CHAPTER 1
The Human Organism
The human body is a
complex system. The
structures in the body work
in concert to maintain
homeostasis, a balance in
the body’s internal
environment.
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What lies ahead is an astounding adventure—learning about the
structure and function of the human body and the intricate checks
and balances that regulate it. Renzo’s (the dancer featured in this
chapter’s Learn to Predict) blood sugar disorder is a good example of
how important this system of checks and balances is in the body.
Perhaps you have had the experience of oversleeping, rushing to your
8 a.m. class, and missing breakfast. Afterward, on the way to
Anatomy & Physiology class, you bought an energy bar from a
vending machine. Eating the energy bar helped you feel better. The
explanation for these experiences is the process of homeostasis, the
maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment, despite
fluctuations in the external environment. For you, homeostasis was
maintained, but for Renzo, there was a disruption in homeostasis.
Throughout this textbook, the major underlying theme is
homeostasis. As you think about Renzo’s case, you will come to
realize just how capable the human body is of an incredible
coordination of thousands upon thousands of processes. Learning
about human anatomy and physiology is important for
understanding disease. The study of human anatomy and physiology
is also important for students who plan a career in the health
sciences because health professionals need a sound knowledge of
structure and function in order to perform their duties. In addition,
understanding anatomy and physiology prepares all of us to evaluate
recommended treatments, critically review advertisements and
reports in the popular literature, and rationally discuss the human
body with health professionals and nonprofessionals.
Learn to Predict
Renzo, a dancer, can perfectly balance on the ball of one
foot, yet a slight movement in any direction causes him
to adjust his position. The human body adjusts its
balance among all its parts through a process called
homeostasis.
Let’s imagine that Renzo is unknowingly suffering
from a blood sugar disorder. Normally, tiny collections of
cells embedded in the pancreas regulate blood sugar by
secreting the chemical insulin. Insulin increases the
movement of sugar from the blood into his cells.
However, Renzo has been losing a lot of weight, despite
eating the same amount of food as always. He noticed
that he’s been fatigued, very thirsty, and urinating more
than normal. Renzo went to see his doctor, who ordered
some tests, including a blood glucose challenge. The
results showed Renzo’s blood sugar was higher than
normal. After trying several treatments such as diet and
prescription oral medication with little effect, Renzo was
outfitted with an insulin pump. Now, his blood sugar
levels are more consistent.
Develop an explanation for Renzo’s blood sugar
levels before and after his visit to the doctor.
Answers to this question and the chapter’s odd-
numbered Predict questions can be found in Appendix E.
Module 1
Body
Orientatio
n
1.1 Anatomy and
Physiology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Define anatomy.
B. Describe the levels at which anatomy can be studied.
C. Define physiology.
D. Describe the levels at which physiology can be studied.
E. Explain the importance of the relationship between
structure and function.
In studying biological organisms, including humans, you will
encounter four key concepts: (1) structure and function
relationships, (2) movement of chemicals along gradients, (3) cell-to-
cell communication, and (4) feedback loops. Throughout this
chapter, we will highlight these key concepts. Then as you progress
through the textbook, look for these key concepts. They will be
discussed within every organ. system. Anatomy is the scientific
discipline that investigates the body’s structures—for example, the
shape and size of bones. The word anatomy means to dissect or cut
apart and separate the parts of the body for study. In addition,
anatomy examines the relationship between the structure of a body
part and its function. For example, the structure of a hammer
informs us of its primary use: to deliver a hard blow to a small area
of an object. For example, a hammer is used to drive nails into wood
or to dismantle another structure. Similarly, the fact that bone cells
are surrounded by a hard, mineralized substance enables the bones
to provide strength and support. This is the first of the four key
concepts of anatomy and physiology: structure and function
relationships. Understanding the relationship between structure and
function makes it easier to understand and appreciate anatomy.
Anatomy can be studied at different levels. Developmental
anatomy studies the structural changes that occur between
conception and adulthood. Embryology (em-bree-OL-oh-jee), a
subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from
conception to the end of the eighth week of development.
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Some structures, such as cells, are so small that they must be
studied using a microscope. Cytology (sigh-TOL-oh-jee; cyto, cell)
examines the structural features of cells, and histology (his-TOL-
oh-jee; hist, tissue) examines tissues, which are composed of cells
and the materials surrounding them.
Gross anatomy, the study of structures that can be examined
without the aid of a microscope, can be approached either
systemically or regionally. A system is a group of structures that
have one or more common functions, such as the cardiovascular,
nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems. In systemic
anatomy, the body is studied system by system. In regional anatomy,
the body is studied area by area. Within each region, such as the
head, abdomen, or arm, all systems are studied simultaneously. The
regional approach is taken in many graduate programs at medical
and dental schools. The systemic approach is used in this and most
other introductory textbooks.
