Q1: Role of Network Layer & Functions
The Network Layer (Layer 3) is responsible for host-to-host delivery and routing of data packets
across di erent networks.
Routing: Determining the best physical path for data to reach its destination.
Logical Addressing: Assigning unique IP addresses to devices to identify them across networks.
Fragmentation: Breaking large packets into smaller units to fit the transmission medium's MTU.
Q2: Switching Techniques Comparison
Technique Advantage Disadvantage
Circuit Dedicated bandwidth; no congestion. Ine icient; resources wasted if idle.
Packet High e iciency; better bandwidth use. Variable delay (jitter) and overhead.
Message Message remains intact; store-forward. High latency; requires large bu ers.
Q3: IPv4 vs. IPv6
Address Length: IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses; IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses.
Security: IPv4 relies on external tools; IPv6 has built-in support for IPsec.
Configuration: IPv4 requires manual or DHCP setup; IPv6 supports stateless auto-configuration
(SLAAC).
Q4: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
ARP finds the physical (MAC) address of a device when only its logical (IP) address is known.
Process: A host broadcasts an "ARP Request" asking "Who has IP X.X.X.X?". The owner of that IP
sends an "ARP Reply" with its MAC address.
Example: Computer A wants to send data to Computer B (IP: [Link]). A sends a broadcast; B
recognizes its IP and sends back its MAC address (e.g., AA:BB:CC...).
Q5: RARP (Reverse ARP) Obsolescence
RARP is obsolete because it only provides an IP address and lacks flexibility.
Replaced by: BOOTP and later DHCP.
Why: DHCP provides not just the IP, but also the subnet mask, gateway, and DNS server, and it works
across di erent network segments (subnets).
Q6: DORA Process (DHCP)
Discovery: Client broadcasts to find available DHCP servers.
O er: Server o ers an IP address and configuration to the client.
Request: Client accepts the o er and requests the IP from the server.
Acknowledgment: Server confirms the lease and sends final configuration.
Q7: Routing Protocols (RIP, EIGRP, OSPF)
Feature RIP EIGRP OSPF
Type Distance Vector Advanced Distance Vector Link State
Convergence Slow Very Fast Fast
Use Case Small, simple networks Cisco-centric enterprises Large, complex networks
Q8: Static vs. Dynamic Routing
Static: Routes are manually configured by an admin; highly secure but not scalable.
Dynamic: Routers use protocols to automatically learn and update paths (e.g., OSPF); scalable and
adapts to link failures.
Q9: BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
BOOTP allows a diskless workstation to discover its IP and boot file from a server.
Working: It uses a static table to map MAC addresses to IPs.
Limitations: It does not support temporary IP leasing (manual intervention needed) and cannot
provide complex configuration parameters like DHCP.
Q10: Proxy ARP & Gratuitous ARP
Proxy ARP: A router answers an ARP request on behalf of a host that is on another network, making
the remote host appear local.
Gratuitous ARP: A device broadcasts its own IP-to-MAC mapping (unsolicited) to detect IP conflicts
or update ARP tables in other devices.
Module IV: Transport Layer
Q11: Transport Layer Functions
Segmentation: Breaking data from the application into smaller "segments."
Service Point Addressing: Using port numbers to ensure data reaches the correct application.
Error Control: Ensuring segments arrive without damage or loss through checksums and
retransmissions.
Q12: TCP vs. UDP
Connection: TCP is connection-oriented; UDP is connectionless.
Reliability: TCP guarantees delivery (acknowledgments); UDP does not (best-e ort).
Use Cases: TCP is for Web/Email (HTTP, SMTP); UDP is for Streaming/Gaming (VoIP).
Q13: TCP Three-Way Handshake
Purpose: To establish a reliable connection and synchronize sequence numbers.
SYN: Client sends a synchronize request.
SYN-ACK: Server acknowledges and sends its own synchronize request.
ACK: Client acknowledges the server's request. Connection established.
Q14: Flow Control & Windowing
Flow control prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
Windowing: The receiver specifies a "Window Size" indicating how much data it can bu er. The
sender only sends that amount before waiting for an acknowledgment, preventing bu er overflow.
