EE 531 –

PROTECTION
BY DR. ESAU ZULU
4.1 Overview of Transmission Line Protection
• Transmission line protection is a critical aspect of power system security,
ensuring fast and selective fault detection to maintain grid stability.
• Since transmission lines are exposed to environmental and electrical stresses,
robust protection schemes are required to minimize outage times and prevent
cascading failures
• Key objectives of transmission line protection include:
• Fast fault detection and isolation
• Selectivity,
• reliability and security
• Back up protection
4.1 Overview of Transmission Line Protection
• Types of Faults in Transmission Lines
• Shunt Faults (Short Circuits):
• Phase-to-ground (L-G)
• Phase-to-phase (L-L)
• Double line-to-ground (L-L-G)
• Three-phase (L-L-L, with or without ground)

• Series Faults (Open Conductors):

• Broken conductor
• Open circuit due to fuse/breaker failure
4.1 Overview of Transmission Line Protection
• Protection Schemes for Transmission Lines
• Overcurrent Protection (Inverse-Time & Instantaneous)
• Distance Protection (Impedance-Based)
• Differential Protection (Pilot-Wire & Current Differential)
• Directional Comparison Protection
4.1 Overview of Transmission Line Protection
Table 3.1: Comparisons of different types of protection for transmission lines
Scheme Principle Advantages Limitations Best For
Affected by
Current Distribution
Overcurrent Simple, low cost load, poor
magnitude lines
selectivity
Zone-based
Impedance (V/I) Affected by fault
Distance selectivity, less HV/EHV lines
measurement resistance
load-dependent
High sensitivity, Requires
Differential Current Short, critical
immune to communication
(87L) comparison lines
swings channel
Fault direction Good for Needs Multi-source
Directional (67)
detection parallel lines coordination networks
4.2 Basic Concept of Distance Protection
• Distance relays operate based on the principle of measuring the impedance (or
apparent impedance) of a transmission line from the relay location to the fault
point.
• Impedance (Z) = Voltage (V) / Current (I)
• Under normal conditions, the measured impedance corresponds to the load
impedance (high value).
• During a fault, the impedance drops significantly, allowing the relay to detect
and locate the fault.
4.2 Basic Concept of Distance Protection
• Essentially, distance relay compares measured impedance V/I (𝑍𝑚 ) against line
impedance 𝑍𝐿
• Condition for operation is:
• 𝑍𝑚 >𝑍𝐿 No operation
• 𝑍𝑚 < 𝑍𝐿 Operation

• Key Terms:
• Reach Setting: The maximum impedance (distance) up to which the relay operates.
• Fault Impedance (Zf): The impedance between the relay and the fault location.
• Source Impedance (Zs): The impedance of the power source behind the relay.
4.3.1 Plain Impedance Relay
• Relays which measure impedance are
called plain impedance relays
• Their characteristic is a circle with origin
as centre and line impedance as radius
• Relay characteristic angle (RCA) is the
protected line angle LAR
• RCA is the angle at which the relay is
most sensitive (MTA)
Fig.1: Plain impedance relay characteristic
4.3.1 Plain Impedance Relay
• Disadvantages of Plain impedance
relay
1. Non – directional
2. Non – uniform fault resistance
coverage
3. Susceptible to power swings and
heavy loading conditions

Fig.1: Plain impedance relay characteristic

4.3.2 Mho Relay
• The mho impedance relay combines
both reach and directional control
• This is accomplished using a polarizing
voltage
• The characteristic of a mho impedance
element, when plotted on an R/X
diagram, is a circle whose
circumference passes through the
origin Fig.2: Mho relay characteristic
4.3.2 Mho Relay
• Under an arcing fault condition, additional
resistance, such as tower footing resistance or
fault through vegetation, the value of the
resistive component of fault impedance will
increase to change the impedance angle.
• Thus a relay having a characteristic angle
equivalent to the line angle will under-reach
under resistive fault conditions.
• It is usual, therefore, to set the RCA less than
the line angle, so that it is possible to accept a
small amount of fault resistance without
causing under-reach.
Fig.3: Mho relay characteristic
4.3.2 Mho Relay
• When setting the relay, the difference
between the line angle θ and the relay
characteristic angle ϕ must be known.
• AB corresponds to the length of the line
to be protected.
• The amount of line protected must be
𝐴𝑄
set as: 𝐴𝐵 =
cos(𝜃−𝜑)

