Basic Electronics (Paper 3.

1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Paper 3.1 | BSc Computer Science (Part I)
MJPRU University

Complete Exam Notes with PYQs (2022-2025)

Maximum Marks: 33 | Time: 3 Hours

Units Covered:
Unit 1: Electronic Components (Passive Elements)
Unit 2: Networking Theorems & Diodes
Unit 3: BJTs & Amplifiers
Unit 4: Operational Amplifier, Oscillators & Multivibrators
Unit 5: Power Supply

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

UNIT 1: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS (PASSIVE ELEMENTS)

1.1 Active and Passive Components
Electronic components are broadly classified into two categories:
Passive Components:
Components that do not require any external source of energy to perform their function. They
cannot amplify or generate signals. They only consume or store energy. Examples: Resistor,
Capacitor, Inductor, Transformer.
Active Components:
Components that require an external source of energy to operate. They can amplify signals and
control current flow. Examples: Transistor, Diode, IC.
Key difference: Passive components have no gain (output power <= input power). Active
components can provide gain.

1.2 Resistor
Definition:
A resistor is a passive electronic component that opposes or limits the flow of electric current in a
circuit. Resistance is measured in Ohms (Omega). Governed by Ohm's Law: V = IR
Types of Resistors:
• Fixed Resistors: Carbon Composition, Carbon Film, Metal Film, Wire Wound - have fixed
resistance values.
• Variable Resistors: Potentiometer (3-terminal, varies voltage), Rheostat (2-terminal, varies
current), Preset/Trimmer.
• Special Resistors: LDR (resistance decreases with light), Thermistor (NTC/PTC - resistance
changes with temperature).
Colour Code (Parameter Value Identification):
BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife: Black(0) Brown(1) Red(2) Orange(3) Yellow(4)
Green(5) Blue(6) Violet(7) Grey(8) White(9)
For 4-band resistor: Band1=1st digit, Band2=2nd digit, Band3=Multiplier, Band4=Tolerance
(Gold=+/-5%, Silver=+/-10%)
Example: Yellow-Violet-Red-Gold = 4,7,x100,+/-5% = 4700 Ohm = 4.7K Ohm
Technical Specifications:
• Resistance Value: in Ohms, KOhms, MOhms
• Power Rating: Maximum power it can dissipate (Watts) - 1/4W, 1/2W, 1W etc.
• Tolerance: Allowable deviation from stated value (+/-%)
• Temperature Coefficient: Change in resistance per degree change in temperature

1.3 Inductor
Definition:
A passive component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when current flows through
it. Inductance (L) measured in Henry (H). Induced EMF: e = -L(dI/dt)
Types:
• Air Core Inductor: No magnetic core, used at high frequencies.
• Iron Core Inductor: Iron increases inductance, used at low frequencies.
• Ferrite Core Inductor: Used at high frequencies, low energy loss.
• Toroidal Inductor: Donut shape, very efficient, low magnetic leakage.
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• Variable Inductor: Inductance adjustable by moving the core.

1.4 Capacitor
Definition:
A passive component that stores electrical energy in an electric field between two conducting plates
separated by a dielectric. Capacitance (C) measured in Farads (F). Formula: Q = CV. Energy stored
= (1/2)CV^2
Types:
• Ceramic: Small, cheap, non-polarised, high frequency circuits.
• Electrolytic: Large capacitance, polarised (+/-), power supply filters.
• Tantalum: Small size, high capacitance, stable, used in mobiles/computers.
• Polyester (Mylar) Film: Non-polarised, stable, timing/coupling circuits.
• Mica: Very stable, high accuracy, RF circuits.
• Variable: Capacitance adjustable, radio tuning circuits.
Technical Specifications:
• Capacitance Value: Farads (F), microFarads (uF), nanoFarads (nF), picoFarads (pF)
• Voltage Rating (WVDC): Maximum voltage it can withstand
• Tolerance, Temperature Coefficient, ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance)

1.5 RC Circuit and Time Constant

Charging:
Vc(t) = V(1 - e^(-t/RC)) Current: i(t) = (V/R) x e^(-t/RC)
Discharging:
Vc(t) = V x e^(-t/RC)
Time Constant: tau = RC
The time taken for the capacitor to charge to 63.2% of supply voltage, or discharge to 36.8% of
initial voltage.
At t = tau: Vc = 0.632V (charging) or 0.368V (discharging)
At t = 5*tau: Capacitor is considered fully charged (99.3%)
Diagram - RC Circuit:
R C
+---/\/\/---+---||---+
| | |
| [Vc] |
| | |
+--[Battery]-+---------+

1.6 RL Circuit and Time Constant

Growth of Current:
i(t) = (V/R)(1 - e^(-Rt/L))
Decay of Current:
i(t) = (V/R) x e^(-Rt/L)
Time Constant: tau = L/R
The time in which current rises to 63% of maximum steady value (growth), or decays to 37% of
maximum value (decay).
Proof (PYQ 2023):

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Growth: At t = L/R, i = (V/R)(1 - e^-1) = (V/R)(1 - 0.368) = 0.632 x (V/R) = 63.2% of maximum
[Proved]
Decay: At t = L/R, i = (V/R)(e^-1) = (V/R)(0.368) = 36.8% of maximum [Proved]
Diagram - RL Circuit:
R L
+---/\/\/---UUUU---+
| |
| [i]
| |
+------[Battery]-----+

Parameter RC Circuit RL Circuit

Time Constant tau = RC tau = L/R
Energy stored in Electric field (capacitor) Magnetic field (inductor)
Cannot change Voltage across C Current through L
instantly
Applications Timing, filtering, coupling Filters, motors, power supplies

1.7 Transformer
Definition:
A passive device that transfers electrical energy between circuits through electromagnetic induction
while changing voltage/current levels.
Working Principle:
AC in primary coil creates changing magnetic flux. This flux links with secondary coil and induces
EMF (Faraday's law). Turns ratio determines voltage transformation: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns = Is/Ip
Diagram - Transformer:
Primary Secondary
Np turns Ns turns
||||| |||||
Vp ~|||||----[Core]-----|||||~ Vs
||||| |||||
Types:
• Step-Up Transformer: Ns > Np, increases voltage, decreases current.
• Step-Down Transformer: Ns < Np, decreases voltage, increases current.
• Isolation Transformer: Np = Ns, provides electrical isolation.
• Auto Transformer: Single winding for both primary and secondary.

