Third academic year for

(Zoology/Chemistry)Credit Hours
Faculty of Women for Art, Science and Education
Zoology Department
Chapter (1)
[Link]. Walaa Ahmed El-Nahrawy

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 Contents

Number Subject Page

1 Nutrition
2 CARBOHYDRATES
3 Lipids
4 Protein
5 Minerals
6 Vitamins
7 FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
8 WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
9 water
10 Digestion
11 Absorption

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  Chapter 1

What is physiology?
Physiology is the science of life. It is the branch of biology that aims to
understand the mechanisms of living things, from the basis of cell function at
the ionic and molecular level to the integrated behavior of the whole body and
the influence of the external environment

What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is the study of how food and drink affects our bodies with special
regard to the essential nutrients necessary to support human health. It looks at
the physiological and biochemical processes involved in nou rishment and how
substances in food provide energy or are converted into body tissues.

*Carbohydrates - main source of energy *Fats - one

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source of energy and important in relation to fat
soluble vitamins
*Proteins - essential to growth and repair of muscle
and other body tissues
*Minerals - those inorganic elements occurring in
the body and which are critical to its normal
functions
*Vitamins - water and fat soluble vitamins play
important roles in many chemical processes in the
body
*Water - essential to normal body function - as a
vehicle for carrying other nutrients and because 60%
of the human body is water

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CARBOHDYRATES
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and the major functional
constituents of living cells. The primary source of energy in animal cells, carbohydrates are
synthesized in green plants from carbon dioxide, water and solar energy. The term
carbohydrate was coined by Karl Schmidt in the mid 19th century, which literally means a of
carbon: a compound with an empirical formula Cx (H2O)n, where n is an integer of 3 or greater.

Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature, and they perform a vast range of functions.
They play a primary role in energy metabolism. For example, glucose is the chief fuel molecule
in all tissues and organs. Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and erythrocytes are almost
exclusively dependent on glucose. When in surplus, carbohydrates are stored as glycogen or
starch. Besides meeting the major energy requirements of the human body, carbohydrates
perform other important roles also. They are components of nucleic acids and are covalently
linked with lipids and proteins. Glycoproteins, hybrids of carbohydrates and proteins, form
blood group substances and some hormones, and provide recognition elements on cell
membranes. As mucopolysaccharides, carbohydrates provide the structural frame work for the

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tissues and organs of the human body and serve as lubricants and support elements of
connective tissue.
Glycolipids (sphingosine derivatives) are important membrane constituents. Finally,
carbohydrates form structural basis of some intracellular messengers, and play a role in
intercellular communication.

CARBOHYDRATES: TWO VERY DIFFERENT TYPES

 There are two types of carbohydrates based on how quickly they break down in the body,
either fast or slow:

 Fast-releasing carbohydrates are sugars. Simple sugars break down very quickly,
flooding your body with quick energy.

 Slow-releasing carbohydrates are starches and fibers.

Starch molecules are found in abundance in grains, legumes, and root vegetables, such as
potatoes. Eating raw foods containing starches provides very little energy as the digestive
system has a hard time breaking them down. Cooking breaks down the crystal structure of
starches, making them much easier to break down in the human body, providing energy.

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 ‫مهم‬

 Classification of Carbohydrates
The main classification of carbohydrate is done on the basis of hydrolysis. This
classification is as follow:

1. Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of carbohydrate that cannot be

hydrolyzed any further. They have the general formula of (CH2O)n. Some
common examples are glucose, Ribose etc.
 Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that
yield 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

2. Disaccharides: A further classification of oligosaccharides, these give two units

of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. For example, sucrose
on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and fructose each. Whereas
maltose on hydrolysis gives two molecules of only glucose,

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3. Trisaccharides: Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis gives three molecules of
monosaccharides, whether same or different. An example is Raffinose.
4. Tetrasaccharides: And as the name suggests this carbohydrate on hydrolysis
give four molecules of monosaccharides. Stachyose is an example.
5. Polysaccharides: The final category of carbohydrates. These give a
large number of monosaccharides when they undergo hydrolysis, These
carbohydrates are not sweet in taste and are also known as non-sugars. Some
common examples are starch, glycogen etc.

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 Monosacchari Disaccharid Oligosaccharides Polyosacchari
des es des
The simplest 2 3-10 monsacch. Units More than
carbohydrate monsacch linked to each other 10
s. They . Units by glycosidic bond monsacch.
contain only linked to Units linked
one sugar each to each
unit. -cannot other by other by
be glycosidic glycosidic
hydrolysed bond bond
into simpler
units

Glucose …. Sucrose & 1-Maltotriose = 3 Starch …….

