerable number of cookery styles have been
evolved to meet particular markets. These fall into four broad categories:

1. Traditional French trade cookery – Escoffier tradition

2. Bourgeoise – traditional French home cookery
3. Nouvelle cuisine with its offshoots
4. Movements – healthy eating, ethnic cookery, etc.

1. CUISINE CLASSIQUE:
Definition: This term is used to denote cookery in the style of people such as Escoffier.
The main characteristic of this style is standardization of such things as garnishes, dish
presentation, basic preparation and cookery methods. A considerable amount of
consideration and argument is directed towards the correct interpretation and perfection of
classical dishes. There were several reasons why this style become so firmly established
and thus influential:

1. Escoffier wrote and edited several books to make cookery secrets accessible. We are
all familiar with the notion of the secret recipe, jealously guarded by the creator
2. Eating out was not confined to the male sex in the clubs although it was geared
towards the more affluent.
3. People were gaining employment and careers in the industry
Language: Many of the working communications, particularly in the larger and more
traditional kitchens, are in the French language. In addition to this, the names of dishes are
also in French and many of these technical terms do not have equivalent English
translations. For this reason, a lengthy training is involved to become competent in classical
cookery, which initiated jealously guard.
 2. CUISINE BOURGEOISE:
Definition:
This term refers to traditional French home cooking which began to develop significantly in
the mid-seventeenth century. As cuisine bourgeoise developed at a time of limited
transportation a particular area of interest, as with cookery in the other countries, is the
regional variations of dishes.
A considerable number of cookery books have passed on the recipes and techniques of
cuisine bourgeoise. These accounts all relate to the eating habits of the middle classes who
had an interest in emulating the aristocracy.

Examples:

Cuisine bourgeoise has contributed to the development of classical trade cookery, with
which it has a lot in common. It signifies dishes that are not only simple and homely but
also tasty and wholesome. As far as choice and use of ingredients are concerned, it differs
markedly from nouvelle cuisine. Features of this style include an emphasis on pastry,
confectionery and preserves.

On a menu written in French, dishes prepared in this style would be termed a la bourgeoise.
As implied in the definition, the garnish is fairly simple and when applied to meat dishes, it
consists of carrots, button onions and lardons of bacon. One of the most common versions
of this style is boeuf braise a la Bourgeoise.

3. NOUVELLE CUISINE:

Definition:
By the mid-1960s, several restaurant chefs in France began developing innovative cooking
styles that deviated from traditional culinary practices. While these styles varied among
chefs, they shared common principles that collectively defined nouvelle cuisine. Known for
its artistic presentation—often likened to a "picture on a plate"—this approach emphasizes
aesthetics as well as adherence to fundamental principles.

Key Principles
1. Simplicity of Methods and Ingredients
o Preparation methods are simplified to preserve the natural quality of
ingredients.
o The use of marinated or aged meat and poultry is avoided to prioritize
freshness.
2. Shorter Cooking Times
o Cooking times are reduced for many items, such as green vegetables, seafood,
fish, game, pâtés, and veal, to retain their natural flavors and textures.
3. Focus on Fresh, High-Quality Ingredients
o Ingredients are sourced fresh from markets.
o Only pollution-free and additive-free products are used to maintain purity and
taste.
4. Streamlined Menus
 o Menus are kept concise to ensure both quality and value.
5. Artistic Presentation
o Dishes are presented directly on the customer’s plate in a light, decorative, and
clean style.
o Traditional silver service is replaced by this more modern approach.
6. Light and Healthy Sauces
o Heavy, flour-based sauces are avoided.
o Instead, lighter alternatives like vinegar, lemon juice, and fresh herbs are used
to finish dishes.
7. Regional Influences
o Recipes draw inspiration from simple, regional dishes rather than haute
cuisine.
o The focus is on enhancing the natural flavor of the main ingredients without
excessive embellishment.
8. Adoption of Modern Technology
o Innovative tools like microwave ovens, additive-free convenience foods, and
food processors are intelligently utilized to streamline cooking processes.
9. Emphasis on Dietary Balance
o Dishes are designed with health and nutrition in mind, incorporating the
principles of balanced eating.
10. Creativity and Experimentation
o Chefs are encouraged to experiment with new flavor combinations and
techniques, fostering a spirit of innovation.