Fig.3: Mho relay characteristic

4.3.3 Quadrilateral Relay Characteristic
• The characteristic is provided with forward
reach and resistive reach settings that are
independently adjustable.
• It therefore provides better resistive
coverage than any mho-type characteristic
for short lines.
• This is especially true for earth fault
impedance measurement, where the arc
resistances and fault resistance to earth
contribute to the highest values of fault Fig.4: Quadrilateral relay characteristic
resistance
4.3.3 Quadrilateral Impedance Relay
• To avoid excessive errors in the zone
reach accuracy, it is common to impose
a maximum resistive reach in terms of
the zone impedance reach.
• Recommendations in this respect can
usually be found in the appropriate
relay manuals.
Fig.4: Quadrilateral relay characteristic
4.4 Residual Compensation Factor (𝑘𝑧0 )
• The residual compensation factor (𝑘𝑧0 ) is used in distance relays to
accurately measure the impedance during ground faults (single-line-
to-ground or double-line-to-ground faults).
• Since ground faults involve zero-sequence currents (𝐼0 ) that do not
exist in phase faults, the relay must compensate for their effect to
avoid incorrect impedance measurements.
4.4 Residual Compensation Factor (𝑘𝑧0 )
• The zero-sequence current flows in the neutral and returns via earth,
altering the apparent impedance seen by the relay
• Without compensation, the relay may over-reach or under-reach due to the
additional 𝐼0 component
• Residual compensation factor is calculated using:
𝑍0 − 𝑍1
𝑘𝑧0 =
3𝑍1
• Where 𝑍0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the line and 𝑍1 is the positive
sequence impedance of the protected line
4.5 System Impedance Ratio (S.I.R)
• The System Impedance Ratio (SIR) is the ratio of the source
impedance (𝑍𝑆 ) to the line impedance (𝑍𝐿 ​) at the relaying point:
𝑍𝑆
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝑅 =
𝑍𝐿
• 𝑍𝑆 = Equivalent impedance of the source (upstream generators,
transformers, and system equivalent)
• 𝑍𝐿 = Impedance of the protected transmission line
4.5 System Impedance Ratio (S.I.R)
• SIR affects the reach of a relay
• If 𝑍𝑠 is large (high SIR), voltage drop across 𝑍𝑠 ​ reduces the voltage at
the relay location, causing under-reach (relay sees higher impedance
than actual).
• Over-reach: In systems with low SIR, the relay may see faults
beyond its intended zone due to high current
• Under-reach: In high SIR systems, the relay may fail to detect faults
within its zone due to low current
4.5 System Impedance Ratio (S.I.R)
• Mitigation Techniques for High SIR Conditions
1. Adaptive Relaying: Adjust reach settings dynamically based on SIR.
2. Use of Negative-/Zero-Sequence Components: Improves sensitivity
for ground faults.
3. Modified Polarizing Signals: For mho relays, use memory voltage or
positive-sequence polarization.
4. Hybrid Distance Schemes: Combine impedance with overcurrent
elements for better reliability
4.6 Zones of Protection in Distance Relaying
• Distance relays divide the protected
transmission line into multiple zones
to ensure selective and reliable fault
clearance.
• Each zone has a specific reach setting
and time delay to coordinate with
adjacent relays. Fig.5: Zones of protection
4.6.1 Zone 1 (Primary Protection)
• Reach: Typically 80-85% of the protected line
impedance (𝑍𝐿 ).
• Operation: Instantaneous (No intentional delay,
~15-30 ms).
• Purpose:
• Clears faults within the line section quickly without
backup.
• The 15-20% margin avoids overreach into the next line
due to errors in CT/PT measurements or line
impedance inaccuracies.
4.6.2 Zone 2 (Back-up Protection for Adjacent Line +
Primary Back-up Protection)
• Reach: 120-150% of the protected line impedance
(covers full line + 20-50% of the next line).
• Time Delay: 250ms–500ms (allows Zone 1 of the
next line to clear first).
• Purpose:
• Covers the last 15-20% of line left by Zone 1
• Acts as local backup if Zone 1 fails.
• Provides remote backup for faults in the next line
section if the downstream relay fails.
4.6.3 Zone 3 (Back-up Protection for Faraway
Faults)
• Reach: 100% of protected line + 100% of adjacent
line (often set to cover the longest adjacent line).
• Time Delay: 800ms–1000ms (must coordinate with
Zone 2 of downstream relays).
• Purpose:
• Backup for Zone 2 failures (rarely used due to risk of
overreach).
• Some utilities disable Zone 3 to avoid sympathetic
tripping during system power swings.
4.6.4 Zone 4 (Reverse Reach for Bus Protection)
• Some relays include a Zone 4 for reverse faults (set
at 10-20% of 𝑍𝐿 in the opposite direction).
• Used as back-up protection for bus-bars
• Time delay: above 1000ms
• Used for directional blocking in pilot-assisted
schemes.
EXAMPLE
The system diagram shown in the Fig. shows a simple 230kV network. Calculate
the relay settings for a three-zone distance protection of the line interconnecting
substations ABC and XYZ. All relevant data for this exercise are given in the
diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral characteristics is considered in
this example.
EE 531 –DISTANCE
PROTECTION
SCHEMES
BY DR. ESAU ZULU
4.7 Introduction
• The main disadvantage of transmission line protection by a distance relay based
on voltage and current measurements is that the instantaneous Zone 1 protection
at each end of the protected line cannot be set to cover the whole of the feeder
length and is usually set to about 80-85%
• This leaves the remainder of the 15-20% of the line only covered by time-delayed
zone 2 protection

