Chapter Two

Politics
Defining Politics

Politics, in its broadest sense, refers to the activity through which people make, preserve, and
amend the general rules under which they live. These rules shape social order and guide how
individuals interact within society. Politics is therefore not only a practical activity but also an
academic discipline that studies how such rules are created and maintained.

Politics, Conflict and Cooperation

Politics is closely connected with conflict and cooperation.
• Conflict arises because people have different opinions, interests, needs, and values.
These differences often lead to disagreements about the rules that govern society.
• Cooperation occurs because individuals must work together to influence those rules or
ensure that they are respected.
The political thinker
Hannah Arendt
defined political power as “acting in concert.” This means that political power emerges when
people cooperate and act together to achieve shared goals.
Because of these interactions, politics is often seen as a process of resolving conflicts. However,
politics should be viewed more as a search for conflict resolution rather than a guarantee that
all conflicts will be solved.
Two important realities make politics unavoidable in human life:
1. Diversity – people have different beliefs, values, and interests.
2. Scarcity – resources such as wealth, power, and opportunities are limited.
Due to these conditions, politics becomes an inevitable feature of human society.

Problems in Defining Politics

1. Politics as a “Loaded” Term
The first difficulty in defining politics is that the term carries many emotional and negative
associations in everyday language.
Unlike subjects such as economics or geography, people often approach politics with strong
preconceptions. Many believe that the study of politics cannot be neutral or objective.
Politics is frequently seen as a “dirty” activity, associated with:
• conflict and disorder
• deception and manipulation
• lies and dishonesty
This negative perception has existed for a long time. For example:
• The writer
Samuel Johnson
described politics as “nothing more than a means of rising in the world.”
• The American historian
Henry Adams
described politics as “the systematic organization of hatreds.”
These views illustrate the widespread skepticism about political activity.
2. Disagreement Among Scholars
The second difficulty is that even scholars cannot agree on a single definition of politics. Politics
has been defined in many different ways, including:
• the exercise of power
• the science of government
• the making of collective decisions
• the allocation of scarce resources
• the practice of manipulation and deception
Because of these different interpretations, politics is considered a complex and debated concept.

Politics as an “Essentially Contested Concept”

Politics can be described as an “essentially contested concept.” This means that the term has
several legitimate meanings, and scholars often disagree about which definition is most
accurate.
Instead of a single definition, there are multiple interpretations of the same general concept.

Two Broad Approaches to Defining Politics

Political scientists explain the meaning of politics in different ways. These definitions can be
grouped into two broad approaches: Politics as an arena and Politics as a process. Each
approach focuses on a different aspect of political activity and has influenced different methods
of studying politics.
1. Politics as an Arena
In this approach, politics is defined according to where political activities take place.
Behaviour becomes political because of the location or institutional setting in which it occurs.
Politics is mainly associated with government institutions and public life.
Main Definitions under Politics as an Arena
a) Politics as the Art of Government
This is the traditional and classical definition of politics.
It views politics as the activity through which governments make and enforce collective
decisions for society. Political activity mainly occurs in institutions such as:
• Parliament
• Cabinet
• Government departments
• Administrative offices
Political scientist
David Easton
defined politics as the “authoritative allocation of values,” meaning the process through which
governments distribute benefits, responsibilities, and penalties within society.

b) Politics as Public Affairs

According to this view, politics concerns public life and public issues, rather than private
matters.
This means politics deals with matters that affect the whole community, such as:
• national security
• education policy
• economic policy
• healthcare
Private matters like family relationships or personal business decisions are usually considered
non-political.

2. Politics as a Process
This approach defines politics according to how political activities occur, rather than where
they occur. Politics is seen as a process or mechanism that can take place in any social setting.
Main Definitions under Politics as a Process
a) Politics as Compromise and Consensus
In society, people often have different interests and opinions, which creates conflict. Politics is
the process through which these conflicts are resolved through negotiation, compromise, and
agreement.
The political theorist
Hannah Arendt
described political power as “acting in concert,” meaning people work together to achieve
collective decisions.
Thus politics helps society maintain order and cooperation.

b) Politics as Power and the Distribution of Resources

Another important definition views politics as the exercise of power and the distribution of
scarce resources in society.
In this perspective, politics involves:
• who gets what
• when they get it
• how they get it
Power determines how wealth, opportunities, and benefits are distributed among different
groups in society.