Explanation
Nouvelle cuisine represents a departure from traditional, elaborate French cooking. It
emphasizes simplicity, freshness, and creativity while incorporating modern technologies and
techniques. This style is about creating visually stunning dishes that are also light, flavorful,
and nutritious. By focusing on regional influences and fresh, high-quality ingredients, chefs
celebrate the natural flavors of food while ensuring the dishes remain contemporary and
relevant to modern dining preferences.
4o

Originators:

There was no one person responsible for the development of nouvelle cuisine. Amongst the
chefs who were involved in establishing the principles outlined were Fernand Point
(founding-father), Paul Bocuse, Michel Guerard, Raymond Oliver, Jean Troisgros, Pierre
Troisgros, and Roger Verge.

Ingredients: Examples of typical ingredients used in this cuisine include freshwater fish,
wild mushrooms, snails, asparagus, fresh vegetables, seafood, and veal.

Examples of foods that are restricted in nouvelle cuisine include flour as used in thickening
sauces with a roux and saturated fats which are replaced with oil.
Georges Auguste Escoffier
Georges Auguste Escoffier (28 October 1846 – 12 February 1935) was a French chef,
restaurateur and culinary writer who popularized and updated traditional French cooking
methods. He is a legendary figure among chefs and gourmets, and was one of the most
important leaders in the development of modern French cuisine. Much of Escoffier's
technique was based on that of Marie-Antoine Carême, one of the codifiers of French haute
cuisine, but Escoffier's achievement was to simplify and modernize Carême's elaborate and
ornate style. In particular, he codified the recipes for the five mother sauces. Referred to by
the French press as roi des cuisiniers et cuisinier des rois ("king of chefs and chef of kings
—though this had also been previously said of Carême), Escoffier was France's preeminent
chef in the early part of the 20th century.

Alongside the recipes he recorded and invented, another of Escoffier's contributions to

cooking was to elevate it to the status of a respected profession by introducing organized
discipline to his kitchens.

Escoffier published Le Guide Culinaire, which is still used as a major reference work, both
in the form of a cookbook and a textbook on cooking. Escoffier's recipes, techniques, and
approaches to kitchen management remain highly influential today and have been adopted
by chefs and restaurants not only in France but also throughout the world.

Escoffier was born in the village Villeneuve-Loubet, Alpes-Maritimes, near Nice. The
house where he was born is now the Musee de l'Art Culinaire, run by the Foundation
Auguste Escoffier. At the age of thirteen, despite showing early promise as an artist, he
started an apprenticeship at his uncle's restaurant, Le Restaurant Français, in Nice. In 1865
he moved to Le Petit Moulin Rouge restaurant in Paris. He stayed there until the outbreak
of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, when he became an army chef. His army experience
led him to study the technique of canning food. Death

Escoffier died on February 12, 1935, at the age of 88, in Monte Carlo, a few days after the
death of his wife.

Marie-Antoine Careme

Marie-Antoine Careme was born June 8, 1784 in Paris, France. Careme was abandoned
by his parents during the French Revolution and took a series of kitchen jobs before
apprenticing in a famous pastry shop. Word of Careme's talent spread to the diplomat
Talleyrand, who used his cooking for European royalty.

Marie-Antoine is best known for his grand cooking style for European royalty, typically
known as haute cuisine.

All the changes that took place in the world of cooking during the 1700s led to, for the first
time, a difference between home cooking and professional cooking. One way we can try to
understand this difference is to look at the work of the greatest chef of the period following
the French Revolution, Marie-Antoine Carême (1784– 1833). As a young man, Carême
learned all the branches of cooking quickly, and he dedicated his career to refining and
organizing culinary techniques. His many books contain the first systematic account of
cooking principles, recipes, and menu making.

At a time when the interesting advances in cooking were happening in restaurants, Carême
worked as a chef to wealthy patrons, kings, and heads of state. He was perhaps the first real
celebrity chef, and he became famous as the creator of elaborate, elegant display pieces and
pastries, the ancestors of our modern wedding cakes, sugar sculptures, and ice and tallow
carvings. But it was Carême’s practical and theoretical work as an author and an inventor of
recipes that was responsible, to a large extent, for bringing cooking out of the Middle Ages
and into the modern period.

Carême emphasized procedure and order. His goal was to create more lightness and
simplicity. The complex cuisine of the aristocracy—called Grande Cuisine—was still not
much different from that of the Middle Ages and was anything but simple and light.
Carême’s efforts were a great step toward modern simplicity. The methods explained in his
books were complex, but his aim was pure results. He added seasonings and other
ingredients not so much to add new flavors but to highlight the flavors of the main
ingredients. His sauces were designed to enhance, not cover up, the food being sauced.
Carême was a thoughtful chef, and, whenever he changed a classic recipe, he was careful to
explain his reasons for doing so .Beginning with Carême, a style of cooking developed that
can truly be called international, because the same principles are still used by professional
cooks around the world. Older styles of cooking, as well as much of today’s home cooking,
are based on tradition. In other words, a cook makes a dish a certain way because that is
how it always has been done.