1.8 Relays
Definition:
An electrically operated switch that uses a small control current to switch a larger circuit. Works on
electromagnetism.
Working:
Current through coil creates magnetic field -> attracts armature -> closes/opens contacts -> controls
external circuit. Spring returns armature when coil is de-energised.
Contact Types:
• NO (Normally Open): Open when not energised, closes when energised.
• NC (Normally Closed): Closed when not energised, opens when energised.

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• DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw): Two sets of contacts.

1.9 Switches
Types:
• SPST: Simple ON/OFF switch.
• SPDT: Connects one input to one of two outputs.
• DPST: Two circuits controlled simultaneously.
• DPDT: Two circuits, each with two positions.
• Push Button: Momentary contact - press to connect.
• Toggle Switch: Lever type, stays in position.
• Rotary Switch: Multiple positions by rotating.

1.10 Batteries
Definition:
A device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions.
Consists of electrodes (anode, cathode) and electrolyte.
Types:
• Primary (Non-rechargeable): Used once. Examples: Dry cell (Zinc-Carbon), Alkaline.
• Secondary (Rechargeable): Can be recharged. Examples: Lead-Acid (car battery), Li-Ion
(mobile), Ni-Cd, Ni-MH.
Specifications:
• EMF/Voltage: Potential difference between terminals.
• Capacity: Charge stored, measured in Ampere-Hours (Ah) or mAh.
• Internal Resistance: Resistance within the battery itself.

1.11 Testing and Measuring Instruments

CRO - Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Definition:
An electronic instrument used to display and analyze waveforms of electrical signals. Shows how a
signal changes with time on a fluorescent screen.
Block Diagram:
[Input Signal]
|
[Vertical Amplifier (Y)] [Trigger Circuit]
| |
[Delay Line] [Time Base Generator]
| |
[Vertical Deflection Plates] [Horizontal Amplifier (X)]
| |
[CRT - Cathode Ray Tube (Electron Gun + Screen)]
|
[Power Supply]
Main Sections:
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Display unit with electron gun, deflection system, fluorescent
screen.
• Vertical Amplifier: Amplifies input signal for vertical axis display.
• Horizontal Amplifier: Amplifies time base signal for horizontal axis.

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• Time Base Generator: Produces sawtooth wave to move beam horizontally at constant
speed.
• Trigger Circuit: Synchronises time base with input signal for stable display.
• Delay Line: Delays vertical signal so trigger can start horizontal sweep first.
• Power Supply: Provides all required voltages to each section.
Working Principle:
Electron gun fires a beam of electrons which is accelerated and focused. Vertical deflection plates
move beam up/down based on input voltage. Horizontal deflection plates move beam left/right at
constant rate. Beam traces waveform on fluorescent screen.
User Guidelines:
• Switch ON and allow warm-up time.
• Connect probe to input channel (CH1 or CH2).
• Adjust VOLTS/DIV for vertical sensitivity, TIME/DIV for time scale.
• Use TRIGGER controls to stabilize waveform.
• Use FOCUS and INTENSITY to sharpen display.
• Never apply voltage beyond rated input limit.
Measurements using CRO:
• Voltage (peak, peak-to-peak, RMS)
• Frequency and Time period
• Phase difference between two signals
• Waveform shape (sine, square, triangular)

Multimeter (Millimeter)
Definition:
A measuring instrument that measures voltage (AC/DC), current, and resistance in a single device.
Types:
• Analog Multimeter: Uses pointer/needle on scale. Works on D'Arsonval galvanometer
principle.
• Digital Multimeter (DMM): Displays reading as digits on LCD. More accurate.
User Guidelines:
• Select correct measurement function (V, A, Ohm) and appropriate range.
• Red probe to + terminal, black probe to COM terminal.
• For voltage: connect in parallel. For current: connect in series. For resistance: disconnect
component first.
• Never measure resistance in a live circuit.
Advantages:
• Multi-function (voltage, current, resistance in one device).
• Portable and easy to use.
• Digital type has high input impedance - does not disturb circuit.
Disadvantages:
• Less accurate than dedicated instruments.
• Cannot display waveforms (unlike CRO).
• Analog type has parallax error.

Function Generator
Definition:

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An electronic instrument that produces various electrical waveforms (sine, square, triangular) at a
wide range of frequencies. Used as signal source for testing circuits.
Block Diagram:
[Frequency Control Circuit]
|
[Waveform Shaping Circuit]
|
[Output Amplifier]
|
[Attenuator] -----> Output
[DC Offset Control]
Working Principle:
Integrator circuit produces triangular wave. This is shaped to produce sine wave. Comparator
converts triangular to square wave. User selects output waveform.
User Guidelines:
• Select waveform using function selector switch.
• Set frequency using range selector and fine frequency knob.
• Set amplitude using amplitude control.
• Use DC offset knob if DC component is needed.
• Connect output using BNC cable/probes.

UNIT 1 - PYQ QUESTIONS

2025: Q1(a) Explain working principle of a capacitor and two practical applications.

2025: Q1(b) Compare and contrast different types of resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

2025: Q2(a) Describe working principles of transformers, relays, switches, and batteries.

2025: Q2(b) Detail block diagram and working principles of CRO, millimetre, and function generator.

2024: Q1(a) Describe RC circuits and how it is different from RL circuits.

2023: Q1(a) What are active and passive components? Types of resistors and capacitors?

2023: Q1(b) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of a multimeter.

2023: Q2. Expression for growth and decay of current in LR circuit. Prove time constant = L/R.

2022: Q1(a) Explain RL circuits and concept of time constant.

2022: Q1(b) What is Transformer relays?

