Course Title : MANUFACTURING PROCESS-2

[Link] - IV Sem
Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Manoj Kumar, [Link]., Ph.D (P)

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GGSESTC Bokaro
 Unit – 1
Elementary treatment of Metal Cutting
Elementary treatment of metal cutting theory – Elements of cutting process – Geometry of
single point tool and angles, chip formation and types of chips – built up edge and its effects,
chip breakers. Mechanics of orthogonal cutting –Merchant’s Force diagram, cutting forces –
cutting speeds, feed, depth of cut, heat generation, tool life, coolants, machinability –
economics of machining. cutting Tool materials and cutting fluids –types and characteristics.
Introduction to Metal Cutting

In an industry, metal components are made into different shapes and dimensions by
using various metal working processes.

Metal working processes

Non-cutting shaping Cutting shaping

Forging, rolling, pressing, etc. turning, drilling, milling, etc.

Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a given material taken in
three possible states:

• liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.

• solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
• powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.

6
Material Removal Processes – Metal Cutting Process
• A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of material from a
starting work part so the remaining part has the desired geometry
• Traditional Process (Machining) – Material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning,
milling, drilling
• Nontraditional processes - Various energy forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material. e.g., Laser and Electron Beam machining

• Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding

Why Machining is Important Disadvantages with Machining

• Variety of work materials can be machined • Wasteful of material
– Most frequently used to cut metals – Chips generated in machining are wasted
• Variety of part shapes and special geometric features
material, at least in the unit operation
possible, such as:
• Time consuming
– Screw threads
– A machining operation generally takes more
– Accurate round holes
time to shape a given part than alternative
– Very straight edges and surfaces
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
metallurgy, or forming
7
Machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the
desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work
surface(s).

Principle of machining
A metal rod of irregular shape, size and surface is converted into a finished product of desired
dimension and surface finish by machining by proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.

• Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:

• Fulfill its functional requirements.

• Improve its performance.

• Prolong its service.

Principle of machining (Turning)

8
Requirements of machining
• The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a
powerful device called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of material
from the work surface resulting in its desired dimensions and surface finish.
• Additionally some environment called cutting fluid is generally used to ease
machining by cooling and lubrication.

Definition of machine tool

A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or system
of devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface
finish by removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with
the help of cutting tools moved past the work surface(s).
9
Basic functions of machine tools
Machine tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any contour
on the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:
• Firmly holding the blank and the tool.
• Transmit motions to the tool and the blank.
• Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
• Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.

Types of cutting tools (Based on metal cutting)

Single point Multipoint

turning tools, shaping, planning and milling cutters, broaching tools,
slotting tools and boring tools. hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

Types of cutting tools (A/c to motion of cutting)

Linear Motion Rotary Motion Linear & Rotary Motion

Lathe, broaching , milling, grinding, broaching, Drilling, honing, boring etc.
shaping, Planning hobs, gear shaping etc.
10
Different types of material removal Operations

11
Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools
Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their
performances in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining.

Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the
salient faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle
are the most significant for all the cutting tools. The concept of rake angle and clearance
angle will be clear from some simple operations shown in Fig.

Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

12
Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry or Nomenclature:

• Shank
• Flank
• Face
• Heel
• Nose
• Nose Radius
• Cutting Edges
• Side Cutting Edge Angle
• End Cutting Edge Angle
• Back Rake angle
• Side rake angle
• Side Relief Angle and 13
• Back Relief Angle
Tool signature for single point cutting tool
 Shank
 It is the main body of the tool
 Flank
 The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge
 Face
 The surface on which the chip slides
 Nose
 It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
 Nose Radius
 Strengthens finishing point of tool
 Cutting Edge
 It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the
work piece
 Side cutting edge angle
 Angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank

14
Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane.
Clearance angle (α): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface.
Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining.
Rake angle may be positive, or negative or even zero as shown in Fig. (a, b and c).
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:
Positive rake - helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
Zero rake - to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
Negative rake - to increase edge-strength and life of the tool.
Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the
machined surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job
surface.

Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be positive (30 ~ 150) depending upon tool-
work materials and type of the machining operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.

(a) Positive rake (b) Zero rake (c) Negative rake

Fig. Three possible types of rake angles 15
Single Point Cutting Tool Terminology-2D / 3D

16
 End cutting edge angle
 Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the tool shank
 Side Relief angle
 Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the side flank
 End Relief angle
 Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the end flank
 Side Rake angle
 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge
 Back Rake angle
 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the side cutting edge

17
Cutting Tool Materials
– Carbon steels, High-speed steels
– Cast carbides, Cemented carbides, Coated carbides
– Cermets, Ceramic Tools
– Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN)
– Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
– Harder than work piece.
– High toughness
– High thermal shock resistance
– Low adhesion to work piece material
– Low diffusivity to work piece material

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Theory of Metal Cutting
 Metal cutting or machining is the process of producing a
work piece by removing unwanted material from a block of
metal, in the form of chips.
 This process is most important since almost all the products
get their final shape and size by metal removal, either
directly or indirectly.

Figure (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a).
19
Orthogonal and oblique cutting
• Orthogonal cutting
– The cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
• Oblique cutting
– The cutting edge of the tool is set at an angle to the direction of motion.

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21
BASIS OF
ORTHOGONAL OBLIQUE CUTTING
COMPARISON

In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool Oblique cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is
Description
makes right angle to the direction of feed motion. inclined to the direction of feed motion.
Three components of force are considered, that
There are only two components of force which are
is thrust force, radial force and cutting force.
Components Of mutually perpendicular. The components include:
These components cannot be represented by 2D
Force cutting force and thrust force ; and can be
coordinate system; they can only be represented
represented by 2D coordinate system.
by 3D coordinate system.
The tool that uses orthogonal type of cutting has a The tool that uses oblique type of cutting has a
Tool Life lesser cutting life compared to tools that use oblique more cutting life compared to tools that use
cutting. oblique cutting.
Heat Concentration
Has a lesser concentration of heat at the cutting
At The Cutting Has a high heat concentration at the cutting region.
region.
Region
The cutting edge may or may not be larger than
Cutting Edge The cutting edge is larger than the cutting width.
cutting width.
The chips flow in the direction normal to the cutting
Chips Flow The chips flow along the sideways.
edge.
The Shear force per unit is low, a factor which
Shear Force Per Unit The Shear force that act per unit area is high, a factor
decreases heat developed per unit area hence
Area which increases the heat developed per unit area.
increasing tool life.
The surface finish obtained is very poor when The surface finish obtained is a bit finer when
Surface Finish compared to oblique cutting which gives a fairly good compared to orthogonal cutting which gives a
surface finish. poor surface finish.
Used almost in all industrial cutting, used in
Use Used in grooving, parting, slotting, pipe cutting etc..
drilling, grinding, milling etc.

22
 The Mechanism of Cutting
• Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip. As
chip is removed, new surface is exposed
• Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a
position that is perpendicular to the direction of relative work or tool motion.
This allows us to deal with forces that act only in one plane.