3. Approaches to the Study of Politics

Different definitions of politics have led to various theoretical approaches in political science.
Some major approaches include:
Behaviouralism
Focuses on the actual behaviour of individuals and groups in political processes rather than
only studying institutions.
Rational-Choice Theory
Explains political behaviour by assuming that individuals act rationally to maximize their self-
interest.
Institutionalism
Emphasizes the role of political institutions, such as constitutions, parliaments, and
bureaucracies, in shaping political outcomes.
Feminism
Examines politics from the perspective of gender relations and the role of women in political
life.
Marxism
Views politics mainly in terms of class conflict and economic power, focusing on how
capitalist systems influence political structures.
Post-positivist Approaches
These approaches challenge traditional scientific methods and emphasize the role of ideas,
language, culture, and interpretation in understanding politics.

Figure 1.1 shows that politics can be understood in different ways depending on perspective.
• The arena approach focuses on where politics occurs, mainly within government and
public institutions.
• The process approach focuses on how politics operates, emphasizing conflict
resolution, cooperation, and power relations.
These different definitions have shaped various theoretical approaches to studying politics,
making the concept of politics broad, complex, and open to interpretation.

In conclusion, defining politics is challenging because the concept carries multiple meanings and
interpretations. At its core, politics involves the making, preserving, and changing of social
rules. It is closely linked to both conflict and cooperation, and it arises from the conditions of
diversity and scarcity in human society. Because politics can be understood both as an arena of
activity and as a process of interaction, the debate over its meaning remains a central issue in
the study of political science.
Politics as the Art of Government – Explanation

One of the classical definitions of politics is “politics as the art of government.” This idea
emphasizes that politics mainly concerns the activities of the state and the process of governing
society. According to this view, politics involves making and enforcing collective decisions that
regulate social life.
The German statesman
Otto von Bismarck
once stated that “Politics is not a science but an art.” By this he meant the art of governing
society, where leaders exercise control through policies, laws, and decisions.

Origin of the Concept

The concept of politics as the art of government originates from Ancient Greek political thought.
The word politics is derived from the Greek word “polis,” meaning city-state. Ancient Greece
consisted of many independent city-states, each having its own government.
Among these city-states,
Athens
was the most influential and is often considered the cradle of democracy. In this context,
politics referred to the affairs of the polis, meaning the matters that concerned the state and its
governance. Therefore, the modern interpretation of this idea defines politics as “what concerns
the state.”

Politics as Government Activity

According to this perspective, politics is mainly related to government institutions and
political authorities. Political activities take place in places such as:
• Cabinet rooms
• Legislative chambers
• Government departments
• Administrative institutions
Politics is therefore practiced by a limited group of individuals, including:
• Politicians
• Civil servants
• Lobbyists
Most ordinary citizens and social institutions such as schools, businesses, and families are
considered outside politics because they are not directly involved in running the state.

David Easton’s Definition

This state-centered understanding of politics was further developed by the American political
scientist
David Easton.
He defined politics as the “authoritative allocation of values.”
This means politics is the process through which governments allocate benefits, rewards, and
penalties within society. These decisions create policies that determine how society should
function.
“Authoritative values” refer to decisions that are accepted as binding by the majority of
citizens because they come from legitimate government authority.

Narrow Interpretation: Party Politics

Sometimes this definition becomes even narrower when politics is treated as party politics.
In this sense, politics involves only those actors who are motivated by ideological beliefs and
who promote these beliefs through political parties.
Thus:
• Politicians are considered political actors.
• Civil servants are viewed as non-political, as long as they remain neutral.
• Judges are also considered non-political unless their decisions are influenced by personal
bias rather than legal evidence.