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UNIT 2: NETWORKING THEOREMS & DIODES

2.1 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
Statement:
The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction (node) is zero. Total current entering a node
equals total current leaving it. Mathematically: Sum of I = 0
Diagram:
I1 = 3A
|
v
-----+-----
| |
I2=2A(down) I3=?(down)
I1 = I2 + I3 => I3 = 1A
Physical basis: Conservation of charge - charge cannot accumulate at a node.

2.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

Statement:
The algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed loop is zero. Sum of EMFs = Sum of voltage
drops.
Diagram:
+--[R1=2 Ohm]--+--[R2=3 Ohm]--+
| |
[V=10V] |
| |
+------------------------------+
KVL: V - I*R1 - I*R2 = 0 => 10 - 2I - 3I = 0 => I = 2A
Physical basis: Conservation of energy - energy supplied equals energy consumed in closed loop.

2.3 Superposition Theorem

Statement:
In a linear circuit with multiple sources, the response at any element is the algebraic sum of
responses caused by each source acting alone, while other sources are replaced by their internal
resistance (voltage source = short circuit, current source = open circuit).
Steps:
• Take one source at a time, replace all others.
• Calculate current/voltage due to that source.
• Repeat for all sources.
• Algebraically add all individual results.
Limitation: Only for linear circuits. Cannot be used directly for power calculations.

2.4 Thevenin's Theorem

Statement:
Any linear two-terminal network can be replaced by a single voltage source Vth (Thevenin voltage)
in series with a single resistance Rth (Thevenin resistance).
Diagram:
Original Complex Circuit Thevenin Equivalent

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+----------------+ +---[Rth]---+
| Sources | | |
| Resistors A(+) [Vth] A(+)
| | | |
+----------B(-) +----------B(-)
Steps to Find Thevenin Equivalent:
• Step 1: Remove load resistor RL from terminals A-B.
• Step 2: Find Vth = open circuit voltage across A-B.
• Step 3: Find Rth = equivalent resistance at A-B after replacing all independent sources.
• Step 4: Draw equivalent: Vth in series with Rth, reconnect RL.
• Step 5: Load current IL = Vth / (Rth + RL)

2.5 Norton's Theorem

Statement:
Any linear two-terminal network can be replaced by a single current source IN (Norton current) in
parallel with a single resistance RN (Norton resistance).
Diagram:
Norton Equivalent:
A(+)
|
+------+--------+
| |
[IN](up) [RN] [RL]
| |
+------+--------+
|
B(-)
Note: RN = Rth, IN = Vth/Rth

Thevenin Norton
Voltage source in series with Rth Current source in parallel with RN
Find open circuit voltage Vth Find short circuit current IN
Better for series circuits Better for parallel circuits

2.6 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Statement:
Maximum power is transferred from source to load when: RL = Rth
Proof:
I = Vth/(Rth+RL), Power P = I^2 * RL = [Vth/(Rth+RL)]^2 * RL
Differentiating dP/dRL = 0 gives: Rth = RL [Proved]
Maximum Power:
Pmax = Vth^2 / (4 * Rth)
Efficiency at maximum power transfer = 50%
Applications:
• Audio systems - matching speaker impedance to amplifier.
• Radio transmitters - antenna matching.
• Communication circuits.

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2.7 Series LCR Resonance

Diagram:
+---[R]---[L]---[C]---+
| |
[AC Source] |
| |
+----------------------+
Impedance:
Z = sqrt[R^2 + (XL - XC)^2] where XL = 2*pi*f*L, XC = 1/(2*pi*f*C)
Resonance Condition (XL = XC):
Resonant Frequency: f0 = 1 / [2*pi*sqrt(LC)]
At Resonance:
• Z = R (minimum impedance)
• Current is maximum: I = V/R
• Power factor = 1 (purely resistive)
• Voltage across L and C are equal and opposite
Quality Factor: Q = (1/R)*sqrt(L/C)

2.8 Parallel LCR Resonance

Diagram:
+---[R]---+
| |
AC---+---[L]---+---
| |
+---[C]---+
At Resonance in Parallel LCR:
• Same resonant frequency: f0 = 1/[2*pi*sqrt(LC)]
• Impedance is MAXIMUM (acts as open circuit).
• Current from source is MINIMUM.
• Also called TANK CIRCUIT.

Property Series LCR Parallel LCR

Impedance at Minimum (= R) Maximum
resonance
Current Maximum Minimum
Acts as Short circuit Open circuit
Application Series tuning Tank circuit

2.9 Filters
A filter allows certain frequencies to pass while blocking others.

Low Pass Filter (LPF)

Allows low frequencies, blocks high frequencies. Cut-off frequency: fc = 1/(2*pi*RC)
Diagram:
Input ---[R]---+--- Output
|

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[C]
|
GND

High Pass Filter (HPF)

Allows high frequencies, blocks low frequencies. Cut-off frequency: fc = 1/(2*pi*RC)
Diagram:
Input ---[C]---+--- Output
|
[R]
|
GND

Band Pass Filter (BPF)

Allows only a specific band (f1 to f2). Blocks below f1 and above f2. Bandwidth = f2 - f1
Input ---[HPF]---[LPF]--- Output

Band Reject Filter (BRF) / Notch Filter

Blocks a specific band, passes all others. Opposite of BPF. Also called Band Stop or Notch Filter.
+---[LPF]---+
Input ----| |---- Output
+---[HPF]---+

Filter Passes Blocks Application

Low Pass (LPF) Low frequencies High frequencies Power supply smoothing, audio
High Pass (HPF) High frequencies Low frequencies Removing DC offset, treble control
Band Pass (BPF) f1 to f2 band Below f1 and above Radio tuning, equalizers
f2
Band Reject (BRF) Below f1 and f1 to f2 band Eliminating 50Hz hum, noise
above f2 removal

2.10 PN Junction Diode

Definition:
Formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors. Creates depletion region with built-in
potential barrier (0.7V for Si, 0.3V for Ge).
Diagram:
P-type | Depletion | N-type
(holes) | Region | (electrons)
| |
Anode(+) Cathode(-)
Biasing:
• Forward Bias: P connected to +, N to -. Depletion region narrows, current flows.
• Reverse Bias: P connected to -, N to +. Depletion region widens, only leakage current.
Applications:
• Rectification, signal demodulation, voltage clamping, switching, protection circuits.