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with
positive rake angle in (a).
23
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting
 Ideal Orthogonal Cutting is when the cutting edge of the tool is straight and

perpendicular to the direction of motion.

 During machining, the material is removed in form of chips, which are

generated by shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane.

• The surface the chip flows across is called the face or rake face.

• The surface that forms the other boundary of the wedge is called the flank.

• The rake angle is the angle between the tool face and a line perpendicular to

the cutting point of the work piece surface.

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 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
 The relief or clearance angle is the angle between the tool flank and the newly
formed surface of the work piece angle.

25
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal cutting model:
• t1 = un deformed chip thickness
• t2 = deformed chip thickness (usually t2 > t1)
• α = rake angle
• If we are using a lathe, t1 is the feed per revolution.

26
 The Mechanism of Cutting
• In turning, w = depth of cut and t1= feed

27
 The Mechanism of Cutting

Cutting force (Fc) is tangential and Thrust force is axial (Ft)

Cutting forces in a turning operation 28

 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Chip thickness ratio (or) cutting ratio

t1
Cutting ratio  r 
t2
where
 r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
 t1 = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
 t2 = chip thickness after separation
Which one is more correct?
• r≥1
• r ≤1
• Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio always
less than 1.0

29
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Plane Angle

 Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear
plane angle ө can be determined as:

r cos
tan 
1 r sin 
where
 r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
  = Rake angle
 ө = Shear angle

30
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Plane Angle Proof

31
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Strain in chip formation

θ
θ -α

(a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.
32
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Strain in chip formation

• Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following

equation, based on the preceding parallel plate model:

–  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ

where

–  = shear strain

– θ = shear angle

–  = rake angle of cutting tool

33
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Shear Strain Proof

• From the shear strain triangle

  = AC/DB= (AD+DC)/DB

  = AD/DB + DC/DB

 AD/DB = Cot θ

 DC/DB = tan (θ - )

 Therefore  = Cot θ + tan (θ - )

–  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ

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 Chip Formation
Chip formation
 Mechanics of metal cutting is greatly depend on the shape and size of the
chips formed.

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
35
Four Basic Type of Chips in Machining are

• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip

• Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

• Serrated chip

36
Discontinuous chip
• When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets
fractured very easily and thus the Chip produced is in the form of
discontinuous segments
Reasons
• Brittl e work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool-chip friction

37
Continuous chip
• Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or
ductile materials at high cutting speeds. The continuous chip which is
like a ribbon flows along the rake face.
Reasons
• Ductile work materials
• High cutting s peeds
• Small feeds an d depths
• Sharp cutting e dge
• Low tool-chip friction

38
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
 When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile
materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool
tip. When such sizeable material piles upon the rake face, it acts as a
cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up edge
(BUE). By virtue of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work
material

Reasons
• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face

• BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

39
Serrated chip
• Semi Continuous (saw tooth appearance) chips produced when machining
tool steels or Harden materials at high cutting speeds.

Reasons
• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face

• BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

40
Chip Breakers
 Long continuous chip are undesirable
 Chip breaker is a piece of metal clamped to the rake surface of the tool which bends
the chip and breaks it
 Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry, thereby controlling the chip
flow

Fig. (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker Clamped on
the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers
41
 Force & Velocity Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Forces Acting on Chip Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• Friction force F and Normal force to • F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be measured
friction N directly, in order to measure these
forces the forces acting on the tool to be
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to
measured initially
shear Fn
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting
(b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured 42
Resultant Forces

• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

– R' must be equal in magnitude to R

– R’ must be opposite in direction to R

– R’ must be collinear with R

43
Shear Stress
 Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Fs
S
As

 where As = area of the shear plane

t1w
As 
sin

 Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

44
 Shear Stress- Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Shear angle and its significance
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower
shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher θ with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller θ with a
corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
45
 Force Calculations

• The forces and angles involved

in cutting are drawn here,

• Having seen the vector based

determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:

F
 tan   
N
Where   The coefficient of friction
46
 Force Calculations

Where the Resultant force R is Given by

R  Fc2  Ft 2  Fs2  Fn2  F 2  N 2

47
 Force Calculations

• We can write the cutting and thrust forces in terms of the shear force:

48
 Velocity Calculations
• Having seen the vector based
determination of the cutting forces, we
can now look at equivalent
calculations:
• Vc= Cutting velocity (ft/min) as set or
measured on the machine
• Vs= Shearing velocity
• Vf= Frictional velocity

Using the sign rules:

Vs Vc

sin90  sin90o   
o
A ls o ,
Vc sin 90o  Vc cos V 
V c s in 
Vs   c o s    
sin90    cos 
f
o

49
 Cutting Force Vs Rake Angle α

• The effects of rake angle on cutting force are shown in the graph below,

50
The Merchant Equation
 To determine θ he assumed the minimum energy principle
applied in metal cutting so that the deformation process adjusted
itself to a minimum energy condition.
• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur,
the work material will select a shear plane angle θ that minimizes
energy, given by


  45 
2 2

– Derived by Eugene Merchant

51
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

• To increase shear plane angle

– Increase the rake angle ()

– Reduce the friction angle (β) or coefficient of friction

 
  45  
2 2

52
 Merchant's Force Circle

• Merchant's Force Circle is a method

for calculating the various forces
involved in the cutting process.
1. Set up x-y axis labeled with forces,
and the origin in the centre of the
page. The scale should be enough to
include both the measured forces.
The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force
(Ft) is drawn vertically. (These forces
will all be in the lower left hand
quadrant).

Merchant's Force Circle

53
 Merchant's Force Circle
2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle
that encloses vector R. If done correctly,
the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie
on this circle.
4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right
hand quadrant, taking care to draw the
correct rake angle (α) from the vertical
axis.
5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of
the tool (at the same rake angle) through
the circle. This now gives the friction Merchant's Force Circle
vector (F).
54
 Merchant's Force Circle
6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the
friction vector, to the head of the resultant vector
(R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a
friction angle (β) between vectors R and N. As a
side note recall that any vector can be broken
down into components. Therefore,
mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the
cut depth to find the shear force. To do this, the
chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before
drawing, select some magnification factor (e.g.,
200 times) to multiply both values by. Draw a
feed thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal
Merchant's Force Circle
axis. Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to
the tool cutting face. 55
 Merchant's Force Circle
8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool
point) towards the intersection of the
two chip lines, stopping at the circle.
The result will be a shear force vector
(Fs). Also measure the shear force
angle between Fs and Fc.

9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn)

from the head of Fs to the head of R.