Lactose… glucose units 2-
… Raffinose (tri-
saccharide=
glucose+glactose+fruc
tose)

Monosaccharide
The monosaccharides are the simplest forms consisting of 3 to 9 carbon atoms, which serve as the
building blocks of all carbohydrates. They are sub-classified on the basis of (a) number of carbon
atoms, e.g. trioses (C-3), tetroses (C-4), pentoses (C-5), and hexoses (C-6) . Monosaccharides are
linked by covalent linkages (i.e. glycosidic linkages) to yield larger structures such as
disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

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Monosaccharides of greatest biological importance are pentoses, which constitute a part of the
nucleic acids (ribose and deoxyribose), and the hexoses, which serve a variety of physiological
roles

Structure of Monosaccharides

The chemical formula that most monosaccharides have is Cx(H2O)y, where

generally x≥ 3. The molecule is always formed by three elements and three
elements only: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). The molecule of
monosaccharides is very small and compact in size. This is another reason we call
monosaccharides simple sugars.

Types of Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides have two broad classifications on the basis of the functional

group present in them. So if they contain an aldehyde group they are known
as “aldose”. And if they contain a keto group we call them “ketose”. There is also
additional classification on the number of carbon atoms each molecule consists
of. This following table will make the names easy to remember

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Classification According to the Functional Group

General formula Aldosugars Ketosugars

Trioses Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

(C3H6O3)

Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose

(C4H8O4)

Pentoses Ribose Ribulose

(C5H10O5)

Hexoses Glucose Fructose

(C6H12O6)

Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. And based on the number
of carbons, which typically ranges from three to seven, they may be known as
trioses (three carbons), tetroses (four carbons), pentoses (five carbons), hexoses
(six carbons), and heptoses (seven carbons).

Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the chemical formula of
C6H12O6, they differ at the structural and chemical levels because of the different
arrangement of functional groups around their asymmetric carbon.

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Glucose

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The most abundant monosaccharide found in nature is in fact glucose. It is the
most abundant organic compound on earth. We can find glucose in varies fruits,
honey and even in starch and cane sugar. We obtain a large part of the energy in
our bodies from glucose through the foods we eat. It is an aldohexose, which
means it has six carbon atoms in its molecule. Its chemical formula is C6H12O6.

If the hydroxyl group is below carbon number 1 in the sugar, it is said to be in the
alpha (α) position, and if it is above the plane, it is said to be in the beta (β) position.

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 We obtain glucose mainly from two sources which are starch and sucrose. Let us
look at how we can prepare glucose from these sources

 On a large and commercial scale glucose is prepared from hydrolysis of starch by

boiling it with dilute H2SO4. The chemical reaction is as follows
(C6H10O5) + n (H2O) ————-> n ( C6H12O6 )

Starch Glucose

 Also, another way of preparing glucose, with fructose as a joint or by-product, is

to boil sucrose in dilute HCl or even H2SO4 in an alcoholic solution. This
chemical reaction is as follows
C12H22O11 + H2O ————> C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Fructose

Fructose is a simple ketonic monosaccharide. We mostly find fructose in plants

and their fruits, flowers and root vegetables, hence earning it a moniker of fruit
sugar. It is also abundantly present in honey and corn syrup. Generally, fructose
bonds with glucose to form a disaccharide we know as sucrose. Fructose was first
discovered by a French chemist Augustin – Pierre Debrunfaut.

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 The chemical formula of fructose is also C6H12O6 but the bonding of fructose is
very different than that of glucose. Fructose has a cyclic structure. The structure
is an intramolecular hemiacetal. It has its carbonyl group at its number two
carbon (its a ketone function group). In its cyclic form, it (generally) forms a five-
member ring which we call a Furanose ring.

Galactose

It is a sugar found in dairy products,in the form of Lactose.

It forms part of glycolipids and glycoproteins in several

tissues ofthe body

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 Solved Example

Q: Which one of the following is the reagent used to identify glucose?

a. neutral FeCl3
b. CHCl3
c. Ammonical AGNO3
d. C2H5ONa
Sol: The correct answer is option “c”. We use Tollen’s reagent to identify Glucose.
Glucose contains aldehyde group and is oxidised by ammonical AGNO3.

