MME 513

Instrumentation & Control Engineering

Complete Study Notes & Teaching Guide

Federal University of Technology, Minna (FUTMINNA)

Engr. Dr. Babawuya Alkali | Materials & Mineral Engineering

SECTION 1: BASICS OF INSTRUMENTATION

1.1 What is Instrumentation?

Instrumentation is concerned with measurement and control of physical processes. It is the engineering
specialisation focused on designing and configuring process systems using instruments that measure
attributes such as pressure, temperature, level, and flow.

Term Definition
Instrumentation About measurement and control
Instrumentation Engineering Design and configuration of process systems
Instruments Devices used to measure attributes of
process systems

1.2 Basic Terminologies

Process
A series of continuous or regularly recurring steps/actions intended to achieve a predetermined result.
Examples: heat treating metal, manufacturing acid.
Transducer (Sensor)
An element which converts one form of energy to another form.
• Primary Transducer: converts the process parameter to a form readable by the secondary
transducer. Example: Orifice Plate
• Secondary Transducer: responds to a measured variable and converts it to a standardised
transmission signal that is a function only of the measurement. Example: DP Transmitter

Other Key Terms

Term Meaning
Signal The event or phenomenon that conveys data
from one point to another
Loop A combination of one or more interconnected
instruments arranged to measure a process
variable. Spans the full chain from primary
element to correcting element.
Controller A device that operates automatically by an
established algorithm to regulate process
variables (PV) according to the set point
(SV). Outputs a manipulated variable (MV).
Interlock Set of plant conditions (level, temp, valve
position, flow etc.) that must be satisfied
before operating any instrument or
equipment.
Analyser Monitors pollutant gas emissions from
industrial processes. A gas analyser provides
high linearity of signal transformation.
Weigh Feeder Controller multiplies belt load (kg/m) by belt
speed (m/s) to get feed rate, then adjusts belt
speed or load to reach set feed rate.
Belt Weigher Industrial control equipment used to gauge
mass or flow rate of material travelling over a
conveyor belt.

1.3 Process Parameters

The four key process parameters measured in industrial instrumentation are:
1. Pressure
2. Level
3. Temperature
4. Flow
 SECTION 2: PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

2.1 Definition & Units

Pressure is a force applied or distributed over a surface.
P = F / A

Unit Notes
Pascal (Pa) SI standard unit | 1 Pa = 1 N/m²
psi Pounds per square inch
kg/cm², bar, atm Other common units
torr 1 atm = 760 torr = 101,325 Pa

2.2 Types of Pressure

Gauge Pressure (P₉)
Pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.
P_gauge = P_absolute − P_atmospheric
⚠ NOTE: If system pressure is below atmospheric, it is called vacuum pressure.

Absolute Pressure
Gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure included.
P_absolute = P_atmospheric + P_gauge

Differential Pressure
The difference in pressure between two points in a system.

Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure in the surrounding air at or close to the earth's surface. Varies with temperature and altitude.
1 atm = 760 mmHg (760 torr) = 101,325 Pa
⚠ NOTE: Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is defined at sea level, 273 K (0°C), 1.01325 bar
absolute.

2.3 Primary Pressure Measuring Devices

• Diaphragm
• Bellows
• Manometer
2.4 Types of Pressure Measuring Instruments
5. Manometer
6. Bourdon Gauge
7. Strain Gauge Types
8. Capacitive
9. Piezo-Electric
10. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

SECTION 3: LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Most commonly used liquid-level measurement methods:

11. RF Capacitance (Radio Frequency Capacitance)
12. Conductance (Conductivity)
13. Hydrostatic head / tank gauging — P = ρgh
14. Radar
15. Ultrasonic sensor: a proximity sensor that sends signals at 46°C, measured between 2 cm and
4 m. Used to measure level of liquid in an open tank. Cannot measure gas.

Open Tank vs Closed Tank

Open tank: HP side of transmitter connected to liquid base, LP vented to atmosphere. Closed tank: gas
pressure P₉ₐₛ acts on LP side of the transmitter; HP connected to the liquid.
⚠ NOTE: For gas measurement in closed tanks, use differential pressure. Using hydrostatic cell: the
transmitter measures P = ρgh.