[Link] a scale and protractor to measure

Merchant's Force Circle
off all distances (forces) and angles.
56
 Power and Energy Relationships
• There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the
power consumed in cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast
we can cut, or how large the motor on a machine must be.
Having both the forces and velocities found with the Merchant
for Circle, we are able to calculate the power,
• The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc . Vc in kw
Pc = Fc . Vc / 33,000 in HP
where
– Pc = cutting power in KW
– Fc = cutting force in KN
– Vc = cutting speed in m/min
57
Power and Energy Relationships
• There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the
power consumed in cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast
we can cut, or how large the motor on a machine must be.
Having both the forces and velocities found with the Merchant
for Circle, we are able to calculate the power,
• The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc . Vc in kw
Pc = Fc . Vc / 33,000 in HP
where
– Pc = cutting power in KW
– Fc = cutting force in KN
– Vc = cutting speed in m/min
58
 Power and Energy Relationships
 Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is given by

P HP c
Pg  c H Pg 
E E
where
 E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

 Typical E for machine tools  90%

 There are losses in the machine that must be considered when estimating the
size of the electric motor required:

or
Pc
Pg   Pt
E
Where
 Pt = power required to run the machine at no-load conditions (hp or kW)

59
Power and Energy Relationships
• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of
metal cut (power to cut one cubic inch per minute)

• Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc H Pc
PU  or H PU 
RMR RMR

• where RMR = material removal rate

60
Power and Energy Relationships
 Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fc Vc Fc
U  Pu   
RMR Vc t1  w t1  w

• Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3

(in-lb/in3)

• Specific energy is in fact pressure and sometimes is called

specific cutting pressure:
Fc
U 
A

61
Cutting Temperature
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted
into heat

 This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip

 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy
in the chip

High cutting temperatures

 Reduce tool life
 Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine
operator

 Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to thermal

expansion of work material
62
 Cutting Parameters
Cutting input Parameters
• Cutting Speed
• Feed
• Depth of Cut
Cutting output Parameters
• Material removal rate
• Surface roughness
• Wear mechanisms

Speed is the relative movement between tool and w/p,

which produces a cut

Feed is the relative movement between tool and w/p,

which spreads the cut

Depth of cut parameter focuses on the tertiary cutting

motion of the tool as the tool is pushed deeper into the
workpiece to the specified depth.

The depth of cut will usually vary between 0.1 to 1.0 63

mm.
64
Material Removal Rate

65
Process Parameters
• Speed (v), Feed (f), Depth of Cut (d)
• Material Removal Rate (MRR) = f x d x v

66
Shear angle and its significance
 Shear angle(θ) is the angle made by the shear plane
with the cutting speed vector.

 Shear angle is very important parameter in metal

cutting. Higher the shear angle, better is the cutting
performance.

 In metal cutting it is observed that a higher rake

angles give rise to higher shear angles

67
Tool Wear
 Tools get worn out due to long term usage

Types of Tool Wear

 Flank wear (VB)

 It occurs on the relief face of the tool and the side relief angle.

 Crater wear (KT)

 It occurs on the rake face of the tool.

 Notch wear or Chipping (VN)

 Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the
tool
68
Tool Wear
Crater wear (KT)

Notch wear (VN)

Flank wear (VB)

Flank wear rate based on cutting speed69

Tool Wear

Fig (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting tool. tool moves to the left. (b) View of the rake
of a turning tool, showing nose radius R and crater wear pattern on the rake face of the
tool c) View of the flank face of a turning tool, sowing the average flank wear land VB
and the depth-of-cut line (wear notch)

70
Tool Life
 Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, expressed generally in time
units from the start of cut to some end point defined by a failure criterion.
Tool Life Prediction
 Taylor’s tool life equation predicts tool failure based on flank wear of the
tool

Vtn  C
where
– V is the cutting speed, t is the tool life,
– n is Taylor exponent.
• n=0.125 for HSS
• n=0.25 for Carbide
• n=0.5 for Coated Carbide/Ceramic
• C is a constant given for work piece material
71
Machinability
• Machinability is a system property that indicates how easy a material can
be machined at low cost.
• Good machinabililty may mean one or more of the following: cutting with
minimum energy, minimum tool wear, good surface finish, etc.
Quantitative measures of machinability
• Machinability index: an average rating stated in comparison with reference
materials. This measure can be misleading.
• Tool life: service time in minutes or seconds to total failure by chipping or
cracking of the tool at certain cutting speed, or the volume of material
removed before total failure.

• Surface finish produced at standardized cutting speeds and feeds.

• Others based on cutting force, power, temperature, or chip formation.
72
Machinable Materials

Good machinable materials should have the following properties

• Low ductility, low strain-hardening exponent (n), low fracture toughness.

• Low shear strength (low TS), low hardness.

• A strong metallurgical bond (adhesion) between tool and work piece is
undesirable when it weakens the tool material.

• Very hard compounds, such as some oxides, all carbides, many inter
metallic compounds, and elements such as silicon, embedded in the work
piece material accelerate tool wear, thus should be avoided.

• Inclusions that soften at high temperatures are beneficial.

• High thermal conductivity is helpful.

73
Machinable Materials
Ferrous materials
– Carbon steels: annealed, heat-treated (spheroidized),
cold worked
– Free-machining steels: special inclusions
– Alloy steels: hard
– Stainless steels: high strength, low thermal
conductivity, high strain hardening rate
– Cast iron: white, gray, nodular cast iron
Non-ferrous materials
– Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum alloys, Beryllium,
Copper-based alloys, Nickel-based alloys and super
alloys,
– Titanium, Plastics, composites.
74
Factors Affecting Machining Operation / Factors Influencing Machining Operation

75
Cutting Fluids
• A fluid which is used in machining as well as abrasive
machining processes to reduce friction and tool wear

Function of cutting fluids

• Lubrication

• Cooling
• Chip removal

Types

• Straight Oil (Petroleum based oils)

• Soluble Oil (water based oils)

76
 Unit – 2
Lathe

Manoj Kumar [Link]. Ph.D. [P]

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GGSESTC

1
 Lathe
 Lathe is a machine, which removes the metal from a piece of work to the required
shape and size.
 Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world in
the metal working industry.

 A lathe operates on the principle of a rotating workpiece and a fixed cutting tool.
 The job is securely and rigidly held in the chuck or in between centres on the lathe
machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which will remove metal
from the job in the form of chips.
 The cutting tool is feed into the workpiece, which rotates about its own axis causing
the workpiece to be formed to the desired shape.

 Lathe is a machine tool employed generally to produce cylindrical objects.

 It is the most commonly used general purpose lathe used in engineering workshops
 Lathe machine is also known as “the mother/father of the entire tool family”.

2
 Innovator of Lathe

Henry Maudslay (22 August 1771 – 14 February 1831)

was an English machine tool innovator, tool and die
maker, and inventor. He is considered a founding father
of machine tool technology. His inventions were an
important foundation for the Industrial Revolution.

Maudslay's invention of a metal lathe to cut metal, circa

1800, enabled the manufacture of standard screw
thread sizes. Standard screw thread sizes allowed
interchangeable parts and the development of mass
production.

3
Function of lathe
Lathe is to remove excess material in the form of chips by rotating the work piece
against a stationary cutting tool

Industrial revolution demanded

• More production
• More Precision
• Changes in Manufacturing process
• Lead to the Development of High speed
• Special purpose lathes

4
Principle of Working:
• The principle of working for an lathe involves rotating a workpiece while a cutting tool is
brought into contact with the workpiece to remove material and shape it as desired.