On the other hand, in Carême’s Grande Cuisine, and in professional cooking ever since, a\
cook makes a dish a certain way because the principles and methods of cooking show it is
the best way to get the desired results. For example, for hundreds of years, cooks boiled
meats before roasting them on a rotisserie in front of the fire. But when chefs began
thinking and experimenting rather than just accepting the tradition of boiling meat before
roasting, they realized either braising the meat or roasting it from the raw state were better
options.

His style of cooking that would now be deemed opulent if not outright excessive. He is
now seen as the founder of "La Grande Cuisine Française", having established the
FRENCH COOKING supremacy of Europe for the next 200 years. He was also very
interested in architecture, an interest which he translated into his monumental edible table
pieces constructed of food.

He abolished the presence of fish and meat on the same plate. He revolutionized away old-
style garnishes such as cockscombs and offal (remnants of Renaissance cooking style.)
Instead, he would use meat to garnish meat, and fish to garnish fish.

He was a modernizer. He called Roman cookery "essentially barbaric." He is the one who
classified French sauces into the four groups they remain known as today. (Some now say
his sauces hid too much of the flavour of the actual dish, a flaw that Escoffier would later
correct.)
He codified the art of "cold food" that aimed to preserve as much taste as it had when
cooked. In fact, he was a big proponent of cold buffets.

His books include topics such as the history of French cooking, menus, recipes and directions
on how to run a kitchen. And as you can imagine, he had precise kitchen standards, right
down to what people wore when working in them. It was he who instituted the double-
breasted kitchen jackets still worn today, and headgear: tall hats (toque with folded pleats)
caps for cooks. Both jackets and caps had to be in white. Carême thought white more
appropriate, as it would indicate cleanliness.

Works by Carême

Carême wrote several books on cookery, above all the encyclopedic L'Art de la Cuisine
Française (5 vols, 1833–34, of which he had completed three before his death), which
included, aside from hundreds of recipes, plans for menus and opulent table settings, a
history of French cookery, and instructions for organizing kitchens.

Fernand Point (1897 – 1955)

Fernand Point was a French restaurateur and is considered to be the father of modern
French cuisine.

From his restaurant "La Pyramide" in Vienne, a town half an hour to the south of Lyon, he
gained three Michelin stars and trained a generation of French master chefs: Paul Bocuse,
Alain Chapel, Louis Outhier, Georges Perrier and Jean and Pierre, the Brothers Troisgros.
He had received his training with Foyot in Paris.

The restaurant was founded shortly after World War I. From its kitchen came the modern
lightly thickened sauces, baby vegetables and other aspects of nouvelle cuisine. During the
regime of Vichy France,
Point served refugees fleeing the Nazi invasion of France. When German officers began
patronizing his establishment, he stopped serving dinner. When they demanded tables for
lunch, he closed his restaurant altogether.

The ovens in the restaurant were coal-powered up until the 1970s, and feature the flat top
that is heated from below by the coal and provides a gradient of heat (known as a "piano").
The cooking was done with copper pans. One of the regular customers was the Aga Khan
III who used to eat an immense amount of food. The wine collection was also one of the
best in the world with more than 40,000bottles of wine in the 3 cellars by the 1970s. Each
day the menu would be written out by hand by Fernand's wife based on the best produce
available that day.

Signature Dishes

Foie Gras en Brioche Goose liver, marinated in port and armagnac with a whole truffle in
the middle, cooked in the middle of very eggy unsweetened brioche bread. Once baked, the
brioche would be sliced and each slice would have the concentric circles of truffle, foie
gras, and brioche. This would be presented on a silver platter typically with the ends of the
platter decorated with starched napkins in a gondola shape, flowers, and the platter
encircled with aspics (jellies) made with port.

Gratin of Crayfish tails This dish took years for Fernand Point to perfect and was
considered one of his greatest masterpieces. It consists of Crayfish cooked in a mirepoix
and then doused with cognac and white wine. It is then covered in crayfish butter and
hollandaise sauce and browned in the oven.

Pâté de Chasse en croûte A classic dish consisting of various kinds of ground game meat
(depending on the season) cooked in a decorated puff pastry case.