SECTION 4: FLOW MEASUREMENT

4.1 Principle
Flow is measured by measuring velocity through a known area. Volume flow rate Q is:
Q = A × V
where A = cross-sectional area of pipe, V = fluid velocity. Unit: m³/hr or Litres/hr.
4.2 Types of Flowmeters
Type Examples
Head Type Flowmeters Orifice Plate, Venturi, Flow Nozzle, Pitot
Tube, Elbow
Mechanical Flowmeters Positive displacement meters
Electronic Flowmeters Electromagnetic, Vortex
Mass Flow Meters Coriolis, Thermal
Ultrasonic Flowmeters Transit-time, Doppler
Variable Area Meters Rotameter

4.3 Head Type Flowmeter Details

Meter Characteristics
Orifice Plate Service: clean liquids, gases & steam (no
slurries or corrosive). Cost: Low. Scale:
Square Root. Accuracy: 1% full scale
Venturi Service: clean liquids, gases, steam, slurries
& dirty fluids. Cost: High. Scale: Square Root.
Accuracy: 1% full scale

SECTION 5: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

5.1 Definition & Conversion Formulae

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite scale.
C = 5/9 × (F − 32) F = 9/5 × C + 32
K = 273 + C R = 460 + F

5.2 Temperature Measurement Devices

• RTD — Resistance Temperature Detector
• Thermocouple
• Thermistor
• Thermopile
• Pyrometer
5.3 Thermocouple
Two dissimilar metals joined at a hot junction. Temperature difference (ΔT) generates a voltage at the
cold (reference) junction.
Type Details
Type J Iron/Constantan | White & Red | 0–760°C |
Least expensive
Type T Copper/Constantan | Blue & Red | −180 to
371°C | Highly resistant to corrosion from
moisture
Type K Chromel/Alumel | Yellow & Red | 0–1150°C |
Most linear

5.4 RTD vs Thermocouple — When to Choose

RTD Advantages Thermocouple Advantages
Choose RTD when Choose Thermocouple when
Better accuracy & repeatability needed High temperature applications (>1100°F)
Better stability required Lower element cost preferred
Greater flexibility needed Faster response time needed
Perceived as more rugged in harsh
environments

SECTION 6: CONTROL SYSTEMS

6.1 Definitions
Term Definition
System A combination/arrangement of different
physical components that act together as an
entire unit to achieve certain objectives.
Input Something entered into a machine or system
to produce the output.
Output (Response) The actual response obtained from a system.
Control The process of regulating inputs or directing
the system so that the desired objectives are
attained.
 Control System (CS) An arrangement of different physical
elements connected to regulate, direct or
command itself to achieve a certain objective.
CS = System + Control.

6.2 Classification of Control Systems

Control systems are classified based on the control action used:

OLCS CLCS
Open Loop Control System (OLCS) Closed Loop Control System (CLCS)
Control action is INDEPENDENT of output Uses FEEDBACK signals to control and
adjust itself
No feedback Has feedback path
Simple, economical, easy to maintain Accurate, handles noise better, enables
automation
Inaccurate and unreliable More expensive, complicated, can oscillate
Examples: fan, washing machine, toaster, Examples: automatic electric iron, automatic
electric hand dryer irrigation, room thermostat

6.3 Five Elements of a Closed Loop Control System

16. Comparison Element — compares measured value to reference
17. Control Element — decides what corrective action to take
18. Correction Element — the actuator (e.g., valve)
19. Process Element — the plant being controlled
20. Measurement Element — the sensor/transmitter

Key vocabulary of closed loop control:

Term Meaning in room temperature example
Controlled Variable The room temperature (what we want to
control)
Reference Value (Set Point, SV) The required room temperature
Error Signal Difference between measured and required
temperature. May be positive or negative.
Feedback Signal The quantity of output being measured
 SECTION 7: TRANSFER FUNCTION

7.1 Definition
A transfer function is a mathematical representation of the relationship between the input and output of
a system. It is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input, assuming ZERO initial conditions.
G(s) = Y(s) / U(s)
where Y(s) = Laplace transform of output, U(s) = Laplace transform of input, s = complex frequency
variable.

7.2 Why Use Transfer Functions?

21. Predict how the system responds to any system input
22. Analyse a system's stability
23. To control a system
24. To design a controller for a system
25. To simplify a system

Transfer functions are widely used in: control engineering, process automation, mechatronic systems,
and metallurgical plants (e.g., temperature control in furnaces, speed control in rolling mills, cooling rate
in continuous casting).