2.11 Zener Diode

Definition:

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Specially designed PN junction diode operated in reverse bias. Breaks down precisely at Zener
voltage (Vz). Voltage remains constant at Vz regardless of current (within limits).
Symbol:
Anode ---[>|--- Cathode
Z (Z-shaped cathode bar)
Working:
In reverse bias at Vz, strong electric field causes Zener effect (tunneling) or Avalanche effect,
allowing large reverse current while voltage stays constant at Vz.
Applications:
• Voltage regulator (most important use)
• Overvoltage protection, reference voltage source, clipping circuits

2.12 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Working Principle (Electroluminescence):
When forward biased, electrons from N-side recombine with holes in P-side. During recombination,
electrons release energy as photons (light). Colour depends on semiconductor material used.
Symbol:
Anode ---[>|--> (arrows = light emission)
Colour vs Material:
• Red: Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP)
• Green: Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
• Blue: Gallium Nitride (GaN)
• White: Blue LED + phosphor coating
Advantages:
• Very low power, long life (50,000+ hours), fast switching, multiple colours.

2.13 Photodiode
Working Principle:
Operated in reverse bias. Photons falling on depletion region create electron-hole pairs. These are
swept across junction creating photocurrent proportional to light intensity.
Symbol:
Anode ---[|<]--- Cathode
^^ (arrows pointing in = light input)
Applications:
• Optical communication, light meters, smoke detectors, barcode scanners, remote controls.

2.14 Opto-Isolator (Optocoupler)

Definition:
Transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits using light, providing complete electrical
isolation.
Diagram:
Input Side | Output Side
(LED) | (Photodetector)
Input --[LED]-->-->-->[Photodetector]-- Output
Light |
Electrical Isolation
Applications:

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• Isolating microcontrollers from high voltage circuits, digital communication between different
voltage levels, medical equipment safety.

2.15 Clipping Circuits

Definition:
Removes (clips) a portion of the input waveform above or below a certain reference level without
distorting the remaining part.
Types:
• Positive Clipper: Clips positive peaks above reference voltage.
• Negative Clipper: Clips negative peaks below reference voltage.
• Double Clipper: Clips both positive and negative portions.
Waveform:
Input: /\/\/\ Output (Positive Clipper): _/\_/\_
Applications:
• Waveform shaping, noise limiters, TV sync pulse separation, protection circuits.

2.16 Clamping Circuits

Definition:
Shifts the entire waveform up or down by adding a DC component without changing shape or
amplitude. Also called DC restorer.
Diagram:
Input ---[C]---+--- Output
|
[D] (diode)
|
GND
Waveform:
Input: /\/\/\ (centred at 0)
Output: /\/\/\ (shifted up - bottom at 0)

Clipper Clamper
Removes part of waveform Shifts entire waveform
Changes amplitude Does not change amplitude
No capacitor required Capacitor is essential
Waveform shape changes Waveform shape preserved

UNIT 2 - PYQ QUESTIONS

2025: Q3(a) Explain Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and its applications.

2025: Q3(b) State and prove Superposition, Thevenin's, and Norton's Theorem.

2025: Q4(a) Analyze working principles of series and parallel LCR resonance circuits.

2025: Q4(b) Describe working principles of low-pass, band-pass, and band-reject filters.

2024: Q1(b) Discuss Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws.

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2024: Q2(a) Differentiate low pass and high pass filters.

2024: Q2(b) Discuss the parallel LCR resonance circuits.

2023: Q3. State and prove Thevenin's theorem. Main difference between Thevenin's and Norton's.

2023: Q4(a) What is a filter? Differentiate LPF, HPF, BPF, BRF.

2023: Q4(b) Explain mechanism of light emission in LED.

2022: Q2(a) Explain clipping and clamping circuits.

2022: Q2(b) Discuss Thevenin's Theorem.

2022: Q6(a) Application areas of PN junction diodes.

2022: Q6(b) Explain photodiode, LED and Zener diode.

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UNIT 3: BJTs AND AMPLIFIERS

3.1 Introduction to Transistor
Definition:
A BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) is a three-terminal active semiconductor device using both
electrons and holes as charge carriers. Three terminals: Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C).

3.2 NPN and PNP Transistors

NPN Transistor (N-P-N):
Current flows from Collector to Emitter. Electrons are majority carriers. Arrow on emitter points
OUTWARD.
PNP Transistor (P-N-P):
Current flows from Emitter to Collector. Holes are majority carriers. Arrow on emitter points
INWARD.
Symbols:
NPN: PNP:
C C
| |
B --+--> B--+--<
| |
E E
(arrow out) (arrow in)
Why base is thin and lightly doped:
Base is made thin so electrons (in NPN) injected from emitter can reach collector without
recombining. If thick, electrons would recombine reducing collector current. Base is lightly doped so
very few holes are available for recombination, ensuring maximum carrier transfer from emitter to
collector giving high current gain.

3.3 BJT Characteristics

Input Characteristics (IB vs VBE):
IB(uA)
| /
| /
| /
| /
|____/________________
0 0.3V 0.7V VBE
(Ge) (Si)
Output Characteristics (IC vs VCE):
IC(mA)
| IB3=60uA ___________
| IB2=40uA ___________
| IB1=20uA ___________
| IB=0 ___________ (ICEO leakage)
|___________________________
0 |Saturation| Active | VCE
Three Operating Regions:
• Active Region: Emitter forward biased, Collector reverse biased. IC depends on IB. Used for
AMPLIFICATION.