• The workpiece is clamped in a chuck or a collet, and the tool is held in a tool post.
• As the workpiece rotates, the cutting tool moves along the workpiece's surface to remove
material and shape it according to the desired specifications.

• This process allows for precision machining of cylindrical, conical, and threaded surfaces.
• It holds the work between two supports called centers.
• Chuck or Face plate is also used for holding the work. Chuck or face plate is mounted
on machine spindle.

• Cutting tool is held and supported on a tool post.

• Movement of the job is rotation about spindle axis
• Tool is fed against the revolving work
• Movement of the tool is either parallel to or at any inclination to the work axis

5
 Workpiece Setup: The workpiece, which could be a metal rod, is securely mounted between the lathe's
headstock and tailstock. The headstock contains the main spindle that rotates the workpiece, while the
tailstock provides support.
 Tool Setup: The cutting tool, held in a tool holder, is positioned parallel to the workpiece axis. It can
move longitudinally (along the workpiece) and crosswise (perpendicular to the workpiece) using
various controls.
 Rotation and Cutting: The lathe's spindle is engaged, causing the workpiece to rotate at a desired
speed. The cutting tool is brought into contact with the rotating workpiece, and it removes material
through a combination of rotational and longitudinal movement. The crosswise movement controls the
depth of the cut.
 Feed Control: The feed rate, which determines how fast the tool advances along the workpiece, can be
adjusted to control the amount of material removed per pass.
 Finishing and Accuracy: The lathe allows for precise control over the material removal process,
enabling the creation of cylindrical shapes, threads, and various geometries. Careful adjustments of the
cutting tool, feed rate, and spindle speed are necessary for achieving the desired surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.

6
If the tool moves parallel to work piece If the tool moves inclined to the axis it
cylindrical surface is formed produces a taper surface and is called
taper turning.

Lathe Components
• Bed: supports all major components
• Carriage: slides along the ways and consists of the crossslide, tool post, apron
• Headstock – Holds the jaws for the work piece, supplies power to the jaws and
has various drive speeds

• Tailstock – supports the other end of the workpiece

• Feed Rod and Lead Screw – Feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the
headstock
7
MAJOR PARTS OF LATHE AND THEIR FUNCIONS

8
 Bed
• The bed is the main component of a lathe, which is mounted on the legs of the lathe.
• All the major components are mounted on the lathe bed, like tail stock, headstock,
carriage, etc. Tailstock and carriage move over the guide ways provided on top face of
the bed.
• Headstock of the lathe is located at the extreme left of the bed and tailstock at the right
extreme of the bed. The top of the bed has flat or V shaped guideways.
• The bed is typically made of cast iron to ensure stability and minimize vibrations and
also it possess high compressive strength and high wear resistance.

9
 Headstock
• The main function of headstock is to transmit power
to the different parts of a lathe.
• It holds the lathe spindle and gears, however for long
bars hollow spindle is used. Also, chuck is fitted to
spindle.
• The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses
live centre to which the work can be attached.
• It supports the work and revolves with the work,
fitted into the main spindle of the headstock.
• The cone pulley is also attached with this
arrangement, which is used to get various spindle
speed through electric motor. The back gear
arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of
slower speeds.
• Some gears called change wheels are used to produce
different velocity ratio required for thread cutting.
10
 Spindle
• The spindle rotates on two large bearings housed on the headstock casting.
• A hole extends through the spindle so that a long bar stock may be passed through the
hole.
• The front end of the spindle is threaded on which chucks, faceplate, driving plate and
catch plate are screwed.

• The front end of the hole is tapered to receive live centre which supports the work.
• On the other side of the spindle, a gear known as a spindle gear is fitted. Through this
gear, tumbler gears and a main gear train, the power is transmitted to the gear on the
leadscrew.

11
Chuck or Collet:
Workpieces are held securely in a chuck (usually for larger workpieces) or a
collet (for smaller and more precise workpieces).

Chuck is classified into two

types:

Three jaw chuck: It is used to

hold circular or cylindrical
shape jobs.

Four jaw chuck: It is used to

hold non-circular jobs.

12
 Tailstock
• The tailstock is mounted on the right hand side of the lathe bed, which lies opposite end of
the headstock and can be moved along the bed.
• The function of the tailstock is to support the other end of work piece and often includes a
center for additional stability.
• It also to accommodate different tools like drill, reaming, boring and tapping, etc.
• The tailstock moves on the guide ways over the bed, to accommodate for different length of
work piece.
• Tailstock is known as dead center.

13
 Carriage
Carriage is located between the headstock and
tailstock on the lathe bed guide ways. It can be
moved along the bed either towards or away
from the headstock. It has several parts to
support, move and control the cutting tool. The
parts of the carriage are:

a) Saddle (which moves along the bed)

b) Apron
c) Cross-slide (moves perpendicular to the bed)
d) Compound rest
e) Compound slide
f) Tool post
14
 Saddle

• It is an “H” shaped casting.

• The saddle connects the pair of bed guide ways
like a bridge.

• It fits over the bed and slides along the bed

between headstock and tailstock.

• The cross slide and tool post are mounted on the

saddle.

• The movement of the saddle is parallel along the

axis of the lathe, it is also known as feed.

• The saddle or the entire carriage can be

• moved by providing hand feed or automatic feed.

15
 Apron

• The front portion of a carriage call as apron. It consists of all control keys,
which clamped to the saddle.
• It is useful in providing power and hand feed to both carriage and cross-
slide.
• It is also used to provide feed to the carriage during thread cutting through
two half nuts.

16
 Cross slide
• The cross slide is mounted on the top of the saddle. This moves the tool at
perpendicular to the work piece or machine axis.

• The cross slide can be moved either by rotating the cross slide hand wheel.

• The perpendicular distance moved by the cross slide is proportional to the

amount of metal removed and it is known as depth of cut.

17
 Compound slide / Compound rest
• The compound slide / compound rest is mounted on the top of the cross slide
upper surface, which is related to a micrometer sleeve and screw handle with
the outer edge of screw. It is used to obtain taper on the work piece.
• The automatic feed is not possible in compound slide.
• Compound rest is a part which connects to cross slide and compound slide,
which is mounted on the cross slide by tongue and groove joint.
• It can be swiveled to the required angle while turning tapers.

18
 Tool post

• The tool post is mounted on top of the compound slide.

• It holds the cutting tool rigidly and allows for quick and precise tool changes.
• Different types of tool holders can be used to accommodate various cutting
tools.

19
 Feed Rod
• Feed rod is a long shaft extending from the feed box.
• The power is transmitted from a set of gears from headstock.
• The feed rod is used to move the carriage or cross slide for turning,
boring and facing operations.
• The amount of tools relative to the workpiece is called ‘Feed.’