Negative Image of Politics

Linking politics closely with politicians has also created negative perceptions of politics.
Many people view politicians as individuals who seek power and personal advantage, often
hiding their ambitions behind claims of public service and ideology. Modern media exposure has
revealed cases of corruption and dishonesty, leading to the phenomenon of anti-politics, where
citizens distrust traditional political institutions.
This negative image of politics is sometimes connected to the ideas of the Italian political thinker
Niccolò Machiavelli.
In his famous work
The Prince,
he described politics realistically and showed how rulers might use cunning, manipulation, and
even cruelty to maintain power.

Liberal View of Power and Corruption

The negative perception of politics also reflects the liberal belief that individuals are self-
interested, and therefore political power can easily become corrupt.
This idea was famously expressed by
Lord Acton
in his well-known statement:
“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.”
This means that the more power a person has, the greater the risk of abusing that power.

Criticism of Politics as the Art of Government

Although influential, this definition has several criticisms.
1. Too Narrow
It restricts politics only to state institutions and government activities, ignoring political
interactions that occur in society.
2. Ignores Social and Economic Institutions
Organizations such as businesses, pressure groups, and social movements also influence political
decisions, but this definition excludes them.
3. Neglects Global Politics
In the modern world, politics is influenced by international organizations, global markets,
and transnational actors, which this definition does not fully address.
4. Encourages Negative Perceptions
By focusing mainly on politicians and power struggles, this view may reinforce the idea that
politics is self-serving, manipulative, and corrupt.

In conclusion, the concept of politics as the art of government represents a classical and state-
centered definition of politics. It highlights the role of government institutions, authority, and
policy-making in managing society. However, this approach is often criticized for being too
narrow because it ignores the broader social, economic, and global dimensions of political life.
For this reason, modern political science tends to adopt broader definitions that include power
relations and political activities beyond the state.

Politics as Public Affairs – Explanation

1. Meaning of Politics as Public Affairs

The concept “politics as public affairs” expands politics beyond the narrow field of
government. It suggests that politics includes all matters related to public life or public issues.
In this view, the difference between what is political and non-political is based on the
distinction between the public sphere and the private sphere.
• Public sphere → matters affecting society as a whole
• Private sphere → matters related to individual or personal life
Thus, politics deals with issues that concern the community collectively, rather than purely
personal activities.

2. Aristotle’s Idea of Political Life

This view is strongly linked to the Greek philosopher
Aristotle.
In his work Politics, he stated that “man is by nature a political animal.”
By this he meant that human beings can achieve the “good life” only within a political
community. Politics therefore becomes an ethical activity aimed at creating a just and well-
ordered society, which Aristotle described as the “master science.”

3. The Public–Private Divide

A key question in this approach is: Where should the boundary between public life and
private life be drawn?
Traditional Public–Private Division
Public Sphere Private Sphere
State institutions Civil society
Government Families
Courts Businesses
 Public Sphere Private Sphere
Police and army Clubs, unions, community groups
• Public institutions are funded by taxation and organize community life.
• Private institutions are created and financed by individuals for their own interests.
The philosopher
Edmund Burke
referred to these private groups as “little platoons.”
According to this traditional view, politics mainly concerns the activities of the state, while
areas such as family life, culture, and personal relationships are non-political.

4. Another View: Political vs Personal

Another way to distinguish public and private life is by separating “the political” from “the
personal.”
In this view:
• Some institutions within civil society are still public because they operate openly and
affect society.
• Examples include:
o businesses
o trade unions
o workplaces
o community organizations
Therefore, politics can also exist in workplaces and economic institutions, not only in
government.
However, politics is still believed not to interfere with personal or family life.

5. Feminist Criticism
Many feminist scholars argue that this traditional view is too limited.
They claim that politics also exists in private spaces, such as:
• family relationships
• domestic life
• gender relations
Their argument suggests that “the personal is political.”
For example, issues such as domestic violence or gender inequality are not merely personal
matters but political issues related to power and justice.