Oligosaccharides
 Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield 2 to 10 molecules of the
same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
 Raffinose, a trisaccharide found in many plants, consists of melibiose
(galactose and glucose) and fructose. Another plant trisaccharide
is gentianose. Maltotriose, a trisaccharide of glucose, occurs in some plants
and in the blood of certain arthropods.
 The monosaccharide units are joined by glycosidic linkage.
 Based on the number of monosaccharide units, it is further classified as a
disaccharide, trisaccharide, tetrasaccharide, etc.
 Oligosaccharides yielding 2 molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis is
known as a disaccharide, and the ones yielding 3 or 4 monosaccharides are
known as trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides respectively, and so on.

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Disaccharides
 General formula : Cn(H2O)n-1

The disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units linked by a

glycosidic bond. They yield two monosaccharide units upon
hydrolysis. For example,
 Lactose [milk sugar] is formed in the mammary gland. It is
composed of galactose and glucose.

 Maltose (Malt sugar) is composed of 2 molecules of glucose.

 Sucrose (Table sugar, Cane sugar, Beet sugar) is composed of

glucose and fructose

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Sucrose

This is the most important disaccharide. It is popularly known as table

sugar. Sucrose is found in all photosynthetic plants

The molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11.

Sucrose (common table sugar) is a disaccharide formed by the combination

of glucose and fructose. These two monosaccharides combine through a
condensation reaction. They are linked through a glycosidic linkage between C-1
(on the glycosyl unit) and C-2 (on the fructosyl unit). Sucrose is digested or broken
down into its monosaccharide units through hydrolysis with the help of the
enzyme, sucrase. The bond that joins the two monosaccharides is broken,
converting sucrose to glucose and fructose. Sucrose is extracted from plants, e.g.
sugar cane and sugar beet, and processed (refined) to be marketed as common table
sugar. It is used as a sweetening agent in food and beverages.

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 We can prove the structural formula of sucrose by hydrolysing it with α-
glycosidase enzymes which only hydrolyses α glucose. This test is positive for
sucrose.

Lactose

 Lactose is formed by the combination of glucose and galactose. It has a chemical formula of
C12H22O
 . Lactose is produced naturally and is present in the milk of mammals, including humans. It
is collected from bovine to be used in preparing infant formulas. A cow’s milk, in particular,
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 has about 4.7% lactose. Lactose is digested or broken down into its monosaccharide units
through hydrolysis with the help of the enzyme lactase. The bond that joins the two
monosaccharides is broken, converting lactose to glucose and galactose. People who
are lactose intolerant cannot digest or break down lactose. This becomes food for gas-
producing gut flora. This could lead to gastrointestinal disturbance and flatulence. Lactose
can be converted to lactic acid. Microorganisms, such as Lactobacilli, can convert lactose to
lactic acid, which is used in the food industry, e.g. in the production of dairy products like
yogurt and cheese.

Maltose

(malt sugar) is a reducing disaccharide formed when two glucose monomers join together via

α(1→4) glycosidic bond. Thus, it may also be considered as the structural unit of glycogen and

starch. Maltose is digested or broken down into its monosaccharide units through hydrolysis with

the help of the enzyme, maltase. The bond that joins the two glucose units is broken, converting

maltose to two glucose units. Maltose is commercially used as a sweetener,

a nutrient in infant feeding, and in bacteriological culture media. It is also used in pastries. It

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makes bread dough rise when carbon dioxide is produced and released during the conversion of

starch into maltose by reacting the starch with enzymes.

Solved Example
Choose the best answer.
1. What is a disaccharide?
Sugar made up of multiple monosaccharides
Sugar made up of one monosaccharide
Sugar made up of two monosaccharides
2. What type of a biomolecule is a disaccharide?
Carbohydrate
Protein
ATP
3. The chemical bond that joins the monosaccharide units in a disaccharide
Peptide bond
Glycosidic bond
Ionic bond
4. The biological process for making a disaccharide
Dehydration synthesis
Hydrolysis
Glycolysis

Which of the following is NOT a disaccharide?

Lactose
Sucrose
Glucose

Polysaccharides

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Usually the polysaccharides, also known as glycans, contain hundreds of covalently
linked monosaccharide units. Carbohydrates are generally found in nature in the
form of polysaccharides. Some examples are cellulose, starch, chitin,
mucopolysaccharides, etc.