Fig 3.1: Unit protection scheme

4.7 Introduction
• If the relays at A and B are set up as unit protection for line AB with double
infeed, for a fault at F, relay at B sees the fault in zone 1 and acts instantaneously
while relay at A sees the fault in zone 2 and its operation is time delayed
• This situation may not be tolerable in some situations because:
• faults remaining on the feeder for Zone 2 time may cause the system to become
unstable
• where high-speed auto-reclosing is used, the non simultaneous opening of the circuit
breakers at both ends of the faulted section results in no 'dead time' during the auto-
reclose cycle for the fault to be extinguished and for ionised gases to clear. This
results in the possibility that a transient fault will cause permanent lockout of the
circuit breakers at each end of the line section
4.7 Introduction
• Unit schemes of distance protection compare the conditions at the two ends of the feeder
simultaneously positively identify whether the fault is internal or external to the protected
section and provide high-speed protection for the whole feeder length
• A distance protection scheme refers to the complete system design that incorporates distance
relays along with additional logic, communication, and coordination methods to ensure
reliable fault detection and isolation.
• This advantage is balanced by the fact that the unit scheme does not provide the back up
protection for adjacent feeders given by a distance scheme
• The most desirable scheme is obviously a combination of the best features of both
arrangements, that is, instantaneous tripping over the whole feeder length plus back-up
protection to adjacent feeders.
• This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance protection relays at each end of the
protected feeder by a protection signalling using communications links
4.7 Teleprotection
• While distance relays can detect faults within their zones, communication-assisted
signalling is often required for:
• High-speed tripping for faults in the protected line (eliminating time delays in Zone 2
backup).
• Improving selectivity by coordinating with remote-end relays.
• Enabling schemes like Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT), Blocking Schemes, etc.
• Communication Channels used include:
• Power Line Carrier Communication(PLCC): High-frequency signals over transmission
lines
• Pilot Wires (Metallic Pilot): Dedicated copper/fiber links.
• Fiber Optic Communication: High-speed, immune to EMI.
• Microwave/Radio Links: Used where wired communication is impractical.
4.8 Teleprotection