20
 Feed Mechanism
• The amount of tools relative to the workpiece is called ‘Feed.’
• Lathes have mechanisms to control the feed rate of the cutting tool as it
moves along the workpiece.
• These mechanisms enable the creation of smooth and accurate surfaces.
• A lathe tool has 3 types of feed
o Longitudinal feed: Here the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis. It is
affected by means of the carriage movement.
o Crossfeed: Here the tool moves at right angles to the lathe axis.
o Angular feed: By adjusting the compound slide and swivelling it to the
required angle to the lathe axis.
• Cross and longitudinal feeds are both hand and power operated, but angular
is only hand operated.

21
 Lead screw

• The lead screw is a long threaded shaft connected to the headstock.

• The lead screw is used only when thread cutting operation is to be carried
out on the work piece.

• For normal turning operations the lead screw is disengaged.

22
 LATHE OPERATIONS

Different types of operations that can be carried out

1. Facing
2. Straight Turning
3. Chamfering
4. Knurling
5. Grooving and parting off
6. Drilling
7. Boring
8. Taper turning
9. Thread cutting

23
 FACING

• Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a work piece to
produce a flat surface.

• The work piece rotates about its axis and the facing tool is fed
perpendicular to the axis of lathe.

24
 TURNING
• Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical
work piece.
• Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified
dimension.
• A simple single point cutting tools are use for turning operations.
• Turning can be different types like
i. Tapers and Taper Turning
ii. Straight turning
iii. Profiling
iv. External grooving, etc.

25
Tapers and Taper Turning
A taper may be define as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of
work measured along its length.

In a lathe, taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction

in diameter from a cylindrical work piece.

Straight turning
The Straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal
from the work piece.

Profiling

In profiling, the cut can be vary with regard to cutting depth, feed and speed.

External grooving

In external turning operations machines the outer diameter of the work piece.
26
 CHAMFERING

• Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a work piece.

• It is a process of creating a slope at the end of the work piece.

• This is done to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the work piece from being
damaged and to have a better look.

• This process is carried out for removing the unwanted metals and burrs after turning
operation.

27
 KNURLING
• Knurling is the process of embossing a required (diamond) shaped pattern on the
surface of the work piece.

• This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of circular work
piece.

• The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece

to prevent it from slipping when operated by hand.

28
 PARTING
• Parting off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been finished to the
desired dimension and shape.

• In parting operation both feed is fixed or locked and depth of cut is controlled
properly until the work is cut off in parts.

29
 TAPER TURNING

• A taper may be defined as a uniform decrease in diameter of work piece measured

along its length.

• Taper surface is generated on a cylindrical work piece.

• The amount of taper in a work piece is usually specified by the difference in
diameters of the taper to its length.

• D-Large diameter of taper in mm.

• d- Small diameter of taper in mm.
• l- Length of tapered part in mm.
• α- Angle of taper or half taper angle.

30
 THREAD CUTTING
• Thread cutting is the operation of producing helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
• Threads may be square or v threads can be cut on a cylindrical work piece.
• The threads of any pitch, shape and size can be cut on a lathe.
• A single point cutting tool (V-tool or square tool) is used to cut threads on the work
piece.
• For thread cutting operation, the tool is moved automatically in longitudinal direction.
• The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per
revolution of the work.
• Threads can be produced either on internal or external surface of a cylindrical bar.

31
Grooving

• Grooving is the process of reducing the diameter of a work piece over a very narrow
surface.
• It is often done at the end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small
margin.

Grooving Operations are:

a. Square Groove
b. Round Groove
c. Bevelled Groove

Forming
• Forming is the process of turning a convex, concave or of
any irregular shape.

32
Drilling
Drilling is an operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a
work piece by the rotating cutting edge of a cutter known as
the drill.
Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity to
produce circular internal grooves. Holes may be bore straight
and tapered.
i. Counter Boring
• Counter Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole through
a certain distance from one end instead of enlarging the
whole drilled surface.
ii. Taper Boring
• Taper Boring is similar to the external taper turning
operation and is accomplished by rotating the work on
chuck or a face plate, and feeding the tool at an angle to the
axis of rotation of the work piece.
33
 SPECIFICATION OF A LATHE

1) The length of the bed,

2) The distance between the centers.

3) The swing diameter of work over bed,

4) The swing diameter of work over the

carriage,

5) Power input

6) Lead screw details,

7) Number of spindle speeds

8) Feeds,

9) Width of bed

34
1) a) Height of centers 4) a)Metric thread piches
b) type of bed(straight , semi gap, or gap) b)lead screw pitch

c) center distance c)longitudinal feeds

2) a)swing over bed d)cross feeds

b) swing over cross slide 5) a) cross slide travel
c) swing in gap b) top slide travel
d) gap in front of face place c) tool section
3) a) spindle speeds range 6) a)tailstock sleeve travel
b) spindle nose b) taper in sleeve bore
c) spindle bore 7) Motor horsepower and RPM
d) taper nose 8) shipping dimensions ---
length*width*height*weigh

35
 Classification of lathes / Types Of Lathe Machine

Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to several aspects:
According to configuration:
• Horizontal – Most common for ergonomic conveniences.
• Vertical – Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type.
According to the purpose of use:
• General-purpose – Very versatile where almost all possible types of operations are
carried out on wide ranges of size, shape, and materials of jobs; e.g.: center lathes.
• Single-purpose – Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited
ranges of size and material of jobs; e.g.: facing lathe, roll turning lathe, etc.
• Special purpose – Where a definite number and type of operations are done
repeatedly over a long time on a specific type of blank; e.g.: capstan lathe, turret
lathe, gear blanking lathe, etc.

36
 TYPES OF LATHE MACHINE

Lathe machines are classified according to their construction and design.

Some of them are:

1. Bench lathe machine

2. Speed lathe machine
3. Engine lathe or center lathe machine
4. Tool room lathe machine
5. Capstan and turret lathe machine
6. Special purpose lathe machine
7. Automatic lathe machine

37
1. Bench lathe machine

• Bench lathe is a small sized engine lathe usually mounted on a bench.

• All the types of operations can be performed on thus lathe that may be done on an
ordinary speed.
• This is using for small and precision works such as in the production of gauges,
punches and bed for press tools.

38
2. Speed lathe machine
• Speed lathe is the simplest of all types of lathe in construction and operation.
• It consists of a bed , a head stock, a tail stock and a tool – post mounted on an
adjustable slide.
• The spindle speed is about 4000 rpm.
• They named because of very High Speed of head stock spindle.
3. Engine lathe ( center lathe )
• The term ” engine ” is associated with the lathe which is early driven by steam engines.
• An engine lathe is also know as a reproductive machine because of its
production capabilities.
• Engine lathes are an excellent tool, which aids in the creation of many modern tools.
Advantages
• It is using for mass production of products.
• It is using for manufacturing cylindrical shapes like steels and plastics.
Disadvantages
• It is very difficult to program in machine language.
• corruption, poor service, and racial issues.