Poularde en Vessie Marius Vettard This dish was originated by or in honor of Marius
Vettard, a chef from the Lyon restaurant "Cafe Neuf". A chicken from Bresse (a region
considered having some of the best chickens in the world). The chicken is stuffed with
truffles and foie gras, put in a cleaned pig bladder and the bladder is boiled in chicken
consommé. The bladder is designed to hermetically seal in the juices of the chicken and
may be a predecessor to today's process of cooking sous vide.

Influence

Gratin Dauphinois Fernand Point's version of the local potato gratin featured no cheese and
the potatoes in one single layer.

Salade Delice A salad of barely cooked French string beans (haricot verts), sliced
mushrooms, sliced truffles, diced duck liver and a dressing. This salad became copied
worldwide in the 1970s and '80s amongst followers of Fernand Point's Nouvelle Cuisine.
Marjolaine This multi-layered cake also took many years to perfect.
Saint-Marcellin Saint-Marcellin, a very runny aged local cheese was the preferred cheese
served at the restaurant.

Influences

While Point worked in the kitchen, his wife welcomed their guests. She continued owning
the restaurant after her husband's death. Before his death, Point trained a generation of
chefs who would take his ideas to new heights: Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros,
Alain Chapel, Francois Bise, Louis Outhier, Michel Guérard and Roger Vergé became the
pioneers of the expansion of Nouvelle Cuisine into the 1970s. Worldfamous chef Charlie
Trotter described Point's Ma Gastronomie as the most important cookbook.

Publications

Point, Fernand (2008) Ma Gastronomie, Rookery Press.

Paul Bocuse (born 11 February 1926)

A French chef based in Lyon who is famous for the high quality of his restaurants and his
innovative approaches to cuisine. He is one of the most prominent chefs associated with the
nouvelle cuisine, which is less rich and calorific than the traditional cuisine Classique, and
stresses the importance of fresh ingredients of the highest quality. Paul Bocuse claimed that
Henri Gault first used the term, nouvelle cuisine, to describe food prepared by Bocuse and
other top chefs for the maiden flight of the Concorde airliner in 1969.

Contribution to French Gastronomy

Bocuse made many contributions to French gastronomy both directly and indirectly,
because he has had numerous students, many of whom have become famous chefs
themselves. One of his students was Austrian Eckart Witzigmann, one of four Chefs of the
Century and the first German-speaking and the third non-French-speaking chef to receive
three Michelin stars. Since 1987, the Bocuse d'Or has

been regarded as the most prestigious award for chefs in the world (at least when French
food is considered), and is sometimes seen as the unofficial world championship for chefs.
Paul Bocuse has received numerous awards throughout his career, including the medal of
Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.

The Culinary Institute of America honoured Bocuse in their Leadership Awards Gala on 30
March 2011. He has received the "Chef of the Century" award.

On 4 July 2012, in the New York Times, the Culinary Institute of America announced they
would change the name of their "Escoffier" Restaurant to the "Bocuse" Restaurant, after a
yearlong renovation.

In 1975, he created the world-famous soupe aux truffes (truffle soup) for a presidential
dinner at the Elysée Palace. Since then, the soup has been served in Bocuse's restaurant
near Lyon as Soupe V.G.E., V.G.E. being the initials of former president of France Valéry
Giscard d'Estaing.

Restaurants

Bocuse's main restaurant is the luxury restaurant l'Auberge du Pont de Collonges, near
Lyon, which has been serving a traditional menu for decades. It is one of a small number of
restaurants in France to receive the coveted three-star rating by the Michelin Guide. He also
operates a chain of brasseries in Lyon, named Le Nord, l'Est, Le Sud, and l'Ouest, each of
which specializes in a different aspect of French cuisine. His son, Jérôme, manages the
Chefs de France restaurant inside the French pavilion at Walt Disney World's Epcot.

Bocuse is considered an ambassador of modern French Cuisine. He was honored in 1961

with the title Meilleur Ouvrier de France. He had been apprenticed to Fernand Point, a
master of classic French cuisine; and Bocuse dedicated his first book to him.

Michel Guérard (born 27 March 1933,Vétheuil, Val-d'Oise) is a French chef, author,

one of the founders of nouvelle cuisine, and the inventor of cuisine minceur.