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• Saturation Region: Both junctions forward biased. VCE very small (~0.2V). Used as
CLOSED SWITCH.
• Cut-off Region: Both junctions reverse biased. IB=0, IC~0. Used as OPEN SWITCH.
Current Relationships:
IE = IB + IC IC = beta * IB alpha = IC/IE (0.95-0.99) beta = alpha/(1-alpha)

3.4 BJT Configurations

Common Base (CB)
Base is common. Input: Emitter-Base. Output: Collector-Base. Current gain alpha < 1. High voltage
gain. Very low input impedance. Very high output impedance. Phase shift: 0 degrees. Used in RF
circuits.

Common Emitter (CE)

Emitter is common. Input: Base-Emitter. Output: Collector-Emitter. Current gain beta = 50-300
(HIGHEST). High voltage gain. Medium impedance. Phase shift: 180 degrees. Most widely used for
amplifiers.
CE Diagram:
+VCC
|
[RC]
|------------ Output
C
B ---+ (NPN Transistor)
E
|
GND

Common Collector (CC) / Emitter Follower

Collector is common. Input: Base-Collector. Output: Emitter-Collector. Current gain = beta+1.
Voltage gain < 1 (approximately 1). Very high input impedance. Very low output impedance. Phase
shift: 0 degrees. Used for impedance matching and buffers.

Parameter Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Current gain < 1 (alpha) High (beta) High (beta+1)
Voltage gain High High <1
Input impedance Very Low Medium Very High
Output impedance Very High Medium Very Low
Phase shift 0 degrees 180 degrees 0 degrees
Main use RF/HF circuits Amplifiers Buffer/Impedance match

3.5 Biasing
Definition:
Applying proper DC voltages to transistor terminals to establish correct Q-point (operating point) in
the active region for faithful amplification.

3.6 DC Load Line and Q-Point

Load Line Equation:

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

From KVL: VCC = IC*RC + VCE => IC = (VCC - VCE)/RC

Point A (when IC=0): VCE = VCC. Point B (when VCE=0): IC = VCC/RC
Diagram:
IC
|
B + VCC/RC
| \
| \ <-- Load Line
| Q <-- Q-point (Operating Point)
| \
+------+---- VCE
0 A=VCC
Q-Point:
Intersection of DC load line with BJT output characteristic for given IB. Ideal Q-point = middle of
load line for maximum signal swing without distortion.

3.7 Types of Biasing

Fixed Bias
+VCC
|
[RB]
|
B---[Transistor]---C---[RC]---+VCC
E
|
GND
IB = (VCC - VBE)/RB. Simple but very unstable - Q-point shifts with temperature.

Voltage Divider Bias (Most Stable)

+VCC
|
[R1]---+---[RC]---+VCC
| |
[R2] B---[NPN]---C
| E---[RE]---GND
GND
VB = VCC * R2/(R1+R2). Most stable because RE provides automatic negative feedback: if IC rises
-> VE rises -> VBE decreases -> IB decreases -> IC comes back down.
• Fixed Bias: Simple, very unstable.
• Collector-to-Base Bias: More stable than fixed bias, but feedback reduces gain.
• Voltage Divider Bias: Most stable, most commonly used in practical circuits.

3.8 Amplifiers - Important Terms

Voltage Gain: Av = Vout / Vin
In dB: Av(dB) = 20 log(Vout/Vin)
Current Gain: Ai = Io / Ii
For CE: Ai = beta
Power Gain: Ap = Po / Pi = Av x Ai
In dB: Ap(dB) = 10 log(Po/Pi)
Input Impedance (Zi):
Zi = Vi/Ii. High input impedance desired so amplifier does not load signal source.

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

Output Impedance (Zo):

Low output impedance desired so amplifier can drive loads without voltage drop.
Bandwidth:
BW = f2 - f1. Range between lower (f1) and upper (f2) cutoff frequencies where gain does not fall
below 70.7% (-3dB).
Bandwidth Diagram:
Gain
| _______________
| / \
0.707x--| |--
| / \
|__/_____________________|____
0 f1 Mid-band f2 Frequency

3.9 Classification of Amplifiers

By Frequency Response:
• Audio Frequency (AF): 20Hz-20KHz. Radio receivers, PA systems.
• Radio Frequency (RF): Above 20KHz (MHz range). Radio/TV transmitters.
• Intermediate Frequency (IF): Fixed frequency (455KHz AM, 10.7MHz FM).
• Video Frequency: DC to several MHz. TV and video equipment.
• Wideband (Broadband): Very wide range. Oscilloscopes.
• DC Amplifiers: From zero (DC) to upper limit. Op-Amps.
By Operating Point (Biasing Class):
• Class A: Conducts 360 degrees. Highest linearity. Efficiency 25-30%. Low distortion audio.
• Class B: Conducts 180 degrees. Efficiency ~78.5%. Push-pull amplifiers.
• Class AB: Conducts slightly more than 180 degrees. Best compromise. Most audio power
amplifiers.
• Class C: Conducts less than 180 degrees. Efficiency >80%. RF power amplifiers.
Why RC Coupled Amplifiers are Most Used:
• Coupling capacitor blocks DC while passing AC - prevents DC bias of one stage affecting
next.
• Low cost - capacitors and resistors are cheap.
• Good frequency response over audio range.
• Simple design, easy to construct, compact - no bulky transformers.
• Multiple stages can be cascaded easily.

UNIT 3 - PYQ QUESTIONS

2025: Q5(a) Explain characteristics of BJTs and basic configurations (CE, CB, CC).

2025: Q5(b) Describe concept of operating point, load line, and biasing for stabilization.

2024: Q3(a) Elaborate the BJT characteristics.

2024: Q3(b) Explain different terms used with amplifiers.

2023: Q5(a) Draw NPN and PNP transistor symbols. Why is base thin and lightly doped?

2023: Q5(b) Classification of amplifiers by frequency response. Why RC coupled mostly used?

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

2022: Q3(a) What is output voltage and current gain?

2022: Q3(b) Describe the various types of biasing in BJTs.

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

UNIT 4: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER, OSCILLATORS &

MULTIVIBRATORS
4.1 Introduction to Op-Amp
Definition:
An Op-Amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential amplifier with very high input impedance, very
low output impedance, and very high voltage gain. Called 'operational' because it performs
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation). Most common IC: 741
(uA741).