IED1 IED2

Fig 3.2: Application of protection signalling and its relationship to other systems using communication
4.8.1 Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC)
• Power Line Carrier Communications (PLCC) is a technique that involves high
frequency signal transmission along the overhead power line
• It is robust and therefore reliable, constituting a low loss transmission path that
is fully controlled by the Utility
• High voltage capacitors are used, along with drainage coils, for the purpose of
injecting the signal to and extracting it from the line
• Injection can be carried out by impressing the carrier signal voltage between one
conductor and earth or between any two phase conductors
• The basic units can be built up into a high pass or band pass filter
4.8.1 Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC)
The components of PLCC are:
1. Transmitter: responsible for modulating
the data and transmitting it onto the
power line
2. Line traps: installed on the power line to
block the high-frequency carrier signals
from entering the rest of the power grid
3. Coupling capacitors: used to inject the
high-frequency communication signal
into the high-voltage power line without
disturbing the actual power transmission
4. Receiver: used to receive modulated
carrier signals extracted from power lines Fig 3.3: Block diagram of a PLCC network
using line traps
4.8.2 Pilot Wires
• Pilot wires are dedicated communication channels (usually metallic cables) used to
transmit protection signals between relays at different ends of a protected line
• They enable high-speed coordination in unit protection schemes like distance
protection, differential protection
• An economic decision has to be made between the use of private or rented pilots
• If private pilots are used, the owner has complete control, but bears the cost of
installation and maintenance
• If rented pilots are used, most of these costs are eliminated, but fees must be paid to
the owner of the pilots and the signal path may be changed without warning
• This may be a problem in protection applications where signal transmission times are
critical
4.8.3 Microwave/Radio Links
• Microwave/Radio links are wireless communication channels used in
teleprotection (protection signaling via telecommunications) to exchange
tripping, blocking, or permission signals between protective relays at different
substations
• Used when wired communication (pilot wires, fiber optics) is impractical (e.g.,
long distances, difficult terrain)
• Signal Types:
• Analog (Frequency-Shift Keying - FSK) – Traditional, slower.
• Digital (IEC 61850, DNP3) – Modern, more secure, faster.
4.8.3 Microwave/Radio Links
Components of a microwave/radio links
Component Function
Converts relay signals into radio waves and
Transmitter/Receiver
vice versa.
Ensures directional signal transmission
Antenna System
(reduces interference).
Encodes/decodes protection signals (e.g.,
Modem/Communication Unit
ON/OFF for trip commands).
Encryption & error-checking to prevent mal-
Channel Protection
operation.
4.8.4 Fiber Optic Communication
• Optical fibres are fine strands of glass, which behave as wave guides for light
• This ability to transmit light over considerable distances can be used to provide
optical communication links with enormous information carrying capacity and an
inherent immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
• A practical optical cable consists of a central optical fibre which comprises core,
cladding and protective buffer coating surrounded by a protective plastic over-
sheath containing strength members which, in some cases, are enclosed by a layer of
armouring
• To communicate information a beam of light is modulated in accordance with the
signal to be transmitted
• This modulated beam travels along the optical fibre and is subsequently decoded at
the remote terminal into the received signal
4.9 Typical Layout of Communication Links