Guérard served his apprenticeship at the patisserie of Kleber Alix, in Mantes-La-Jolie. He

worked at a number of Parisian restaurants, including Maxim's, and in 1958 won the
Meilleur Ouvrier de France Patisserie, while working as a pastry chef at the Hôtel de
Crillon. He also worked at Le Lido.
In 1965 Guérard opened a restaurant in Paris called Le Pot-au-Feu, which in 1967
earned Guérard his first star in the Michelin Guide. The restaurant gained a second
star in 1971, and was successful until it was compulsorily acquired for the purposes
of a road-widening.

In 1972 Guérard met Christine Barthelemy, the daughter of the founder of the
Biotherm range and the owner of a chain of spas and hotels. They married, and in
1974 he moved with her to Eugénie- les-Bains, where she was running one of her
family's smaller, less successful spas. They restored the buildings, and Guérard
invented a style of food, cuisine minceur, a form of healthy cooking, designed to
lure health-conscious Parisians to travel the 800 km to Eugénie. In 1977 his main
restaurant received three Michelin stars, and all his properties in Eugénie have been
very successful, transforming the tiny village into a significant tourist destination.

Chapter 2: Evolution of Gastronomy from Ancient to modern times

Introduction to Gastronomic history and timeline

In recent years, molecular gastronomy has become a popular trend among chefs, offering an
innovative and exciting approach to haute cuisine. This modern style of cooking combines
science and culinary arts to study the physical and chemical processes involved in cooking,
applying these findings in professional kitchens and laboratories.
Today, molecular gastronomy is featured in high-end hotels and restaurants, highlighting its
growing popularity. However, there is still some confusion about its purpose and goals
(Consin, J et al., 2010).
This assignment explores molecular gastronomy by first providing an overview of culinary
changes across different historical periods, including the Tudor, Georgian, and Victorian
kitchens. It also examines key gastronomic figures, particularly Georges Auguste Escoffier
(1846-1935), a French chef who significantly influenced gastronomy. Finally, it summarizes
the origins, background, and current understanding of molecular gastronomy
1.1 The overview of culinary change
In the 17th century, gastronomy underwent significant changes as new foods emerged and
tastes shifted. Exotic birds like peacocks, swans, cranes, and herons were replaced by meats
such as beef, veal, and mutton. Freshwater fish like salmon and trout also became preferred
choices (Strong, R, 2003).
In the Tudor era (The Tudor era refers to the period in English history between 1485 and
1603, during the reign of the Tudor dynasty. This period began with Henry VII, who became
king after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field and ended with the death of
Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch) meat was expensive and reflected social class, while
bread, pottage, soft cheese, and eggs were staples for the lower class. Peasants often kept
animals like pigs for fresh meat, and animal parts were used for tools, clothing, and utensils.
Cooking tools were mainly made of wood or terracotta, and forks were not yet used.
The Georgian era saw the introduction of sweet and savory dishes, as well as new utensils
like pewter, silver, and copper pans replacing wooden trenchers and cooper pans. In the
Victorian period, British culinary habits evolved significantly with the use of imported goods
and new kitchen tools, reflecting changing lifestyles in the 18th century.
Between 1986 and 1990, tastes continued to shift, with fast food outlets increasing their
turnover by 83% and cafes and restaurants by 63% (Cullen, 1994).
Throughout history, great chefs have shaped culinary traditions, including Alexis Soyer
(1809–1859) and Antonin Carême (1784–1834). Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846–1935), a
French chef, revolutionized modern French cuisine, building on Carême's techniques.
Escoffier's book Le Guide Culinaire (1902) remains a key reference for classical cuisine
worldwide. However, his dominance faced challenges with the rise of nouvelle cuisine in the
1970s.
The greatest attribute of a chef has been to create a successful and lasting fashion. This is
throughout history and the tradition has also continued to be well demonstrated over the last
three hundred years, by chefs such as Alexis Soyer (1809-1859) and Antonin Careme
(1784-1834). However other great gastronomic figure Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846-
1935) had also emerged to contribute to the development of cuisine and gastronomy.
Escoffier was a French chef and legendary figure among chefs and gourmands in
gastronomy. He was also one of the most important people who developed modern French
cuisine and his cuisine technique was based on Antoine Careme (Escoffier, 1921).
Moreover, Escoffier’s recipes, techniques and approaches to gastronomy are still highly
influenced today, not only in France, it have been adopted by chefs and restaurants
worldwide. He wrote the definitive text on classical cuisine Le Guide Culinaire (1902).
However, it was not until the 1970s, it was because the arrival of nouvelle cuisine
threatened the supremacy.
In 1879, Cesar Ritz and Escoffier left from the Savoy hotel and therefore, Ritz had a chance
to set up his own hospitality business, it established in 1898 and called the Ritz Hotel
Development Company. For Escoffier set up his kitchen and recruited the chefs for his
kitchen in London (Brigid, 2004). Many high society clientele came from Savoy hotel to
Carlton hotel where he was cooking. Carlton hotel in London offered haute cuisine at lunch
and dinner as well as tea, which has became a fashionable institution in Paris and later in
London (Ashburner, 2004). However, after launching the tea in hotel, it caused Escoffier
real distressed as it cased that customer might have too many meals in a short time (James,
2006)
What has made Escoffier became successful in gastronomy. Escoffier had a better
contribution in his culinary in 1913, he met Kaiser Wilhelm II on board the SS Imperator
which was one of the largest ocean liners of Hamburg Amerika Line in Germany. The
culinary experience on board the imperator was overseen by Ritz Carlton, the restaurant
itself was a reproduction of Escoffier’s Carlton restaurant in London. He was in charged
and supervising the kitchen on board the Imperator during the Kaiser to France. The Kaiser
was so impressed with Escoffier’s dinner as well as Kaiser’s favourite strawberry pudding
and named fraises. Therefore, he became Emperor of chefs, this was quoted frequently in
the press as well as many newspapers, he was establishing Escoffier’s reputation as
France’s preeminent chef (James 2006). Escoffier retired in 1920 but he continued o run the
kitchen through World War One.
1.2 The Morden Gastronomy
In any historical account of gastronomy, Escoffier’s legacy is also can not be ignored. And
in the modern gastronomy, he is generally considered to be main exponent of cuisine (Levy,
1984). In terms of his culinary, he broke the traditional culinary and lightened saucing and
garnishing. However, he still remembered the primary for his efforts to simplify the kitchen
working practices and utilise talent more rationally (Wood, 1991). He instituted the kitchen
system in an effort to eliminate the disorganisation and duplication of prevalent in the
conventional kitchens of the period caused by failures to institute clear cut accountability
and work systems.
According to Escoffier’s partie system, in the kitchen each employee was assigned a well
defined role and operated within carefully fixed parameters. A full range of job titles were
developed and some of had already existed, each of the employee who work in kitchen
relating to specialist range of procedures and responsibilities. Escoffier’s system was
hierarchically, it stratified over the twentieth century and it has been remained to some
level. Although the shortages of modified with periodic of skilled talent, but the catering
production and the changes could be improved from the technological advances (Wood,
1991).