4.2 Op-Amp - Black Box Concept

Diagram:
+VCC (Positive supply)
|
Inverting input (-)---+ +--- Output (Vout)
| OP-AMP |
Non-inverting input(+)+----------+
|
-VCC (Negative supply)
Output Formula:
Vout = A x (V+ - V-) where A = open loop gain (100,000 to 1,000,000)
Ideal vs Practical Op-Amp:

Parameter Ideal Value Practical (741)

Open loop voltage gain (A) Infinite 2 x 10^5
Input impedance (Zi) Infinite 2 MOhm
Output impedance (Zo) Zero 75 Ohm
Bandwidth Infinite 1 MHz
CMRR Infinite 90 dB
Input offset voltage Zero ~2 mV

4.3 Inverting Amplifier

Diagram:
Rf (feedback)
+----------[Rf]-----------+
| |
Vin--[R1]--(-)\ |
>----+---- Vout
(+)/ |
| Rf
GND
Voltage Gain:
Av = Vout/Vin = -Rf/R1
Negative sign indicates 180 degrees phase inversion.
Example: R1=1K, Rf=10K => Av = -10 (gain of 10 with inversion)

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

4.4 Non-Inverting Amplifier

Diagram:
Vin -----(+)\
>----- Vout
+--(-)/
|
[Rf]
|
[R1]
|
GND
Voltage Gain:
Av = Vout/Vin = 1 + Rf/R1 (always positive, always >= 1, no phase inversion)
Special case - Voltage Follower: Av = 1 (Rf=0, R1=infinity). Used for impedance matching.

4.5 Summing Amplifier

Diagram:
V1 ---[R1]---+
|
V2 ---[R2]---+--(-)\
| >---- Vout
V3 ---[R3]---+ (+)/
[Rf in feedback]
Output Formula:
Vout = -Rf * (V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3)
If all R equal: Vout = -(V1 + V2 + V3)
Application:
• Audio mixers, Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC).

4.6 Difference Amplifier

Output Formula (all R equal):
Vout = V2 - V1
Application:
• Differential measurements, instrumentation amplifiers, removing common mode noise.

4.7 Comparator
Definition:
Compares two input voltages and produces digital output (HIGH or LOW) indicating which is larger.
Diagram:
V1 ---(-)\
>---- Vout (HIGH or LOW)
Vref--(+)/
Working:
• If V1 > Vref: Output = -Vsat (negative saturation)
• If V1 < Vref: Output = +Vsat (positive saturation)
Waveform Conversion:
Input (Sine): /\/\/\ Output: |--|__|--| (Square wave)
Applications:

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

• Zero crossing detector, waveform shaping (sine to square), voltage level detector, ADC.

4.8 Linear Integrator

Definition:
Produces output proportional to the time integral of input. Uses capacitor in feedback.
Diagram:
C (feedback capacitor)
+----||----+
| |
| (-)\ |
Vin-[R]-+ >+---- Vout
| (+)/
| |
GND GND
Output Formula:
Vout = -(1/RC) * Integral(Vin dt)
For constant input Vin: Vout = -(Vin/RC) * t (a ramp / linearly changing voltage)
Waveform Conversions:
Square input --> Triangular output
Sine input --> Cosine output (90 degree phase shift)
Applications:
• Waveform generators (square to triangular), analog computers, PID controllers, signal
processing.

4.9 Oscillators
Definition:
An electronic circuit that produces a periodic output signal without any external input. Converts DC
power into AC output. Self-sustaining signal generator.

Principle - Positive Feedback

+--------[Amplifier (A)]--------+
| |
+--[Feedback Network (beta)]----+
(returns output back in phase)

Barkhausen Criterion
Condition 1: |A x beta| = 1 (loop gain = 1)
Condition 2: Total phase shift around loop = 0 degrees or 360 degrees
Amplifier provides 180 degrees + Feedback network provides 180 degrees = 360 degrees total
Importance:
• If |A*beta| < 1: Oscillations die out (damped).
• If |A*beta| = 1: Sustained, constant amplitude oscillations.
• If |A*beta| > 1: Oscillations grow and clip (distorted).

Phase Shift Oscillator

Three RC networks each providing 60 degrees phase shift. Total = 180 degrees. Amplifier provides
another 180 degrees. Total = 360 degrees (Barkhausen satisfied).
Frequency: f = 1 / (2*pi*sqrt(6)*RC)
Diagram:
Amplifier Output ---[C]-[R]---[C]-[R]---[C]-[R]--- Amplifier Input

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU
(60deg)(60deg)(60deg) = 180 deg phase shift

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Uses Wien Bridge network (series RC + parallel RC). Op-Amp gain = 3 (Rf = 2R1).
Frequency: f = 1 / (2*pi*RC)
Diagram:
Wien Bridge Network:
Series arm: ---[R]---[C]---
Parallel arm: [R]
||
[C]
Produces very pure, low distortion sine wave. Frequency easily adjustable. Used in audio signal
generators.

Crystal Oscillator
Uses piezoelectric property of quartz crystal. Crystal vibrates at extremely stable natural resonant
frequency.
Symbol:
---| |--- (two vertical lines with box = crystal symbol)
Characteristics:
• Extremely stable frequency (accuracy +/-0.001% or better).
• Very high Q factor (10,000 to 100,000).
• Frequency range: few KHz to hundreds of MHz.
Applications:
• Clocks in computers, mobile phones, GPS, wristwatches.

4.10 Multivibrators
A switching circuit using positive feedback that produces square wave or pulse outputs. Has two
states and switches between them.

Astable Multivibrator (Free-Running)

Definition:
No stable state. Continuously and automatically switches between two quasi-stable states.
Produces continuous square wave. No external trigger needed.
Output Waveform:
Vout
| |‾‾‾| |‾‾‾| |‾‾‾|
| | | | | | |
|__| |___| |___| |___
<--T--> (continuously repeating)
Applications:
• Clock signal generator, LED flasher/blinker, tone generator, square wave source.