39
Capstan Lathe
• They having features of the basic lathe and have short slide tail stock.
• A Capstan machine is a processing machine uses for making the same parts again and
again.
Advantages
• The production rate is high.
Disadvantages
• The heavier work-piece cannot machine by capstan lathe.
Turret Lathe
• The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe.
• It is used for repetitive production of duplicate parts.
• In a turret lathe, a longitudinally feed able, hexagon turret replaces the tail stock.
Advantages
• Turret lathe is using to machine the long and heavy workpieces.
• They having hexagonal tool post or head.
• There is no need of changing the tool.
Disadvantages
• They have manual indexes.
40
4. Tool room lathe machine
• Tool room lathe is similar to an engine lathe.
• This lathe is mainly using for precision work on tools, Dies, Gauges and in making work
where accuracy is necessary.

• It is used for making precision components in the tool room.

6. Special purpose lathe machine
Special Purpose lathe are using for special purposes and for jobs which cannot be
accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe.
7. Automatic lathe machine
• In the automatic lathe, the various operations are automating like the change of the
work piece.
• The working cycle is fully automatic that is repeated to produce duplicate parts without
participation of operator.
Advantages
• During machine operation operator is free to operate another machine.
• More economy in floor space.
Disadvantages
• Lots of consideration are taking on fixing the setup. 41
Dr. B. Sudheer Reddy, Asst. Prof., AITS-TPT 42
Work Holding Devices & Tool Holding Devices

43
44
 Unit – 3
Boring, Shaping and Slotting

Manoj Kumar, [Link]. Ph.D [P]

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GGSESTC
 Boring Machine
The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools basically used to bore
holes in large and heavy parts practically impossible to hold and rotate in an engine lathe
or a drilling machine.

Also, a boring machine is a reciprocating type of machine tools basically used to bore
holes in large and heavy parts.

For example engine frames, steam engine, cylinders, machine housings, etc.

The boring machines come in a large variety of styles and sizes.

The usage of a machine can be extended still further to include screw cutting, turning,
planetary grinding, or gear cutting.

The cutting tool is normally single point which are made of M2 and M3 high-speed steel
or P10 and P01 carbide.

John Wilkinson was the person who invented first boring machine tool in 1775.

2
Types of Boring Machine
• Horizontal: The rotational axis of w/p is horizontal
1. Table type boring machine
2. Floor type boring machine
3. Planer type boring machine
4. Multiple head type boring machine
• Vertical: The rotational axis of w/p is vertical
1. Vertical turret lathe boring machine
2. Standard vertical boring machine
• Precision boring machine
• Jig Boring Machine
1. Vertical milling machine type boring machine
2. Planer type boring machine

Horizontal Boring Machine:

In a horizontal boring machine, the work is supporting on a table, which is constant and
the tool turns into a horizontal axis.
This machine can perform boring, reaming, turning, threading, facing, milling,
grooving, recessing and many other operations with suitable tools.
Any irregular, off-balance and heavy workpieces can conveniently hold and easy to
machining.
3
Table type boring machine
• The table type is the most common of all
horizontal boring machines.
• The work is mounted on the table which is
adjustable and feed is given by hand power,
lengthwise or crosswise with respect to the
bed of the machine.
• The machine basically comprises of a bed,
headstock supporting column, end
supporting column, headstock, saddle and
table, and boring bar.
• This type of machine may be suitable for
general purpose work where other
operations, in addition to boring, are
required to be performed.

4
Bed
• The bed is that part of the machine which is fitting on the floor of the shop and has a
box-like casting.
• The bed supports the column, tables and other parts of the machine.

Headstock Supporting Column

• The column provides support to the headstock and guides it up and down
accurately by the guideways.
• The column which has hollow houses and is heavily ribbed to add rigidity.
• Some columns are stationary, others may be made to slide along the bed.

End Supporting Column

• The end supporting column situated at the other end of the bed houses.
• Bearing block is provided for supporting a long boring bar.
• The column may be adjusted on the slideways of the bed towards or away from the
spindle for supporting the different length of boring bars.
• It may be moved at right angles to the spindle as in the case of a floor type machine.

5
Headstock
• The headstock mounting on the column supports, drives, and feeds the tool.
• A spindle provides rotary movement to the tool and the quill may be moved longitudinally
to provide feeding movement of the boring cutter.
• The spindle nose is provided with a tapered hole for receiving taper shanks of the
boring bar or any other tool.
• A headstock may move up and down on the column for setting the tool for different
heights of the work..
Saddle and Table
• The tables support the work and is, therefore, provides T-slots for holding various
devices.
• The saddle allows the work to be moved longitudinally on the bed. The table may be
moved crosswise on the saddle.
• These movements may be slow or rapid and are performed by hand or power.
Boring Bars
• The boring bar supports the cutter for holding operations on jobs having large bore
diameters.
• For short holes, the bar may support on the headstock spindle end only.
• For long work, the bar is supported on the spindle end and on the column bearing
block. 6
Floor type boring machine
• The floor type horizontal boring machine having
no table uses a fixed floor plate on which T-
spaces are given to hold the work.
• The headstock supporting column and the end
supporting column and the end supporting column
are mounted on the runways which are set at right
angles to the spindle axis.
• This is so designed for holding very large and
heavy workpiece which are difficult to be
mounted and adjusted on a table.

7
Planer Type Horizontal Boring Machine

• The planer type horizontal boring machine resembles the table type but the
table slides direct on the bed instead of on a saddle angles to the spindle similar to
a planer.

• The end of the supporting column and headstock supporting column may adjust
towards or away from the table for accommodating different widths of works.

• This type of machine is suitable for supporting a long work.

8
Multiple head type boring machine
• This machine resembles a double housing planer or a Plano – miller.
• The table is supported on a long bed on which it responds.
• There are two vertical columns at different sides of the bed, almost at the center of the bed.
• The two columns are spanned by a cross rail.
• The machine may have two, three or four headstocks.
• This type of machine might be utilized both as a horizontal and vertical machine.
• The machining operations can be performed at the same time at various work surfaces.

9
Vertical turret lathe boring machine
This kinds of boring machine combines the advantages of the vertical boring mill and
the turret lathe.

A vertical boring machine of smaller size is known as vertical turret lathe.

It has an index able turret mounted upon the cross rail over the table for different
tooling.

The machine is suitable for boring and turning rail road wheels, piston rings, gear
blanks etc.

10
Standard vertical boring machine

This kinds of machines are larger in size than vertical turret lathe and there is no turret
head.

The machine is provided with two vertical heads and a couple of side heads.

The machine is especially expected for boring large, cylindrical and symmetrical
workpieces.

11
Precision boring machine
The precision boring machine uses single point tools to machine surfaces quickly and
precisely.

Cemented carbide and diamond tipped single point tools are worked at a very high cutting
speed to produce accurately sized holes with a fine surface finish.

The feeding movement might be given by the tool or by the work.

The machine may be horizontal or vertical type.

12
Jig Boring Machine
Jig boring machine is used for the production of jigs, fixtures, tools, and other parts that
requires a high degree of accuracy.
They are defined by terms of highest accuracy through rigidity, low thermal expansion, and
precise means of measuring distance for locating and spacing holes.
The machining accuracy is high, within a range of 0.0025 mm.
A jig boring machine looks like a vertical milling machine. But so far its operation and
accuracy are concerned that there cannot be any comparison between the two.
The spindle and other parts of the machine are much hard to resist deflection and the
vibration is low.
A Spindle runs in preloaded antifriction bearings.
The spindle housings are made of invar having a very low coefficient of linear expansion.