Q15: SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
SCTP combines features of TCP and UDP with added benefits:
Multi-homing: A single connection can span multiple IP addresses.
Multi-streaming: Prevents head-of-line blocking by sending data in independent streams.
Message-oriented: Like UDP, it preserves message boundaries.
Q16: Leaky Bucket Algorithm
Working: It converts bursty tra ic into a fixed-rate output. Packets enter a "bucket"; if it overflows,
packets are dropped. They "leak" out at a constant rate.
Application: Used in ATM networks to ensure tra ic shaping.
Q17: Token Bucket vs. Leaky Bucket
Token Bucket: Allows bursty tra ic as long as "tokens" are available in the bucket.
Di erence: Leaky Bucket enforces a strict, rigid output rate regardless of bursts, whereas Token
Bucket allows flexibility for sudden tra ic spikes without discarding data.
Q18: Congestion Control
It manages tra ic entering the network to prevent collapse. Four TCP techniques:
Slow Start
Congestion Avoidance
Fast Retransmit
Fast Recovery
Q19: Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
Multiplexing: Gathering data from multiple applications (using Port Numbers) and sending it as a
single stream.
Demultiplexing: Delivering received data to the correct application based on the destination port.
Ports: Port numbers (e.g., 80 for HTTP) act as unique identifiers for specific processes.
Q20: Quality of Service (QoS)
QoS refers to the ability of a network to provide better service to selected network tra ic (e.g.,
prioritizing voice over email).
Techniques: Scheduling (Priority Queuing) and Tra ic Shaping (Leaky/Token Bucket).
Module V: Application Layer & Security
Q21: DNS (Domain Name System)
DNS translates human-readable URLs ([Link]) into IP addresses.
Request: Browser sends query to Local DNS resolver.
Hierarchy: Resolver queries Root, then TLD (.com), then Authoritative servers.
Resolution: The IP is returned to the browser to initiate a connection.
Q22: Email Protocols Comparison
Protocol Purpose Port Store on Server?
SMTP Sending mail 25 No
POP3 Downloading mail 110 No (usually deletes after download)
IMAP Managing mail 143 Yes (syncs across devices)
Q23: FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Active Mode: Client opens a port; Server initiates the data connection.
Passive Mode: Server opens a port; Client initiates the data connection (better for firewalls).
Secure Alternatives: SFTP (SSH-based) and FTPS (SSL-based).
Q24: TELNET vs. SSH
Port: TELNET (23); SSH (22).
Encryption: TELNET sends data in plain text; SSH encrypts all tra ic.
Usage: TELNET is deprecated/rare; SSH is the industry standard for remote access.
Q25: HTTP vs. HTTPS
HTTP: Unencrypted communication over Port 80.
HTTPS: Encrypted communication over Port 443.
SSL/TLS: These protocols provide the encryption, data integrity, and authentication layers that turn
HTTP into HTTPS.
Q26: SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Used to manage and monitor network devices.
Components: Managed Device, Agent (software on device), and Network Management Station
(NMS).
Purpose: To collect status info and configure devices remotely.
Q27: Types of Cryptography
Symmetric: Same key for encryption/decryption (e.g., AES).
Asymmetric: Public key encrypts, private key decrypts (e.g., RSA).
Hashing: One-way conversion to a fixed string (e.g., SHA-256).
Q28: Firewall & UTM
A firewall monitors and filters incoming/outgoing tra ic.
Types: Packet Filtering, Stateful Inspection, Proxy Firewall.
UTM: A single security solution that integrates firewall, antivirus, antispam, and content filtering into
one appliance.
Q29: Dynamic DNS (DDNS)
DDNS automatically updates a DNS record when an IP address changes (common for home
routers).
Use Cases: Hosting a home server, accessing IP cameras remotely.
Providers: No-IP, DynDNS.
Q30: Web Generations
Web 1.0 (Static): "Read-only" web; basic HTML pages (e.g., Encyclopedia Britannica Online).
Web 2.0 (Social): "Read-Write" web; user-generated content (e.g., YouTube, Facebook).
Web 3.0 (Semantic/Decentralized): "Read-Write-Execute"; AI-driven and Blockchain-based (e.g.,
Smart Contracts).