📘 What is a Microprocessor?
A microprocessor is an electronic chip (integrated circuit) that acts as
the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It performs all
calculations, makes decisions, and handles data processing—essentially
serving as the "brain" of any digital system.
👉 In Simple Words:
It takes input (from keyboards, sensors, etc.), processes it (performs
math/logic operations), and produces output (displays, sounds, actions).
📜 History & Evolution of Microprocessors
Microprocessors have evolved based on how many bits (binary digits)
they can process at once—more bits mean faster and more powerful
computing!
◆ 4-bit Microprocessors (Early 1970s)
Example: Intel 4004 (1971)
• Processed only 4 bits at a time.
• Very slow, with limited memory.
• Used in calculators, traffic lights, and simple gadgets.
◆ 8-bit Microprocessors (Late 1970s)
Example: Intel 8085 (1976)
• Handled 8 bits at once.
• Supported up to 64KB memory.
• Powered early computers, arcade games, and embedded
systems.
◆ 16-bit Microprocessors (1980s)
Example: Intel 8086 (1978)
• Processed 16 bits per operation.
• Accessed 1MB+ memory—better for multitasking.
• Enabled early OS (like MS-DOS) and assembly programming.
◆ 32-bit Microprocessors (1990s–2000s)
Examples: Intel 80386, Pentium
• Processed 32 bits, handling up to 4GB RAM.
• Made Windows 95, gaming, and graphical apps possible.
• Dominated desktops and laptops.
◆ 64-bit Microprocessors (2000s–Present)
Examples: Intel Core i5, AMD Ryzen
• Processes 64 bits—billions of memory addresses.
• Runs AI, 3D gaming, video editing, and virtual machines.
◆ Multi-Core Processors (Modern Era)
Examples: Dual-core, Quad-core, Octa-core
• Multiple CPUs (cores) in one chip for parallel processing.
• Boosts speed, efficiency, and multitasking (e.g., gaming +
streaming).
✅ Microprocessor
• What it is: Just a CPU (brain of the computer).
• Needs: External memory, input/output ports, and other
components to work.
• Used in: Computers and laptops where high processing power
is needed.
• Example: Intel Core i5, AMD Ryzen.
✅ Microcontroller
• What it is: A small computer on a single chip.
• Includes: CPU + Memory + I/O ports – all in one.
• Used in: Smart devices and appliances that do specific tasks.
• Example: Arduino (ATmega328P), STM32 (used in washing
machines, remote controls, etc.).
Intel 8085 – Simple 8-bit Processor
• Released: 1976
• What it is: A basic computer brain that can do simple tasks.
• Speed: Very slow by today’s standards
• Memory: Can work with small memory (like a small
notebook).
• Use Case: Used in old machines like calculators and basic
control systems.
Intel 8086 – A Step Forward
• Released: 1978
• What it is: Smarter than 8085 – can handle more information
and work faster.
• Speed: Faster than 8085
• Memory: Can access more memory (like a bigger notebook).
• Use Case: Used in early personal computers (like the first IBM
PCs).
Modern Processors – Very Powerful and Fast
• Released: From 2010s to now (Intel Core i3, i5, i7…)
• What it is: Super fast, smart processors that can do many
things at the same time.
• Speed: Billions of steps per second
• Memory: Can use huge memory (like a full library)
• Special Abilities:
Can play games, run videos, and do artificial intelligence
(AI) tasks
Can do multiple jobs at once (multitasking)
Uses very advanced technology to save energy and work
faster
#8085 vs 8086:
Feature 8085 Microprocessor 8086 Microprocessor
Data Size 8-bit processor 16-bit processor
16-bit (can address 64 KB
Address Bus 20-bit (can address 1 MB memory)
memory)
Architecture Simple architecture Divided into BIU and EU
Pipelining No pipelining Supports pipelining (instruction queue)
Registers Limited registers More registers (AX, BX, CX, DX, etc.)
Processing Speed Slower Faster
Memory
Not supported Supported (CS, DS, SS, ES)
Segmentation
Instruction Queue Not available 6-byte instruction queue
ALU Size 8-bit ALU 16-bit ALU
#8086 vs 8088:
Feature 8086 Microprocessor 8088 Microprocessor
Data Bus Width 16-bit 8-bit
Internal
16-bit 16-bit (same as 8086)
Architecture
Address Bus 20-bit (1 MB memory) 20-bit (1 MB memory)
Instruction Queue 6-byte queue 4-byte queue
Faster (due to 16-bit data
Speed Slower (8-bit data transfer)
transfer)
Cost Higher Lower
Memory Access Transfers 16 bits at a time Transfers 8 bits at a time
Simpler (compatible with 8-bit
System Design More complex
hardware)
✍️Working Process of 8085 Microprocessor (5 Marks)
The 8085 microprocessor works in a sequence of steps called the instruction cycle, which
consists of fetch, decode, and execute operations.
🔹 1. Fetch Operation
The Program Counter (PC) contains the address of the next instruction.
This address is sent to memory through the address bus.
The microprocessor activates the RD (Read) signal.
The instruction is fetched from memory and stored in the Instruction Register.
🔹 2. Decode Operation
The Instruction Decoder decodes the fetched instruction.
It identifies the type of operation to be performed (e.g., ADD, MOV).
Control signals are generated accordingly.
🔹 3. Execute Operation
The required data is taken from registers or memory.
The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) performs the operation.
The result is stored in the Accumulator or registers.
The Flag Register is updated based on the result.
🔹 4. Memory/I-O Operation
If needed, data is read from or written to memory or I/O devices using control signals
(RD, WR).
🔹 5. Update PC
The Program Counter is updated to point to the next instruction.
The cycle repeats until the program ends.
✅ Conclusion
The 8085 works by continuously performing fetch–decode–execute cycles, using buses and
control signals to process instructions step by step.
8086 Microprocessor Architecture (5 Marks)
The 8086 microprocessor is a 16-bit processor divided into two main units:
🔹 1. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
The BIU is responsible for communication with memory and I/O.
Main components:
Segment Registers (CS, DS, SS, ES): Divide memory into segments.
Instruction Pointer (IP): Holds the address of the next instruction.
Instruction Queue (6 bytes): Stores prefetched instructions (pipelining).
Address Generation Unit: Calculates physical address using:
Physical Address = Segment × 16 + Offset
👉 Function: Fetches instructions and handles memory operations.
🔹 2. Execution Unit (EU)
The EU executes instructions fetched by the BIU.
Main components:
ALU: Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
General Registers (AX, BX, CX, DX): Store data.
Pointer and Index Registers (SP, BP, SI, DI): Used for memory operations.
Flag Register: Stores status flags (Zero, Carry, Sign, etc.).
Control Unit: Decodes and executes instructions.
👉 Function: Executes instructions and processes data.
🔹 3. Pipelining Concept
BIU fetches instructions while EU executes them.
This parallel operation increases processing speed.
🔹 Conclusion
The 8086 architecture improves performance using segmentation and pipelining, where BIU
handles memory operations and EU performs execution.
✍️