6. Positive Views of Politics as Public Activity

Some thinkers consider politics a valuable and noble activity.
The political theorist
Hannah Arendt
argued that politics is important because it allows free and equal citizens to interact and
participate in public life, giving meaning to human existence.
Similarly:
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed citizens must participate directly in politics to achieve
the “general will.”
• John Stuart Mill argued that political participation develops citizens intellectually and
morally.
7. Negative View of Politics as Public Activity
In contrast, many liberal thinkers view politics as unwanted interference in private life.
They believe:
• Private life should be a realm of individual freedom and choice.
• Politics should not interfere in areas such as:
o business
o sports
o family life
o personal decisions
This perspective leads to the common idea of “keeping politics out of private affairs.”

8. Figure 1.2 – Two Views of the Public/Private Divide

View 1: State vs Civil Society
Public
• The state
• Government institutions
Private
• Civil society
• Families, businesses, clubs
View 2: Political vs Personal
Public
• Politics
• Commerce
• Work
• Culture
Private
• Family life
 • Domestic relationships
• Personal matters

Politics as public affairs means that politics deals with matters affecting the public or society
as a whole, rather than private personal matters. The key issue in this approach is deciding
where the boundary between public and private life should be drawn, and different thinkers
interpret this boundary in different ways.

Politics as Compromise and Consensus

1. Meaning of Politics as Compromise and Consensus

The concept “politics as compromise and consensus” focuses not on where politics takes
place, but on how political decisions are made. According to this view, politics is a method of
resolving conflicts peacefully.
In society, different individuals and groups have different interests, opinions, and demands.
Politics provides a way to manage these conflicts through:
• negotiation
• compromise
• discussion
• conciliation
rather than through violence, coercion, or force.
This idea is often expressed by the phrase “politics is the art of the possible.” It means that
political decisions are usually the result of practical negotiation and agreement, not perfect
solutions.

2. Classical Roots of the Idea

This understanding of politics can be traced back to the Greek philosopher
Aristotle.
Aristotle believed that the best system of government was “polity,” a mixed form combining
elements of:
• democracy
• aristocracy
Such a system promotes balance and cooperation among different groups in society.

3. Bernard Crick’s Definition of Politics

One of the most important modern supporters of this view was the political theorist
Bernard Crick.
In his book
In Defence of Politics
he defined politics as:
“The activity by which differing interests within a given unit of rule are conciliated by giving
them a share in power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and survival of the
community.”
According to Crick:
• Society contains many competing interests.
 • Politics is the process of balancing these interests.
• Each group receives a share of power based on its importance.

4. Key Characteristics of This View

a. Politics Manages Conflict

Conflict in society is inevitable because people have different interests. Politics helps manage
these conflicts without destroying social order.
b. Power is Shared
Power should be widely distributed among different groups in society, rather than
concentrated in one authority.
c. Conciliation Instead of Force
Political conflicts should be resolved through discussion and compromise, not through violence
or coercion.
d. Faith in Debate and Rational Discussion
This view reflects liberal-rationalist thinking, which assumes that problems can be solved
through reason, dialogue, and negotiation.

5. Positive View of Politics

This perspective presents politics as a civilized and constructive activity.
Politics becomes:
• a peaceful alternative to war or violence
• a way to maintain order in a diverse society
• a process that encourages participation and cooperation
Although compromises may not fully satisfy everyone, they help prevent conflict and maintain
stability.

6. Criticism of This View

Despite its positive outlook, this definition has several criticisms.
1. Western Democratic Bias
Critics argue that Crick’s view mainly reflects the politics of Western pluralist democracies,
where multiple parties compete and negotiate.
2. Not Applicable to Authoritarian Systems
This model does not explain politics in systems such as:
• one-party states
• military dictatorships
• authoritarian regimes
where decisions are often made through power and coercion rather than negotiation.
3. Politics Can Be Frustrating
Political compromise often produces imperfect and incomplete solutions. As a result, citizens
may feel disappointed with political outcomes.
The political scientist
Gerry Stoker
famously said:
“Politics is designed to disappoint.”
This means that political decisions are often messy, ambiguous, and temporary, rather than
final solutions.