Classification of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides may be a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide depending on their
monosaccharide components. A homopolysaccharide (also called homoglycan) is made up of only
one type of monosaccharid (starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin) ,whereas
a heteropolysaccharide (also called heteroglycan) is composed of different types of
monosaccharides [Link] acid, Chondroitin.
 The chemical process of joining monosaccharide units is referred to as dehydration
synthesis since it results in the release of water as a byproduct.
 Hydrolysis is the process of converting polysaccharides into simple monosaccharide
components. While condensation reaction involves the elimination of water, hydrolysis
utilizes water molecules. The process of converting polysaccharides into
monosaccharides, in particular, is called saccharification.

Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of β (1→4) linked D-glucose units:

(C6H10O5) n.

starch The chemical

formula of the
starch molecule
is (C6H10O5)n.

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 Starch is an element present in all photosynthetic plants. We generally find starch in the
plant’s roots and seeds. All plants when they synthesize glucose, the extra glucose is stored in the
form of starch.

Starch is made up of long chains of sugar molecules that are connected together. The linear
polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch, while amylopectin is the branched form. The
primary role of starch is to help plants in storing energy. In an animal’s diet, starch is a source of
sugar. Amylase, an enzyme contained in saliva and the pancreas that breaks down starch for energy,
is used by animals to break down starch.

Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose that is mainly produced in liver and muscle cells,
and functions as secondary long-term energy storage in animal cells

USES OF POLYSACCHARIDES –GLYCOGEN

Many animals store extra sugar as glycogen.

•Glycogen stored in liver is released when glucose in blood runs low.
•Glycogen stored in muscle supplies energy for muscle contractions.

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. Chitin is a polymer of nitrogen-containing polysaccharide (C8H13O5N)n rendering a tough,

protective covering or structural support in certain organisms. It makes up the cell walls
of fungi and exoskeleton of insects.

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Choose the best answer.
1. What are polysaccharides?
Carbohydrates formed by multiple saccharide units that are joined together
Carbohydrates consisting of two saccharide units that are joined together
Carbohydrates made up of one saccharide unit.
2. Biosynthesis of polysaccharides
Hydrolysis
Condensation reaction
Glycogenesis
3. Process of converting polysaccharides into simple monosaccharides
Hydrolysis
Condensation reaction
Glycogenesis
4. The metabolic process of producing glycogen from glucose for storage
Glycogenolysis
Glycosylation
Glycogenesis

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BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE/S OF CARBOHYDRATES:
 Source of energy:
Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy. They are the food reserve (energy
store molecules) in microbes, animals and plants.
 Source of C, H, and O:
Carbohydrates also act as the source of C, H and O in the cells for the synthesis of
other macro molecules.
 Sweetener:
Some sugars are sweet in taste. They provide sweetness and flavor to a variety of food
stuffs.
 Glycolipids:
Carbohydrate containing lipids (called glycolipids) are one of the important categories of
plasma membrane lipids.
 Dietary fibres:
Carbohydrates are also the source of dietary fibres.
 Ribose sugar:
A monosaccharide (ribose) is an essential component in the genetic material (DNA and
RNA).
 Cell wall and exoskeleton:
Some carbohydrates from the structural framework of the cells. For example, cellulose
from the cell wall of plants, Peptidoglycan forms the cell wall of bacterial cells and chitin
forms the cell wall of fungi and the exoskeleton of arthropods.
 Recognition: Some carbohydrates on the surface of cell membrane have recognition role.
 Protein trafficking: The glycosylation (attachment of sugar moieties to other
macromolecules such as proteins) of proteins are used in protein-trafficking by the cell.
Example: a protein tagged with mannose 6-phosphate is destined to lysosome.
 Anticoagulant: Heparin, the anticoagulant of the blood, is a carbohydrate which prevents
the blood clotting.

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 Blood group: The ABO blood groups are determined by the carbohydrates and thus
carbohydrates also s as antigens.

 Industrial uses:
Some carbohydrates are the raw material for many industries. Example: cellulose in the
paper industry, starch, glucose, fructose etc. in fermentation and brewing industry.

References:
 BeMiller, J. N. (2019). Monosaccharides. Carbohydrate Chemistry for Food
Scientists, 1–23. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812069-9.00001-7.
 Rodwell, V. W., Botham, K. M., Kennelly, P. J., Weil, P. A., & Bender, D. A.
(2015). Harper’s illustrated biochemistry (30th ed.). New York, N.Y.: McGraw-
Hill Education LLC.


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