7.3 Properties of Transfer Functions

• Linearity — applies only to linear time-invariant (LTI) systems
• Zero Initial Conditions — assumes all initial conditions are zero
• Algebraic Manipulation — allows complex systems to be analysed using simple algebra
• Applicable to MATLAB and simulation tools

7.4 Steps to Derive a Transfer Function

26. Write the governing equation (Differential Equation) of the system
27. Take the Laplace transform of the equation
28. Solve for the ratio Y(s) / U(s)

7.5 First Order System

A first-order system has a governing differential equation of the form:
τ × dy(t)/dt + y(t) = k × u(t)
Taking the Laplace transform and solving:
G(s) = k / (τs + 1)
where k = system gain, τ (tau) = time constant, s = Laplace variable.
⚠ NOTE: A furnace heating system behaves like a first-order system because temperature responds
gradually to heat input.

Worked Example — First Order

Given: dT/dt + 0.1 T(t) = 0.5 u(t)
Step 1: Laplace transform → sT(s) + 0.1 T(s) = 0.5 U(s)
Step 2: Factorise → T(s)(s + 0.1) = 0.5 U(s)
Step 3: Transfer function:
G(s) = T(s)/U(s) = 0.5 / (s + 0.1)

7.6 Second Order System

A second-order system has a governing differential equation:
d²Y/dt² + 2ζωₙ dY/dt + ωₙ² Y(t) = ωₙ² u(t)
Transfer function in standard form:
G(s) = ωₙ² / (s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ²)
where ωₙ = natural frequency, ζ (zeta) = damping ratio.

Damping ratio determines system behaviour:

Damping Ratio (ζ) System Behaviour
ζ=0 Undamped — continuous vibration
0<ζ<1 Underdamped — oscillatory response (most
common in practice)
ζ=1 Critically damped — fastest response without
overshoot
ζ>1 Overdamped — slow response, no oscillation
⚠ NOTE: Low damping → strong vibration. High damping → slower response.

7.7 Mechanical System Example (Mass-Spring-Damper)

For a mass m connected to spring (stiffness k) and damper (damping c) with applied force F(t):
m x''(t) + c x'(t) + kx(t) = F(t)
Taking Laplace transform:
Ms²X(s) + CsX(s) + KX(s) = F(s)
Transfer function:
G(s) = X(s)/F(s) = 1 / (Ms² + Cs + K)
Comparing with standard 2nd order form: ωₙ = √(k/m) and ζ = C/(2√(mk))
7.8 Liquid Level Tank Example
For a single water tank of cross-sectional area A, hydraulic resistance R:
Q_in(t) − Q_out(t) = A × dh/dt
with Q_out = h/R, substituting:
A dh/dt + h/R = Q_in(t)
Laplace transform →
G(s) = H(s)/Q_in(s) = R / (ARs + 1) = R / (τs + 1) where τ = AR
⚠ NOTE: This is a FIRST ORDER system. Time constant τ = AR.

SECTION 8: BLOCK DIAGRAMS

8.1 What is a Block Diagram?

A block diagram is a model of any simple or complex system. It consists of multiple blocks connected
together to show how a system is functioning. Each block contains the transfer function of that
component.

For a simple system:

R(s) → [ G(s) ] → C(s) G(s) = C(s) / R(s)

8.2 Basic Block Diagram Components

Component Purpose
Block Contains the transfer function G(s). Shows
how input is transformed to output.
Summing Point (circle with ×) Adds or subtracts signals. + for addition, − for
subtraction (negative feedback).
Take-off / Pick-off Point A point where the signal branches to multiple
paths without being diminished.
Arrow Shows direction of signal flow.

8.3 Block Diagram Reduction Rules

To simplify complex block diagrams into a single transfer function, apply these 7 rules:

Rule Action & Formula

 Rule 1: Cascade (Series) Blocks in series → multiply their transfer
functions. G_total = G₁ × G₂
Rule 2: Parallel Blocks in parallel → add their transfer
functions. G_total = G₁ + G₂
Rule 3: Move summing point AHEAD of block Add a block G in the branch that was
bypassed.
Rule 4: Move summing point BEHIND a block Add a block 1/G in the branch.
Rule 5: Move pick-off point AHEAD of block Insert block G in the branch coming from the
pick-off.
Rule 6: Eliminate feedback loop G_closed = G / (1 ± GH). Use + for negative
feedback (most common), − for positive.
Rule 7: Swap adjacent summing points Summing points can be interchanged freely.