The concept of politics as compromise and consensus views politics as a peaceful method of
managing conflict in society. It emphasizes negotiation, cooperation, and the sharing of power
among different groups. Although this perspective highlights the positive and civilized nature of
politics, critics argue that it reflects mainly the experience of democratic systems and does not
fully explain political behaviour in authoritarian regimes.

Politics as Power

1. Meaning of Politics as Power

The concept “politics as power” is the broadest and most radical definition of politics.
Unlike other definitions that limit politics to government, the state, or public affairs, this view
argues that politics exists in all areas of social life.
According to the political theorist
Adrian Leftwich,
politics exists in all collective human activities, whether they are:
• formal or informal
• public or private
• small or large groups
This means politics can occur in:
• families
• workplaces
• social organizations
• communities
• national and international relations
Thus, politics is present everywhere people interact and make decisions together.

2. Politics and the Concept of Power

In this perspective, politics is essentially about power.
Definition of Power
Power means the ability to achieve desired outcomes or influence others, even if they resist.
Politics therefore involves:
• gaining power
• maintaining power
• using power to control resources and decisions

3. Harold Lasswell’s Explanation

The political scientist
Harold Lasswell
summarized politics in the famous phrase from his book
Politics: Who Gets What, When, How?
Politics is about:
• Who gets what
• When they get it
• How they get it
This means politics determines:
• distribution of resources
• allocation of benefits
• control over opportunities in society

4. Politics and Scarcity of Resources

Politics arises mainly because of scarcity.
Scarcity
Scarcity means resources are limited while human wants are unlimited.
Examples of scarce resources:
• wealth
• land
• jobs
• education opportunities
• political authority
Because resources are limited, groups compete for them.
Politics becomes the process of managing and resolving this competition.

5. Feminist Perspective on Politics as Power

Many feminist scholars argue that politics exists not only in the state but also in personal
relationships.
The feminist writer
Kate Millett
in her book
Sexual Politics
defined politics as:
“Power-structured relationships in which one group controls another.”
Radical feminists use the slogan:
“The personal is political.”
This means power relations also exist in:
• family life
• marriage
• gender relations
• domestic roles
They argue that society is patriarchal, where men hold dominant power over women.

6. Marxist Perspective on Politics

The theory of politics as power is also strongly influenced by
Karl Marx.
Politics and Class Power
Marx argued that political power reflects economic power.
In the book
The Communist Manifesto
political power is described as:
“The organized power of one class for oppressing another.”

7. Base and Superstructure

Marx divided society into two main parts:
Economic Base
The economic structure of society, including:
• production
• property ownership
• economic relations
Superstructure
Institutions built upon the economic base, such as:
• politics
• law
• religion
• culture
Marx argued that the superstructure reflects the economic base.

8. Lenin’s View
The revolutionary leader
Vladimir Lenin
explained the connection between economics and politics by stating:
“Politics is the most concentrated form of economics.”
This means political struggles are ultimately rooted in economic conflicts between classes.

9. Negative View of Politics

From feminist and Marxist perspectives, politics often appears negative because it involves:
• domination
• exploitation
• oppression
• control by powerful groups
Examples:
• Patriarchy → male domination over women
• Capitalism → exploitation of workers by the capitalist class
Marx described two major classes:
• Bourgeoisie – capitalist class
• Proletariat – working class

10. Politics as an Emancipatory Force

Although politics involves domination, it can also be a tool for liberation.
Marxist View
Marx predicted that workers would eventually overthrow capitalism through a proletarian
revolution, creating a classless communist society.
In such a society:
 • class exploitation would disappear
• the state would eventually “wither away.”
Feminist View
Radical feminists believe that political struggle can end gender inequality and create a non-
sexist society where people are valued for their abilities rather than gender.

11. Summary
The concept politics as power emphasizes that politics exists wherever power relations and
conflicts over resources occur.
Key ideas include:
• Politics occurs in all areas of social life.
• Politics involves power and the distribution of resources.
• Scarcity leads to competition and conflict.
• Feminists highlight gender power relations.
• Marxists emphasize class struggle and economic power.
Thus, politics is both:
• a system of domination, and
• a potential means of achieving social justice and liberation.