Fig 3.4: Typical layout of the communication systems for tele-protection

4.10 Comparison of Communication Links
Medium Speed Reliability Cost Best Use Case

Backup protection,
PLCC Medium Moderate Low
short lines

Short-distance unit
Metallic Pilot Very Fast High Medium
protection
Critical HV lines,
Fiber-Optic Ultra-Fast Very High High differential
protection
Remote areas,
Weather-
Microwave/Radio Fast Medium long-distance
dependent
teleprotection
4.11 Protection Signalling
• Distance Protection schemes use signalling to convey a command between local
and remote relaying points
• Receipt of the information is used to aid or speed up clearance of faults within a
protected zone or to prevent tripping from faults outside a protected zone
• Teleprotection systems are often referred to by their mode of operation, or the
role of the teleprotection command in the system. These include:
1. Direct transfer tripping (DTT) scheme
2. Permissive transfer tripping (PTT) scheme
3. Blocking scheme
4.12 Transfer Tripping Schemes
• Transfer tripping is a teleprotection scheme where a relay at one end of a
transmission line sends a direct or permissive signal to a remote relay to initiate
an immediate trip in case of a fault.
• It ensures high-speed fault clearance and improves system stability by
coordinating relays at both ends of a protected line
• Eliminates time delays (avoids waiting for Zone 2/Zone 3 backup tripping).
• Improves selectivity (prevents unnecessary tripping for external faults).
• Essential for critical lines where delayed tripping could cause instability.
4.12 Transfer Tripping Schemes
• Types of Transfer tripping :
1. Direct under-reach transfer tripping
2. Permissive under-reach transfer tripping
3. Permissive over-reach transfer tripping
4. Directional comparison blocking
4.12.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme
• The simplest way of reducing the fault clearance time at the terminal that clears
an end zone fault in Zone 2 time is to adopt a direct transfer trip or inter-trip
technique
• A contact operated by the Zone 1 relay element is arranged to send a signal to
the remote relay requesting a trip

Fig 3.5: Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme trip logic

4.12.1 Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping
(DUTT) Scheme
• A fault F in the end zone at end B results in operation of the Zone 1 relay and tripping of the circuit breaker at end B

• A request to trip is also sent to the relay at end A

• The receipt of a signal at A initiates tripping immediately because the receive relay contact is connected directly to
the trip relay

• The disadvantage of this scheme is the possibility of undesired tripping by accidental operation or mal-operation of
signalling equipment, or interference on the communications channel. As a result, it is not commonly used.

Fig 3.5: Direct Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme trip logic

4.12.2 Permissive Under-reach Transfer Tripping
(PUTT) Scheme
• The direct under-reach transfer tripping
scheme is made more secure by
supervising the received signal with the
operation of the Zone 2 relay element
before allowing an instantaneous trip
• Disadvantages:
1. Limited coverage on long lines
2. Slower (Requires duo confirmation)
3. Dependence on reliability of communication
channel
4. Not suitable for weak infeed conditions

Fig 3.6: Permissive Under-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme trip logic

4.12.3 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping
(POTT) Scheme
• In this scheme, a distance relay element set to
reach beyond the remote end of the protected line
is used to send an inter-tripping signal to the
remote end
• However, it is essential that the receive relay
contact is monitored by a directional relay contact
to ensure that tripping does not take place unless
the fault is within the protected section
• The instantaneous contacts of the Zone 2 unit are
arranged to send the signal, and the received
signal, supervised by Zone 2 operation, is used to
energise the trip circuit

Fig 3.7: Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme trip logic

4.12.3 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping
(POTT) Scheme
• Since the signalling channel is keyed by
over-reaching Zone 2 elements, the scheme
requires duplex communication channels -
one frequency for each direction of
signalling

Fig 3.7: Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme trip logic

4.12.3 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping
(POTT) Scheme
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Faster Fault Clearing Than PUTT for Long 1. Slightly Slower Than DUTT
Lines
2. More Complex Than PUTT
2. More Secure Than Direct Transfer Trip
3. Dependent on Communication
(DTT)
Reliability
3. Works Well for Long Transmission Lines
4. Risk of Overreach for External Faults
4. Compatible with Weak Infeed Conditions
5. Flexible Communication Channel Options
4.13 Blocking Schemes
• If the signalling channel fails or there is no Weak Infeed feature provided, end-
zone faults may take longer to be cleared
• Blocking over-reaching schemes use an over-reaching distance scheme and
inverse logic
• Signalling is initiated only for external faults and signalling transmission takes
place over healthy line sections
• Fast fault clearance occurs when no signal is received and the over-reaching
Zone 2 distance measuring elements looking into the line operate
• The signalling channel is keyed by reverse looking distance elements (Zone 3)
4.13 Blocking Schemes
• The single frequency signalling channel operates
both local and remote receive relays when a block
signal is initiated at any end of the protected
section
• A fault at F1 is seen by the Zone 1 relay elements
at both ends A and B; as a result, the fault is
cleared instantaneously at both ends of the
protected line
• A fault at F2 is seen by the forward-looking Zone
2 elements at ends A and B and by the Zone 1
elements at end B
• A fault at F3 is seen by the reverse-looking Z3
elements at end B and the forward looking Zone
2 elements at end A. Trip is avoided by signal Rx