Monostable Multivibrator (One-Shot)

Definition:
ONE stable state. Remains stable until external trigger received. On trigger, switches to quasi-stable
state for fixed time T, then automatically returns to stable state.
Output Waveform:
Trigger: ___|‾|_______________
Output: ___|‾‾‾‾‾‾|_________
|<--T-->| (fixed pulse width)

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Pulse Width: T = 1.1 x RC (for 555 timer based monostable)

Applications:
• Generating precise duration pulses, debouncing switches, timer circuits, missing pulse
detector.

Bistable Multivibrator (Flip-Flop)

Definition:
TWO stable states. Remains in either state indefinitely until external trigger forces switching. Has
MEMORY - remembers last state.
Output Waveform:
Set: ___|‾|_______________________
Reset: ________________|‾|__________
Output: ___|‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾|____________
LOW->HIGH HIGH->LOW
Applications:
• Memory elements in computers, registers, counters, toggle switches, frequency divider
(divides by 2).

Feature Astable Monostable Bistable

Stable states 0 (none) 1 2
Trigger needed No (self-triggering) Yes (one trigger) Yes (two triggers)
Output Continuous square Single pulse of fixed Stays in last state
wave width
Also called Free-running One-shot Flip-flop
Memory No No Yes
Application Clock/oscillator Timer/pulse generator Memory/counter

UNIT 4 - PYQ QUESTIONS

2025: Q6(a) Explain basic idea of OP-AMP using black box concept.

2025: Q6(b) Describe operation of comparators and linear integrators using OP-AMPs.

2024: Q4(i) OP-AMP.

2024: Q4(ii) Summing and Difference Amplifier.

2024: Q5(a) Explain working principle of Oscillator.

2024: Q5(b) How multivibrators work?

2023: Q6(a) Explain Barkhausen criterion and its importance in oscillators.

2023: Q6(b) What is ideal Op-Amp? Explain how Op-Amp acts as difference amplifier.

2022: Q4(a) Explain basic idea of Op-Amp with black box concepts.

2022: Q4(b) What are comparator and linear integrator?

2022: Q7(b) What is monostable and bistable multivibrators?

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

Basic Electronics Notes | Complete Exam Notes 2022-2025

 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

UNIT 5: POWER SUPPLY

5.1 Introduction
Definition:
A power supply converts AC mains supply (230V, 50Hz) into steady, regulated DC voltage for
electronic circuits. All electronic components (transistors, ICs, Op-Amps, microprocessors) require
steady DC.

5.2 Block Diagram of Power Supply

Diagram:
230V AC
Mains --> [Transformer] --> [Rectifier] --> [Filter] --> [Regulator] -->
DC Out
~230V AC ~12V AC Pulsating DC Ripple DC Steady DC
Block 1 - Transformer:
Converts 230V AC to lower AC (e.g. 12V AC) using electromagnetic induction. Step-down
transformer. Provides electrical isolation from mains for safety.
Block 2 - Rectifier:
Converts AC (positive and negative) into pulsating DC (one direction only). Uses diodes. Output:
pulsating DC.
Block 3 - Filter:
Removes pulsations (ripple) from rectifier output, produces smoother DC. Uses capacitors and/or
inductors.
Block 4 - Regulator:
Maintains output voltage constant regardless of input voltage changes or load current changes.
Uses Zener diode or IC regulators (7805=+5V, 7812=+12V).

5.3 Rectifiers
Half Wave Rectifier
Circuit:
D (diode)
AC ---|>|---+---- Output (+)
~ |
[RL]
|
AC ---------+---- GND
Working:
• Positive half cycle: Diode forward biased, conducts, output = positive.
• Negative half cycle: Diode reverse biased, blocked, output = zero.
Key Formulas:
Vdc = Vp/pi = 0.318 x Vp Vrms = Vp/2 = 0.5 x Vp
Ripple frequency = 50Hz Ripple factor = 1.21 (very high)
Efficiency = 40.6% PIV = Vp

Full Wave Rectifier (Centre Tap)

Circuit:
D1 (top)

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU
+---|>|---+
| |
[T] [RL]---- Output
| |
+---|>|---+
D2 (bottom)
(Centre tap connected to GND)
Key Formulas:
Vdc = 2Vp/pi = 0.636 x Vp Vrms = Vp/sqrt(2) = 0.707 x Vp
Ripple frequency = 100Hz Ripple factor = 0.48
Efficiency = 81.2% PIV = 2Vp

Bridge Rectifier
Circuit:
D1 D3
+---|>|---B---|>|---+
| |
AC --A C-- (+) Output
~ | |
+---|<|---B---|<|---+
D2 D4
|
GND (-) Output
Current Paths:
Positive cycle: AC(+) -> D1 -> Load -> D2 -> AC(-)
Negative cycle: AC(-) -> D3 -> Load -> D4 -> AC(+)
Current through load is always in same direction.
Key Formulas:
Vdc = 0.636 x (Vp - 1.4V) Vrms = 0.707 x Vp
Ripple frequency = 100Hz Ripple factor = 0.48
Efficiency = 81.2% PIV = Vp

Parameter Half Wave Full Wave (CT) Bridge

No. of diodes 1 2 4
Vdc 0.318Vp 0.636Vp 0.636Vp
Ripple factor 1.21 0.48 0.48
Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Ripple frequency 50Hz 100Hz 100Hz
PIV Vp 2Vp Vp
Transformer Simple Centre-tap needed Simple

5.4 Filters
Capacitor Filter (most common):
Rectifier output ---+------- DC Output (+)
|
[C] (large electrolytic)
|
GND ----------------+------- DC Output (-)

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

Capacitor charges to peak voltage, then discharges through load maintaining voltage. Larger C =
less ripple.
Types of Filters:
• Capacitor Filter (C): Capacitor in parallel with load. Simple and widely used.
• Inductor Filter (L): Inductor in series with load. Opposes current changes.
• LC Filter: Inductor + Capacitor. Better than either alone.
• Pi (CLC) Filter: C-L-C combination. Best ripple rejection.