8.4 THE MOST IMPORTANT RULE — Feedback Loop Elimination

For a closed loop system with forward transfer function G(s) and feedback H(s):
T(s) = G(s) / (1 + G(s)H(s)) ← Negative feedback
T(s) = G(s) / (1 − G(s)H(s)) ← Positive feedback
⚠ NOTE: For Unity feedback (H=1): T(s) = G(s) / (1 + G(s))

8.5 Step-by-Step Block Diagram Reduction Strategy

29. Identify all feedback loops, starting with the innermost loop.
30. Apply the feedback loop elimination rule (Rule 6) to reduce inner loops first.
31. Combine cascaded blocks using multiplication (Rule 1).
32. Combine parallel blocks using addition (Rule 2).
33. If a pick-off or summing point blocks reduction, move it using Rules 3–5.
34. Repeat steps 1–5 until a single block remains.
35. The final block is the overall transfer function T(s) = Y(s)/R(s).

8.6 Worked Example — Simple Feedback System

Problem: System has G(s) = 10/(s+2) and unity feedback H(s) = 1. Find T(s).

Step 1: Apply feedback loop formula:

T(s) = G(s) / (1 + G(s)H(s))
Step 2: Substitute values:
T(s) = [10/(s+2)] / [1 + 10/(s+2) × 1]
Step 3: Simplify denominator:
1 + 10/(s+2) = (s+2+10)/(s+2) = (s+12)/(s+2)
Step 4: Final answer:
T(s) = [10/(s+2)] ÷ [(s+12)/(s+2)] = 10/(s+12)

8.7 Worked Example — Complex Multi-Loop (from your handout)

For Example 1(a) from the block diagram handout with G₁, G₂, G₃, G₄, H₁, H₂ in nested loops, the
final result derived step-by-step was:
T(s) = G₁(G₄ + G₂G₃) / [1 + G₂G₃H₂ + G₁(G₄ + G₂G₃)]
The steps applied were: (1) Move pick-off point A ahead of block, (2) Eliminate inner loop I, (3) Move
pick-off point B behind block, (4) Eliminate outer loop using Rule 6.

SECTION 9: SIGNAL CONDITIONING

9.1 What is Signal Conditioning?

Signal conditioning refers to the process of converting a raw sensor signal into a form suitable for
further processing or display. It bridges the gap between sensors/transducers and data acquisition
systems (DAQ).

9.2 Common Signal Conditioning Operations

• Amplification — increases signal amplitude to a usable level
• Filtering — removes noise and interference from the signal
• Linearisation — corrects non-linear sensor outputs
• Isolation — protects sensitive electronics from high-voltage surges
• Conversion — changes signal type (e.g., current to voltage: 4-20 mA to 0-10 V)

9.3 Standard Industrial Signal Ranges

Signal Type Application
4–20 mA current loop Most common in process industries; immune
to noise; can detect wire breaks (0 mA =
fault)
0–10 V Common in laboratory and HVAC
applications
1–5 V Used where ground loops are a concern
Digital signals 0 or 1; used in PLCs and DCS systems
 SECTION 10: QUICK REFERENCE — EXAM CHEAT
SHEET

KEY FORMULAE
Topic Formula
Pressure P = F/A
Absolute Pressure P_abs = P_atm + P_gauge
Flow Rate Q=A×V
Hydrostatic Level P = ρgh
Transfer Function G(s) = Y(s)/U(s)
1st Order TF G(s) = K/(τs+1) where τ = time constant
2nd Order TF G(s) = ωn²/(s²+2ζωns+ωn²)
Closed Loop TF T(s) = G/(1+GH) [negative feedback]
Cascade Blocks G_total = G₁ × G₂
Parallel Blocks G_total = G₁ + G₂
Tank TF G(s) = R/(τs+1) where τ=AR
Two Tanks Series G(s) = R²/(τs+1)²

DAMPING RATIO SUMMARY

Damping Ratio Behaviour
ζ=0 Undamped (continuous vibration)
0<ζ<1 Underdamped (oscillatory)
ζ=1 Critically damped (optimal)
ζ>1 Overdamped (slow)

THERMOCOUPLE TYPES SUMMARY

Type & Materials Range & Notes
Type J: Iron/Constantan Range: 0–760°C | Cheapest
Type T: Copper/Constantan Range: −180 to 371°C | Moisture resistant
Type K: Chromel/Alumel Range: 0–1150°C | Most linear

Good luck in your MME 513 exams! — Study smart, engineer great.