Surface anatomy involves looking at the exterior of the body to
visualize structures deeper inside the body. For example, the
sternum (breastbone) and bulges from the ribs can be seen and
palpated (felt) on the front of the chest. Health professionals use
these structures as anatomical landmarks to identify regions of the
heart and points on the chest where certain heart sounds can best be
heard. Anatomical imaging uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound,
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create
pictures of internal structures (table 1.1). Anatomical imaging has
revolutionized medical science. Anatomical imaging allows medical
personnel to look inside the body with amazing accuracy and without
the trauma and risk of exploratory surgery. The risk of anatomical
imaging is minimized by using the lowest possible number of doses
providing the necessary information. No known risks exist from
ultrasound or electromagnetic fields at the levels used for diagnosis.
Both surface anatomy and anatomical imaging provide important
information for diagnosing disease.
TABLE 1.1 Anatomical Imaging
Imaging
Technique Clinical Examples
X-ray This extremely shortwave
electromagnetic radiation
moves through the body,
exposing a photographic plate
to form a radiograph (RAY-
dee-oh-graf). Radiographs
Omikron/Science
create a flat, two-dimensional
Source
(2D) image.
Ultrasound Ultrasound uses high-
frequency sound waves, which
strike internal organs and
bounce back to the receiver on
the skin. Among other medical
Bernard applications, ultrasound is
Benoit/Science commonly used to evaluate the
Photo condition of the fetus during
Library/Science pregnancy.
Source
Computed Computed tomographic
Tomography (TOH-moh-GRAF-ik) (CT)
(CT) scans are computer-analyzed
x-ray images (a). Some
computers are able to take
several scans short distances
apart and stack the slices to
produce a 3D image of a body
part (b).
Imaging
Technique Clinical Examples
Digital Digital subtraction
Subtraction angiography (an-jee-OG-rah-
Angiography fee) (DSA) is one step beyond
(DSA) CT scanning. A radiopaque dye
is injected into the blood,
which allows for enhanced
differences when compared to
Living Art a noninjected scan.
Enterprises,
LLC/Science Source
Magnetic Magnetic resonance
Resonance imaging (MRI) directs radio
Imaging (MRI) waves at a person lying inside
a large electromagnetic field.
An MRI is more effective at
detecting some forms of cancer
than a CT scan.
MriMan/Shutterstock
Positron Positron emission
Emission tomographic (PET) scans
Tomography can identify the metabolic
(PET) states of various tissues. This
technique is particularly useful
in analyzing the brain.
Radiation pinpoints cells that
are metabolically active.
Science Source
However, no two humans are structurally identical. Anatomical
anomalies are physical characteristics that differ from the normal
pattern. Anatomical anomalies can vary in severity from relatively
harmless to life-threatening. For example, each kidney is normally
supplied by one blood vessel, but in some individuals a kidney is
supplied by two blood vessels. Either way, the kidney receives
adequate blood. On the other hand, in the condition called “blue
baby” syndrome, certain blood vessels arising from an infant’s heart
are not attached in their correct locations; blood is not effectively
pumped to the lungs, and so the tissues do not receive adequate
oxygen.
Physiology is the scientific investigation of the processes or
functions of living things. There are two major goals when studying
human physiology: (1) examining the body’s responses to stimuli and
(2) examining the body’s maintenance of stable internal conditions
within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing
environment.
Like anatomy, physiology can be considered at many levels. Cell
physiology examines the processes occurring in cells such as energy
production from food, and systemic physiology considers the
functions of organ systems. Types of systemic physiology are
cardiovascular physiology, which focuses on the heart and blood
vessels, and neurophysiology, which focuses on the function of the
nervous system. Physiology often examines systems rather than
regions because a particular function can involve portions of a
system in more than one region. The second key concept of anatomy
and physiology is integral to studying physiology as you will learn:
Chemicals move along gradients. We will examine that more in
chapter 3.
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Studies of the human body must encompass both anatomy and
physiology because structures, functions, and processes are
interwoven. Pathology (pa-THOL-oh-jee) is the medical science
dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause
and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural
and functional changes resulting from disease. Exercise
physiology focuses on the changes in function and structure caused
by exercise.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
Answers to these questions are found in the section you
have just completed. Re-read the section if you need help
in answering these questions.
1. How does the study of anatomy differ from the study
of physiology?
2. What is studied in gross anatomy? In surface
anatomy?
3. What type of physiology is employed when studying
the endocrine system?
4. Why are anatomy and physiology normally studied
together?
1.2 Biomedical Research
LEARNING OUTCOME
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Explain why it is important to study other organisms along
with humans.
Much of what we know about our own physiology is based on
physiological studies of other organisms. Humans share many
characteristics with other organisms. For example, studying single-
celled bacteria has allowed scientists to utilize bacteria to synthesize
certain human medicines such as insulin. However, some biomedical
research cannot be accomplished using single-celled organisms or
isolated cells. Sometimes other mammals must be studied, as
evidenced by the great progress in open-heart surgery and kidney
transplantation made possible by perfecting surgical techniques on
other mammals before attempting them on humans. Strict laws
govern the use of animals in biomedical research; these laws are
designed to ensure minimal suffering on the part of the animal and
to discourage unnecessary experimentation.