According to this hierarchy of the classically modelled ‘grand’ partie system, the top of the
hierarchy was the ‘maitre chef des cuisines’ as also status as executive and was assisted by
the ‘chef de cuisine’, which is the head chef that we know the role today. Below the ‘chef
de cuisine’, there are one or more sous chefs, depending on the size of the brigade it was
also hierarchically stratified and numerically titled, the lower possessing more seniority
such as first sous chef and second sous chef. Below this level of the working members of
the brigade, the specialists term ‘chefs de partie’ or other named as section head, it presided
over by the premier chefs comprising chef, they were expect to be elevated to more
managerial roles by dint of their knowledge and successful passage through of the ranks.
The lowest rank in the class kitchen is ‘apprenti’ (Gillespie, 1994). Escoffier’s kitchen
should stimulate and provides training in order to develop individuals to the stage where a
thorough basic and eventual specialism in the craft of the chef could be codified. To some
people thought that Escoffier’s hierarchy was viewed as bureaucratic founded phenomenon
constraining innovation in cuisine. But the outcome of the system for chef was that they
formed a formal job structure, a culinary aristocracy comprising those who had made it
through the hierarchy to become a head chef (James, 2006).
Nowadays, many restaurants and hotel the kitchen has been designed to be more productive
and the organisation of production has become more systematic, this is designed around
standardised final products, these changes is due to the cook chill and in the ability of yeast
to be reactivated after freezing have changed approaches to the preparation of food.
Therefore, the kitchen system have reduced die to the ability of technology to maintain
freshly prepared food for long period of time (Riley, 2005).
Moreover, technology of food production, storage and regeneration are supporting for
attractions of food and the cooking order might require a long time for cooking. Other
alternative is to offering a small variety produce at a controlled level of quality. This could
be more productive, but it could segment the market (Riley, 2000). To addition, many
people prefer ‘keep it simple’, which means not so complex of the food, even at the higher
level in the restaurant. However, according to the French cuisine in earlier times, cuisine
was based on Escoffier’s guide to modern cookery encouraged large a la carte menu (Riley,
2005). Not only the knowledge of French cuisine as well as other national cuisines have
embedded within a set of physical or craft skill, this is in order to perform and motivate of
the occupation chef. Despite the fact that the principles of cookery can be taught outside the
French cooking class, it is essential for any level of cooking, even the mixture of cuisine
which is beloved of famous chefs. However, within the vocational education, there was
debating of serious issues of resourcing chef training (Baker et al, 1995).
1.3 The fushion of culinary
Professional chefs need to have a well knowledge and skills, also cultural and artistic
training are also essential. According to Ferguson and Berger (1985), creativity is important
and the first priority element in culinary education, it is in order to develop the best chef in
future. However, there was a research that mentioned culinary arts has been limited, but
cooking is still seen as a skill oriented discipline (Horng and Lee, 2009). In the old days,
the chefs were mainly focused on developing culinary skills and techniques, modern
management concepts and creativity were not in the core when they were in training.
However, in now a days, with the advantages of the internet and more advanced
technologies for communication and transportation. Therefore food cultures and markets
could become more diversified than the old days. There is an increasing number of creative
professional in the culinary arts, it is because of the higher level institutes for culinary
education. This has become the most important in culinary education (Guildford, 1950). In
the traditional assumption of individual’s creativity is mainly based on their own personal
characteristics (Simonton, 1988), creativity is linked to environmental variables, and the
outcome is that the environment might play a role in fostering, stimulating or repressing
creativity (Sternberg, 1988). Creativity is mainly influenced by environment and culture, as
well as the background and the context of the people where they grew up, in the special
field which is to express the personal creativity and a range of other social and cultural
factors (Horng and Lee, 2009). In recent years, the social and environmental factors of
creativity have become clearer, cooperation and competition between chefs could also help
chef encourage individual culinary creativity (Yeh, 2004)
Nowadays, good chef not only needs a good skill and technique of cooking, they also need
to have a potential of business management skill as well as creativity in order to enhance
the commercial success (Gillespie, 1994). In recent years, public relations play an
important role, it is to spreading information to the media or press in order to maintain a
recognisable profile (Levin, 1993). Furthermore, good chefs noticed that the importance of
fashion ability by establishing their won market within contemporary culinary culture. The
merchandising of having an own brand product is one simple way and very effective of
doing this, there a more chef endorse other merchandise, equipment, plant and companies
(Gillespie, 1993).
The status is very important to chef as a motivation and a major driving force of these
individuals, also chefs have an ability to differentiate themselves from other chefs quite
startlingly. Whereas, the status and the rank in the Escoffier style culinary was based as