13
• Jig boring machines need to be operated in temperature-controlled rooms where the
temperature can be kept constant.
• This is essential to prevent inaccuracy in the machine and in the work being
manufactured due to the thermal expansion of the metal.

Planer type boring machine

It resembles the table type but table slides directly on the bed rather than on a saddle
and reciprocates at right angles to the spindle similar to a planer.

The end supporting column and headstock supporting column might be changed towards
or away from the table for accommodating different widths of work.

This type of machine is appropriate for supporting a long work.

Vertical milling machine type boring machine

This may be generate a horizontal flat surface, produce cylindrical turned surface, bore
internal hole, perform cutting off, necking or forming operations, and generate internal or
external taper surfaces.

For machining a flat horizontal surface, the ram and the cross rail is locked at the desired
position and the saddle is fed cr volves on the table. 14
Some of the main parts of boring machine (all types):

• Bed
• Headstock supporting column
• End supporting column
• Headstock
• Saddle and table
• Boring bars

Follow the theory as discussed under table type boring machine.

15
Boring Machine Mechanism

The machine contains different controls for movements of the different parts of the
machine.

A table type machine has the following movements:

1. The headstock and the end supporting block may be moved up and down.
2. The spindle may be rotating. The spindle has different speeds.
3. A spindle may move in or out by hand or power for feeding.
4. The saddle and the table may move by hand or power.
5. The columns may move by hand or power.

All these movements may be given independently or in combination with two or more
movements.

As all the controls are housed in a particular position of the machine the operator may
give close attention to the work while controlling the machine.
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Work Holding Devices For Boring Machine

17
Different Types of Boring Tools
Boring bars
Boring deep holes can involve extreme length-to-diameter ratios, or overhang, when it
comes to tooling assemblies.
Since it can be difficult to maintain accuracy and stability in these scenarios, so there is a
need of boring bars to extend tooling assemblies and while maintaining the rigidity to
make perfect circles with on-spec finishes.

• Solid boring bars

Typically made of carbide for finishing or heavy metal for roughing, solid boring
bars have dense structures that make for a more stable cut as axial force is applied.

• Damping bars
When cutting speeds are compromised, or surface finishes show chatter in a long-
reach boring operation, damping bars are an option. They have integrated damping
systems.

Also, he Smart Damper, works as both a counter damper and friction damper so that
chatter is essentially absorbed. 18
Boring heads

• Boring heads are specifically designed to enlarge an existing hole.

• They hold cutters in position so they can rotate and gradually remove material until the hole is
at the desired diameter.

• Rough boring heads

Once a bore is started with a drill or by another method, rough boring heads are the
choice for removing larger amounts of material. They are built more rigid, to handle
the increased depths of cut, torque and axial forces needed to efficiently and
consistently make the passes to remove materials.

• Fine boring heads

Fine boring heads are best used for more delicate and precise removal of material that
finishes the work the rough boring head started. They are often balanced for high-
speed cutting since that’s the best approach for reaching exact specifications.

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• Twin cutter boring heads
Most boring heads feature one cutter that cuts as its feed diameter is adjusted by the
machine.

There are twin cutter boring heads that can speed up cutting and add versatility.
For example, the Series 319 and other BIG KAISER twin cutter boring heads include two
cutters that can perform balanced or stepped cutting without additional accessories or
adjustments by switching the mounting locations of the insert holders that have varied
heights.

• Digital boring heads

Traditionally, adjusting boring heads has been painstaking and time-consuming, especially
when it’s done in the machine.

It’s easy to make mistakes when maneuvering to read the diameter dial and adjusting it to
the right diameter.

Digital boring heads have a LED that makes precise adjustments much easier.
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 SHAPPING MACHINE
• The shaping machine is used to machine flat metal surfaces especially where a large
amount of metal has to be removed. It is a machine designed for giving desired
shapes to the surfaces that may be horizontal, vertical and flat.

• A shaping tool is used to cut in curves, different angles, and many other shapes.

• As the disc rotates the top of the machine moves forwards and backwards, pushing
a cutting tool.

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• The cutting tool removes the metal from work which is carefully bolted down.

• The cutting tool is used to give the shape to the hard surface of metal or wood by
removing the excess material.

• The reciprocating motion of the mechanism inside the shaping machine can be seen
in the diagram.

• Other machines such as milling machines are much more expensive and are more
suited to removing smaller amounts of metal, very accurately
Working Mechanism of Shaping Machine

The shaping machine operates in the reciprocating type of machine function.

Here the work piece is fixed on the machine table and the cutting tool is placed on
the work piece.

Reciprocating movements over the work piece results in forward and backward
strokes.

Forward stroke is responsible for cutting action over the object and backward
movement is responsible for restoring its position without any cutting action.
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Description of Parts of Shaping Machine with its Functions

Base:
The base of shaping machine is kind of bed to hold the different parts of shaping
machine, it is made up of cast iron since the strength of a base is very important.

The base bears the vibration shock of forward and backward movement of stroke
responsible for shaping action.

Body:
Body of the machine consists of pats named Pillar, Frame, and Column. The body of
the shaping machine is affixed on the base of the shaping machine.
The column is also made up cast iron and it is box shaped part which is placed on
the base.
Column plays the covering role and supports the reciprocating movement in the
operation of the machine.

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Cross ways: These are the sideways affixed vertically and horizontally across the
table to allow the movement of the table.

Stroke adjuster: Stroke adjuster absorbs the vibration shock of stock by controlling
the length of the stroke.

Cross rail: The cross rail is affixed on the front part of the body which can be moved
in an upward and downward direction. It enables to perform shaping operation at
different positions.

Ram: The Ram is responsible for the reciprocating action of the column sideways.
Forward and backward movement of ram is called a stroke.

Table: A table is kind of flat body affixed over the frame to hold the work piece on
which shaping action needs to be performed

Clapper box: It is used to carry the shaping tool holder. Clapper box is responsible for
the smooth and hindrance free movement of backward stroke to prevent the damage in
the form of wear and tear. 24
 Types of Shapers
1) Horizontal Shaper: Ram is Horizontal
a) Push cut type: Cutting action in outward
stroke
b) Pull cut type: Cutting action in inward
stroke
2) Vertical shaper: Ram is vertical. Machine is
similar to a Slotter.
3) Mechanical Shaper: Ram drive is Mechanical
4) Hydraulic Shaper: Ram drive is hydraulic

Based on Mechanisms
• Crank and slotted link mechanism.
• Whitworth’s quick mechanism.
• Hydraulic shaper mechanism.

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Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism
In this type of shaper machine mechanism, the power is transmitted to the bull gear
through a pinion which receives its motion from an individual motor. Or overhead line
shaft through a speed control mechanism.
The speed of the bull gear may be changed by a different combination of gearing or by
shifting the belt on the step cone pulley.

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 Arrangement and working of parts

• The bull gear is a large gear mounted within the column.