Although much can be learned from studying other organisms,
the ultimate answers to questions about humans can be obtained
only from humans because other organisms differ from humans in
significant ways. A failure to appreciate the differences between
humans and other animals led to many misconceptions by early
scientists. One of the first great anatomists was a Greek physician,
Claudius Galen (ca. 130–201). Galen described a large number of
anatomical structures supposedly present in humans but observed
only in other animals. For example, he described the liver as having
five lobes. This is true for rats, but not for humans, who have four-
lobed livers. The errors introduced by Galen persisted for more than
1300 years until a Flemish anatomist, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564),
who is considered the first modern anatomist, carefully examined
human cadavers and began to correct the textbooks. This example
should serve as a word of caution: Some current knowledge in
molecular biology and physiology has not been confirmed in
humans.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
5. Why is it important to recognize that humans share
many, but not all, characteristics with other animals?
1.3 Structural and
Functional
Organization of the
Human Body
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Name the six levels of organization of the body.
B. Describe the major characteristics of the six levels of
organization.
C. List the 11 organ systems and identify their components.
D. Describe the major functions of each system.
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The body can be studied at six levels of organization: chemical, cell,
tissue, organ, organ system, and whole organism (figure 1.1). As you
move through levels, you will notice that each builds on the previous
level. Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions
or even death.
FUNDAMENTAL Figure
FIGURE 1.1 Levels of Organization
for the Human Body
The simplest level of organization in the
human body is the atom. Atoms combine
to form molecules. Molecules aggregate
into cells. Cells form tissues, which
combine with other tissues to form
organs. Organs work in groups called
organ systems. All organ systems work
together to form an organism.
(baby girl) BJI/Blue Jean Images/Getty
Images
1. Chemical level. The structural and functional characteristics of all
organisms are determined by their chemical makeup. The
chemical level of organization involves how atoms, such as
hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine to form molecules.
This is important because a molecule’s structure determines its
function. For example, collagen molecules are strong ropelike
protein fibers that give skin structural strength and flexibility.
With aging, the structure of collagen changes, and the skin
becomes fragile and more easily torn during everyday activities.
We present a brief overview of chemistry in chapter 2.
2. Cell level. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all
living organisms. Combinations of molecules form cells.
Structures inside cells called organelles (OR-gah-nellz; little
organs) carry out particular functions, such as digestion and
movement, for the cell. For example, the nucleus is an organelle
that contains the cell’s hereditary information, and mitochondria
are organelles that manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a
molecule cells use for energy. Although cell types differ in their
structure and function, they have many characteristics in
common. Knowledge of these characteristics, as well as their
variations, is essential to understanding anatomy and physiology.
We discuss the cell in chapter 3.
3. Tissue level. Groups of cells combine to forms tissues. A tissue is
composed of a group of similar cells and the materials
surrounding them. The characteristics of the cells and
surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue. The
body is made up of four basic tissue types: (1) epithelial, (2)
connective, (3) muscle, and (4) nervous. We discuss tissues in
chapter 4.
4. Organ level. Different tissues combine to form organs. An organ
is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more
common functions. Examples of organs include the urinary
bladder, heart, stomach, and lung (figure 1.2).
FIGURE 1.2 Major Organs of
the Body
The body’s major organs include
the brain, lungs, heart, liver,
pancreas, spleen, stomach,
gallbladder, kidneys, large
intestine, small intestine, urinary
bladder, ureters, and urethra.
5. Organ system level. Multiple organs combine to form an organ
system (figure 1.3). An organ system is a group of organs that
together perform a common function or set of functions and are
therefore viewed as a unit. For example, the urinary system
consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The
kidneys produce urine, which the ureters transport to the urinary
bladder, where it is stored until being eliminated from the body
through the urethra. In this text, we consider 11 major organ
systems: (1) integumentary, (2) skeletal, (3) muscular, (4)
nervous, (5) endocrine, (6) cardiovascular, (7) lymphatic, (8)
respiratory, (9) digestive, (10) urinary, and (11) reproductive.
Figure 1.3 presents a brief summary of these organ systems and
their functions. Throughout this textbook, Systems Pathology
essays present a specific disease state and consider how this
affects the interactions of the organ systems.
FIGURE 1.3 Organ Systems of the Body
There are 11 body systems: integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, lymphatic, respiratory,
digestive, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
urinary, and reproductive.
6. Organism level. An organism is any living thing considered as a
whole—whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of
trillions of cells, such as a human. The human organism is the
combination of all the organ systems. These form a network of
systems that are all mutually dependent on one another.
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