much on training program, as well as length of service and apprenticeships, the status
hierarchy of chefs is much flatter in nowadays. Serving in the world great hotels is no
longer as a guarantee of star status (Gillespie, 1994).
1.4 The molecular gastronomy
For years, there is a culinary combined with creative and fashion called molecular cooking,
it is a new trend in gastronomy and it is the most exciting development in haute cuisine, it
is a modern style of cooking which takes advantages of innovations from scientific
discipline. It is a new fashion for chefs offering some fake food which is used by chemical
and other ingredients. E.g. fake caviar made from sodium alginate and calcium, spaghetti
made from vegetables and ice cream made from liquid nitrogen (This, 2006). Molecular
gastronomy is invested by both scientists and food professionals that occur while cooking,
the current objective of molecular gastronomy is to investigate and explain the chemical
reasons behind the transformation of ingredients, also social, artistic and technical are the
important components of culinary gastronomic phenomena in general (This, 2006).
The origins of the term molecular cuisine was firstly invested by Herve This and Nicholas
Kurti. Herve This is a French physical chemist and work at the Institut National de la
Recherche Agronomique dates the invention of molecular gastronomy to 1988, he is
specific interesting and keen on molecular gastronomy which is the science of culinary
phenomena. Nicholas Kurti (1908-1998), he was a Hungarian born physicist and one of the
leading experimental physicists. He is also interesting in cooking and always applying
scientific knowledge to culinary problems, he had been given a title as the physicist in the
kitchen (This, 2005). The name of Molecular gastronomy came from the international
commercial workshop on the on the physical and chemical aspects of cooking which was
run by This and Kurti, also Kurti and This used the term molecular and physical
gastronomy. However, after Kurti died in 1998, they decided to use the less cumbersome
term molecular gastronomy that they always preferred (This, 2005). Moreover, the epithet
molecular was chosen to limit the scope of this new scientific enterprise on gastronomy the
definition of gastronomy is the reasoned knowledge of all that relate to human feeding
themselves, It is aiming to the preservation of man by means of the best possible food. The
original objectives of molecular gastronomy are exploring existing recipes also introducing
new tools, ingredients and methods into the kitchen and lastly, using molecular gastronomy
to help the general public understand the contribution of science to society (This, 2006).
Furthermore, the original of investigation of molecular gastronomy are investigate how
ingredients could changed by different cooking methods, using machine of aroma to release
and the perception of taste and flavour, how cooking methods affect the eventual flavour
and texture of food ingredients as well as how new cooking methods might improve the
result of texture and flavour (This, 2005).
The chemistry and physics of the phenomenon, behind the preparation of any food is in order
to gain knowledge through the scientific study of food preparation which enable to be
healthier, attractive and more people to cook better food. As a molecular gastronomy, it could
inspire chefs to create exciting new dishes and inventions (This, 2006). To addition, there
were many scientists had contributions in the science of food preparation, but there was
difference between the science of ingredients and the science of culinary processes. Although
there have an impact on other aspect of lives, but scientific advances have done little to
change the cooking habits (Kurti, 1995).
In the evolution of molecular gastronomy, often there has been misused in the media for
chefs apply molecular cooking techniques developed by scientists to their own way of
cooking. However, molecular gastronomy has been misunderstanding that the trend on
cooking or cooking techniques, consequently many chefs was successfully adopting tools
and techniques more traditionally associated with the sciences than culinary arts (Blanck,
2007). According to Nation’s Restaurant News, Ferran Adria has always been promoted as
being a founder of the molecular gastronomy trend in cooking and his restaurant el Bulli
has been named as ground zero for the world’s molecular gastronomy movement (Walkup,
2006).
Molecular gastronomy seem to be phenomenon throughout the European, but in USA there
are two profile studies have been highly recognised into the scientific study of cooking:
culinology and experimental cuisine (Consins et al, 2010). According to Food Product
Design mentioned that the term culinology was coined in 1996 by American Research
Chefs Association (ARCA), they described the fusion of two disciplines which were
culinary art and food technology, which is to allow the blending of culinary art and the
science of food (Cousminer, 1999). ARCA offers degrees which are focused on the science
of mass food production and preservation of restaurant such as dishes based on culinary
artistry in many colleges and universities (Cousminer, 1999).
Molecular gastronomy has been launched over 20 years, Mr This analysis recipes from the
old days, this is try and see whether the old chefs’ intuitions could be scientifically tested to
show if they made sense or not (Cressey, 2008). This is because of many chefs often
making very precise observations of chemical reactions in the kitchen. However, sometimes
chef’s explanation was rather unscientific. Moreover, Mr this are interesting putting old
chef’s quote through scientific testing is very typical of the French mind, more related to
rationality and abstract reasoning but proudly attached to its century old traditions at the
same time (This, 2006).
Conclusion