STUDYING POLITICS

1. The Study of Politics

The study of politics refers to the systematic and academic analysis of political institutions,
behaviour, ideas, and processes. Politics is one of the oldest areas of intellectual inquiry in
human history. Traditionally, the study of politics was closely connected with philosophy,
history, and law. Early scholars focused mainly on normative questions—questions about what
political systems should be like, what is just, and how society ought to be organized.
However, from the late nineteenth century, scholars attempted to transform politics into a
scientific discipline. They sought to analyse political phenomena using empirical evidence,
observation, and systematic research methods, similar to those used in the natural sciences.
The peak of this scientific movement occurred in the 1950s and 1960s, when many political
scientists rejected the earlier philosophical tradition and tried to make political science strictly
objective and value-free. Later, however, scholars recognized that political analysis cannot ignore
values, ethics, and normative debates. As a result, modern political science now includes
multiple theoretical approaches, making it a rich and diverse discipline.

2. The Philosophical Tradition

Origin and Nature
The philosophical tradition represents the earliest approach to studying politics and is
commonly known as political philosophy. This tradition began in Ancient Greece and focused
primarily on normative questions, meaning questions about what should be, rather than what
actually exists.
Political philosophers were mainly concerned with identifying the ideal principles and moral
foundations of political life. They examined issues such as justice, freedom, authority, and the
best form of government.
Founding Thinkers
Two of the most influential figures in this tradition are:
• Plato
• Aristotle
Plato attempted to describe an ideal political system in his famous work
The Republic.
He believed that society should be ruled by philosopher-kings, individuals who possess wisdom
and knowledge.
Aristotle, in contrast, studied existing political systems and tried to determine which form of
government was the most stable and just.
During the medieval period, political philosophy continued through the writings of:
• Augustine of Hippo
• Thomas Aquinas
These thinkers combined Christian theology with political philosophy to explain the
relationship between religion, morality, and political authority.

Characteristics of the Traditional Approach

The philosophical or traditional approach typically involves:
1. Normative analysis – focusing on values such as justice, equality, and liberty.
2. Prescriptive arguments – recommending how political systems should operate.
3. Historical study of political thought – analysing the ideas of major thinkers.
4. Interpretation of classic political texts.
This approach resembles literary and philosophical analysis, examining the arguments and
reasoning of influential thinkers.
Key Normative Questions
Typical questions addressed by this tradition include:
• Why should citizens obey the state?
• What is justice?
• What should be the limits of individual freedom?
• How should wealth and resources be distributed in society?
Because these questions involve values and moral judgments, they cannot be tested
scientifically.

3. The Empirical Tradition

Although political philosophy dominated early political study, another tradition gradually
developed that focused on describing and explaining political reality. This is known as the
empirical tradition.
Early Empirical Thinkers
Elements of empirical political analysis can be seen in the works of several classical thinkers:
• Aristotle – classified different types of constitutions.
• Niccolò Machiavelli – provided a realistic analysis of power and leadership.
• Montesquieu – developed a sociological explanation of government and law.
These works later contributed to the development of comparative government, which studies
political systems across different countries.
Empiricism
The empirical approach is based on the philosophical doctrine of empiricism, which argues that
knowledge comes from observation and experience.
Important proponents of empiricism include:
• John Locke
• David Hume
Empiricism laid the foundation for scientific investigation in political science.
Positivism
By the nineteenth century, empiricism evolved into positivism, a philosophy strongly associated
with:
• Auguste Comte
Positivism argued that:
• knowledge must be based on observable facts
• social sciences should follow the methods of natural sciences
• theories should be tested through systematic observation and verification
This intellectual movement encouraged scholars to develop a scientific approach to politics.