• The radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull gear it carries a sliding block into
which the crankpin is fitted.

• Rotation of the bull gear will make the crankpin to revolve at a uniform speed.
• The sliding block which is mounted upon the crankpin is fitted within the slotted
link.
• The slotted link which is also known as the rocker arm is pivoted at its bottom end
attached to the frame of the column.

• The upper end of the rocker arm is forked and attached to the ram block by a pin.
• As the bull gear rotates causing the crankpin to rotate, the sliding block fastened to the
crankpin will rotate on the crank pin circle.
• And at the same time will run up and down the slot in the slotted link providing it with
a rocking movement that is communicated to the ram.

• Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted to reciprocating movement of
the ram. 27
Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism
This mechanism is also used in slotting machines other than a shaper. In this type of
shaper machine mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the turning pair is fixed.

Arrangement of parts
• The link 2 matches to a crank in a reciprocating steam engine. The driving crank
“CA” (link 3) rotates at a similar angular speed. The slider (link 4) connected to the
crankpin at “A” moves along the slotted bar “PA” (link 1) which oscillates at a
pivoted point D. 28
The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R to which the cutting tool is fixed. The
movement of the tool is constrained along the line RD produced. i.e. along a line
passing through D and perpendicular to CD.

When the driving crank CA moves from the point CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the
point DP1 to DP2) through an angle α in the clockwise direction, the tool moves front
from the left-hand end of its stroke to the right-hand end by a distance 2 PD.

Now when the driving crank moves from the point CA2 to CA1 (or the link DP from DP2
to DP1) through an angle β in the clockwise direction, the tool moves back from the
right-hand end of its stroke to the left-hand end.

A little consideration will show that the time taken during the right movement of the
ram (i.e. during the forward stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving crank
to move from CA1 to CA2.

Similarly, the time needed during the right to left movement of the ram (or during
the idle or return stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving crank to
move from CA2 to CA1.

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Since the crank link CA rotates at a uniform angular velocity, thus, the time taken
during the cutting stroke (or forward stroke) is more than the time taken during the
return stroke.

In other words, the mean speed of the ram during a cutting stroke is less than the
mean speed during the return stroke. The ratio between the time taken during the
cutting and return stroke is given by the formula shown in the above image.

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Hydraulic Shaper Mechanism
In this type of shaper machine mechanism, the ram is moved forwards and backwards by
a piston moving in cylindrical placed under the ram.

The machine is consists of a constant discharge oil pump, a cylinder, a valve chamber and
a piston. The Piston-rod is bolted to the ram body. As shown in the figure.

Arrangement and working

The oil under high pressure is drawn from the reservoir. The oil is passed through the
valve chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting pressure on the piston..

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This cause the ram connected to the piston to perform forward stroke. Any oil present on the left
side of the cylinder is discharged to the reservoir through the throttle valve.

At the end of a forward stroke, the shaper dog hit against the reversing lever causing the valves to
alter their positions within the valve chamber.

Oil under high pressure is now pumped to the left side of the piston causing the ram to perform
return stroke. Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharged to the reservoir.

At the end of the return stroke, another shaper dog hits against the reversing lever altering the
direction of stroke of the piston and the cycle is thus repeated.

The quick return is affected due to the difference in the stroke volume of the cylinder at both ends.
The left-hand end being smaller due to the presence of the piston rod.

As the pump is a constant discharge one, within a fixed period, the same amount of oil will be a
pump into the right or to the left-hand side of the cylinder.

This will mean that the same amount of oil will be packed within a smaller stroke volume causing
the oil pressure to rise automatically and increase the speed during the return stroke.

The length and position of stroke are adjusted by shifting the position of reversing dogs. The cutting
speed is changed by controlling the throttle valve which controls the flow of oil.

When the throttle valve is lost the excess oil flow cut through the relief valve to the reservoir
maintaining uniform pressure during the cutting stroke.
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SHAPPING MACHINE OPERATIONS
A shaper is a machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a single-point
cutting tool. Besides this, it may also be used to perform many other operations. The
different operations, which a shaper can perform, are as follows:

1. Machining horizontal surface

2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining inclined surface
4. Slot cutting
5. Keyways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Machining splines and cutting gear

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34
Operating conditions in shaping machine

Cutting Speed
• Cutting speed on shapers is defined as the average linear speed of the tool during the
cutting stroke in m/min, which depends on the number of ram strokes (or ram cycles)
per minute and the length of the stroke.
• A ratio of return stroke to cutting stroke time of 2:3 implies that the tool is working
three-fifths of the time and the return stroke takes two-fifths of the time.
• This return-to-cutting time ratio m is a machine constant. The cutting speed v is
determined by using the formula:

where
N = the number of double strokes or cycles of the ram/min (one double or full stroke
comprises of one cutting and one return stroke),
L = Length of the ram stroke, in mm,
m = return stroke time/cutting stroke time.
35
The ram at each end of the stroke has to come to rest (zero speed) and start moving again.
It takes finite time (and distance) to attain the desired cutting speed.
The distance required to attain the speed (and come to rest) is called clearance.
Clearance, job length and stroke length.
The clearance is a must in shaping and allied processes unlike approach and overtravel in
other metal cutting processes.
Hence, for a job of length Lj a stroke length of L is used with clearance c on both sides of
job, where

L = Lj + 2 x c

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Feed
Feed (f) is the relative motion of the workpiece in a direction perpendicular to the axis of
reciprocation of the ram.
In shaper, feed is given to the workpiece. Feed is expressed in mm/double stroke or
simply mm/stroke because no cutting is done in return stroke.

Depth of Cut
Depth of cut (d) is the thickness of the material removed in one cut, in mm.
Depth of cut may be given by the toolhead slide or by lifting the table.

Machining time
From the cutting speed, we can find that the time required to complete one double stroke
is given by

With a feed of f mm/double stroke, number of double strokes required to machine a

surface of width w will be
Ns = w/f

37
Hence, total time for machining the surface will be
T = L x w x (1+m) / (1000 x v x f) min

or, in terms of ram strokes N, the time for machining surface is given by
T = w / (f x N) min
Material Removal Rate

Material removal rate (MRR) in a shaping machine is given by the formula

MRR = f x d x N x L(1+ m) mm3 /min

where d is depth of cut in mm; f in mm/stroke; N in strokes/min; and L is length of

stroke in mm.

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Advantages of Shaper Machine:
• The tool (Single Point cutting tool) cost is low.
• The workpiece can be held easily in this machine.
• It produces flat or angular surfaces.
• Setup of Shaper is very easy and tool changing is also easy.

Disadvantages of Shaper Machine:

• The cutting speed is not much high.
• Only one cutting tool can be fixed.
• There is no option for more than one cutting tool.

Application of Shaper Machine:

• A shaper Machine is used to make Internal splines.
• It generates straight and flat surfaces either horizontal, vertical or angular
planes.
• It also makes gear teeth.
• Make keyways in pulleys or gears.
• It also Producing contour of concave/convex or a combination of these..
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