The aim of this assignment was to explore the changes of gastronomy from the old days till
nowadays. The literature review had highlighted that throughout the history, fashion,
modern and fashion of gastronomy as well as the newest culinary molecular gastronomy.
The great people had contribution on gastronomy and they had a big impact on modern
gastronomy as well as the changes of daily life in this century. Moreover, in the last 300
years, the changes inside the kitchen as well as cooking tools had all contributed to the
improvement of culinary. Escoffier had a big contribution on gastronomy and his effort
from the past had also influence the chefs in nowadays. He codified the cuisine of the time
and also built up the foundations of modern professional cookery and food production
management. To addition, the gastronomy movement from the end of the twentieth century,
which is known as nouvelle cuisine was also initiated. This was supported by a range of
chefs at the top of their professional and also supported by the influential and
knowledgeable publishers at the time.
Moreover, the physical chemist Herve This and the physicist Nicholas Kurti, they had
explored the science of cookery and launched molecular gastronomy, even though Kurti
died, This was keep exploring the science of cookery to culinary, also they referenced from
the past gastronomic figures in order to improve the culinary and more innovation of
science of cookery. Having used the term molecular gastronomy, it has since become also
associated with culinary movement. Adria is a chef that developing new and distinctive
type of restaurant concept, dining experiences and the most important is they also follow
the traditions of the great innovators of the last 300 years who were working in gastronomy.
Although molecular gastronomy is still very fresh and new to customers and might only
offer in the high level restaurants, but surely molecular gastronomy could be common to
people and this developments will lead to a lasting gastronomic movement, however, the
movement will clearly need to be accepted and understand the name.