4. Behaviouralism
Emergence
Behaviouralism emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in the United States, and
represented the high point of the scientific revolution in political science.
This approach attempted to transform political science into a fully scientific discipline.
Key Characteristics
Behaviouralism focuses on:
• the observable behaviour of political actors
• the use of quantitative data
• statistical analysis
• the development of testable hypotheses
Political scientists using this approach studied topics such as:
• voting behaviour
• behaviour of legislators
• lobbying activities
• political participation
An important behavioural scholar was:
• David Easton
He argued that politics could be studied scientifically using methods similar to those used in the
natural sciences.
Contributions
Behaviouralism contributed significantly by:
• introducing scientific methods into political research
• producing large amounts of empirical data
• encouraging systematic analysis of political behaviour
Criticisms
Despite its influence, behaviouralism faced several criticisms:
 1. Narrow scope – it focuses only on observable behaviour.
2. Neglect of normative questions – important values like liberty and justice were ignored.
3. Hidden value bias – by studying existing political systems, behaviouralism may
unintentionally support the status quo.
During the 1970s, interest in normative political theory revived through scholars such as:
• John Rawls
• Robert Nozick

5. Rational-Choice Theory
Another important modern approach is rational-choice theory, also known as:
• public-choice theory
• political economy
• formal political theory
This approach applies economic models and mathematical analysis to political behaviour.
Basic Assumption
Rational-choice theory assumes that individuals act as rational and self-interested actors who
try to maximize their personal benefits.
Applications
It is widely used to analyse:
• voting decisions
• party competition
• interest-group behaviour
• bureaucratic decision-making
• international relations
Important contributors include:
• Anthony Downs
• Mancur Olson
• William Niskanen
Game Theory
Rational-choice theory often uses game theory, a mathematical method used to analyse strategic
interactions.
One famous example is the Prisoner’s Dilemma, which explains why individuals or states
sometimes fail to cooperate even when cooperation would benefit everyone.
Criticisms
Critics argue that rational-choice theory:
• overestimates human rationality
• assumes people always act out of self-interest
• ignores social, cultural, and historical influences

6. New Institutionalism
Old Institutionalism
Before the behavioural revolution, political science focused heavily on institutions, such as:
• constitutions
• legislatures
• courts
• administrative systems
This traditional approach is known as old institutionalism.
Emergence of New Institutionalism
From the 1980s, scholars revived institutional analysis through new institutionalism.
Key Idea
New institutionalists believe that institutions shape political behaviour.
However, institutions are no longer viewed simply as organizations. Instead, they are seen as:
• sets of rules and norms
• both formal and informal
• embedded in historical and cultural contexts
For example, political behaviour may be influenced not only by laws but also by customs,
traditions, and informal practices.
Criticism
Some critics argue that new institutionalism may exaggerate the influence of institutions and
treat individuals as prisoners of institutional structures.

7. Critical Approaches to Politics

Since the 1980s, political analysis has expanded with the emergence of critical approaches.
These perspectives challenge mainstream political science and focus on inequality, power
relations, and marginalized groups.
Important critical perspectives include:
• feminism
• critical theory
• green politics
• constructivism
• post-structuralism
• postcolonialism

8. Post-Positivist Approaches
Many critical perspectives are post-positivist, meaning they reject the idea that political science
can be completely objective.
They emphasize:
• the role of ideas, beliefs, and identity
• the importance of language and discourse
• the influence of culture and interpretation

Constructivism
Constructivism argues that the political world is socially constructed through shared ideas and
beliefs.
People’s interests and identities are shaped by:
• traditions
• cultural values
• social interactions
Thus, political reality is not fixed but continuously created and recreated by human actions.

Post-Structuralism
Post-structuralism examines the relationship between power and knowledge.
It is strongly influenced by:
• Michel Foucault
Post-structuralists argue that political ideas are expressed through language and discourse, and
these discourses are linked to power.
They claim that:
• there is no single universal truth
• multiple perspectives exist, each representing a different discourse of power
To analyse political ideas, they use deconstruction, a method that exposes hidden assumptions
and meanings within political texts and theories.

The study of politics has evolved from philosophical speculation to a complex,

interdisciplinary academic field.
Modern political science incorporates multiple approaches, including:
• philosophical and normative analysis
• empirical and behavioural research
• rational-choice modelling
• institutional analysis
• critical and post-positivist perspectives
Each approach contributes different insights, allowing scholars to better understand political
institutions, power relations, and human behaviour in political life.