Fig 3.8: Blocking Scheme trip logic

4.14 Comparisons of the transfer schemes
Feature POTT PUTT DTT DCB
Fastest
Speed Fast (1-2 cycles) Fast (1-2 cycles) Moderate
(immediate)
Medium
High (dual High (blocking
Security (directional Low (no checks)
confirmation) logic)
check)
Full line Only
Coverage Any fault Full line
(overreach) underreach zone
Critical trips Parallel lines,
Best For Long lines Short lines
(breaker failure) weak infeeds
4.15 IEC 61850
• IEC 61850 is the global standard for substation communication and automation,
revolutionizing protection schemes like distance protection by replacing traditional
hard-wired relays with digital, interoperable, and high-speed networked systems
• Core Principles:
1. Standardised Data Modeling ~ Devices (IED) use logical nodes (PDIS, PTRC)
2. High Speed Communication
1. Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) ~ Replaces hard-wired tripping
2. Sampled Values (SMV) ~ stream analog measurements (CT, VT)
3. System Configuration Language (SCL) ~ Defines device capabilities and network
topology
4.15.1 IEC 61850 GOOSE Protocol
• GOOSE is a real-time, high-speed communication protocol used in modern
power system protection and automation, particularly in IEC 61850-based
substations. It enables fast, reliable, and deterministic exchange of protection
signals between Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) without relying on
traditional wiring or slower SCADA systems.
4.15.2 IEC 61850 GOOSE Features
Feature Description
Devices publish data (e.g., trip signals), and
Publisher-Subscriber Model
subscribed devices receive it instantly.
Uses Ethernet frames (not IP-based),
Multicast Ethernet (Layer 2)
reducing latency.
Faster than traditional wired relays or serial
High Speed (≤ 4ms)
communications.
Supports PRP (Parallel Redundancy
Self-Healing & Redundancy Protocol) and HSR (High-availability
Seamless Redundancy).
Operates at the data link layer (MAC
No Routers Needed
addresses), avoiding TCP/IP delays.
4.15.3 IEC 61850 Topology

Fig 3.9: System topology with GOOSE messaging protocol

4.15.4 GOOSE Protocol Configuration for Distance
Protection of a 100km, 330kV Transmission Line
4.15.4GOOSE Protocol Configuration for Distance
Protection of a 100km, 330kV Transmission Line
4.15.4 GOOSE Protocol Configuration for Distance
Protection of a 100km, 330kV Transmission Line
4.15.4 GOOSE Protocol Configuration for Distance
Protection of a 100km, 330kV Transmission Line
4.15.4 GOOSE Protocol Configuration for Distance
Protection of a 100km, 330kV Transmission Line
ASSIGNMENT An Interconnected power system is shown in figure .
The positive sequence impedance of LYNX (line ED) is
0.076 + 𝑗0.387 𝛺/𝑘𝑚 while the zero-sequence
impedance is 0.178 + 𝑗0.401 𝛺/𝑘𝑚. The impedance of
each ZEBRA line is 0.148 + 𝑗0.485 𝛺/𝑘𝑚 and the zero-
sequence impedance is 0.345 + 𝑗0.826 𝛺/𝑘𝑚.
If the relaying points for a distance relay protection
are at B, C, D and E for MiCOM P441 relay with
QUADRILATERAL characteristic determine:
1. The residual compensation factor setting for zero-
sequence compensation each relay
2. Settings for a four-zone distance protection with
10% reverse reach. Provide both impedance reach
and resistive reach.
3. Simulate these these results in a software package
of your choosing.