5.5 Voltage Regulators

Zener Voltage Regulator
Circuit:
Vin ---[Rs]---+------- Vout = Vz (constant)
|
[Zener D] (reverse bias)
| [RL in parallel
GND -----------+ with Zener]
Working:
Zener in reverse bias parallel with load. Voltage across Zener = Vz = constant (regardless of current
within limits).
Regulation against load changes:
• If RL decreases -> load current increases -> Zener current decreases -> Vout stays at Vz.
• If RL increases -> load current decreases -> Zener current increases -> Vout stays at Vz.
Design Formula:
Rs = (Vin - Vz) / (Iz + IL) where IL = Vz/RL
Limitations:
• Low output current capacity.
• Power wasted as heat in Rs and Zener.
• Not suitable for large load current variations.

Series Voltage Regulator

Circuit:
Vin ---[Q1 Pass Transistor]--- Vout
|
[Error Amplifier]
|
[Zener Reference Vz]
|
GND
Working:
Pass transistor Q1 in series between input and output. Error amplifier compares Vout with Vz
reference. Automatically varies Q1 resistance to maintain constant Vout.
• If Vout rises: Q1 resistance increases -> more drop across Q1 -> Vout comes down.
• If Vout falls: Q1 resistance decreases -> less drop across Q1 -> Vout rises.

Shunt Voltage Regulator

Circuit:
Vin ---[Rs]---+------- Vout
|
[Q1] (shunt - parallel with load)
|

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU
[RL]
|
GND -----------+------- GND
Working:
Control transistor in parallel with load. If Vout rises, Q1 conducts more, more drop across Rs, Vout
pulled down.

Feature Series Regulator Shunt Regulator

Control element position Series with load Parallel with load
Efficiency Higher Lower
Short circuit protection Poor Good (Rs limits current)
Load current capacity High Limited
Common use General purpose Low power / reference

IC Voltage Regulators (78XX / 79XX)

78XX = Positive regulators: 7805=+5V, 7809=+9V, 7812=+12V, 7815=+15V
79XX = Negative regulators: 7905=-5V, 7912=-12V
Circuit (7805 example):
[7805 IC]
Vin --[IN OUT]-- +5V output
[ GND ]
|
GND
Built-in current limiting and thermal shutdown for protection.

5.6 Short Circuit Protection

Methods:
• Fuse: Wire that melts and breaks circuit when excess current flows.
• Current Limiting: Senses output current, reduces output voltage if limit exceeded.
• Foldback Current Limiting: Advanced - output current further reduced on short circuit.
• Thermal Shutdown: Built into IC regulators - shuts down when junction temperature exceeds
150 degrees C.
• Crowbar Circuit: SCR short circuits input to blow fuse when output voltage goes dangerously
high.

5.7 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Definition:
SMPS uses high-frequency switching of transistors (MOSFETs/IGBTs) along with inductors and
capacitors to convert electrical power with very high efficiency (75-95%). Unlike linear regulators
which waste excess power as heat, SMPS stores energy and transfers it efficiently.
Operating Principle - Block Diagram:
230V AC --> [Rectifier/Filter] --> [High-freq Switch] --> [HF Transformer] -->
[Output Rect/Filter] --> DC Out
Mains (to ~320V DC) (PWM control) (small, light)
|
^
|
[Feedback/Control Circuit] <--- monitors Vout
<--------------------+

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

Step by Step Working:

• Step 1 - Input Stage: AC mains rectified to high DC (~320V DC).
• Step 2 - Switching Stage: High DC fed to MOSFET switching at 20KHz-1MHz creating high-
frequency AC.
• Step 3 - HF Transformer: High-frequency AC fed to small lightweight transformer (small size
due to high frequency).
• Step 4 - Output Stage: Transformer output rectified and filtered to give desired DC output.
• Step 5 - Feedback/PWM: Feedback circuit monitors Vout and controls duty cycle (ON
time/Total time). Vout drops -> duty cycle increases. Vout rises -> duty cycle decreases.
PWM Explanation:
High duty cycle: |‾‾‾‾‾|_| --> More energy --> Higher Vout
Low duty cycle: |‾|___| --> Less energy --> Lower Vout

SMPS Topologies
1. Buck Converter (Step-Down):
Output voltage LESS THAN input voltage.
Vin ---[Switch S]---[L]---+--- Vout (lower)
| |
[D](diode) [C]
| |
GND -----------+-----------+--- GND
Vout = D x Vin (D = duty cycle = ton/T, between 0 and 1)
Example: Vin=12V, D=0.5 => Vout=6V
• Applications: Laptop chargers, CPU power supplies, battery chargers.
2. Boost Converter (Step-Up):
Output voltage GREATER THAN input voltage.
[L]
Vin ---+---[Switch S]---GND
|
+---[D]---+--- Vout (higher)
|
[C]
|
GND -------------+--- GND
Vout = Vin / (1 - D)
Example: Vin=5V, D=0.5 => Vout=5/(1-0.5)=10V
• Applications: Battery-powered devices (3.7V Li-Ion to 5V USB), LED drivers, UPS.
3. Flyback Converter (Isolated):
Most common topology for mains-connected (offline) power supplies. Provides electrical isolation
via transformer.
High DC ---[Switch]---[Primary winding]---+
(~320V) | [coupled inductor/ |
GND transformer] |
[Secondary winding]--[Diode]--+-- Vout
| |
[Feedback/PWM] [C]
^ |
+-------monitors Vout----+
Energy stored in transformer core when switch is ON. Released to secondary when switch is OFF.
• Provides isolation (safety from 230V mains).
• Multiple output voltages from single transformer.

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

• Applications: Mobile chargers, laptop adapters, computer SMPS, set-top boxes.

Feature SMPS Linear Power Supply

Efficiency Very high (75-95%) Low (30-60%)
Size and weight Small and light Large and heavy
Heat generation Very low High
Input voltage range Wide range accepted Narrow range
Output ripple/noise Higher (switching noise) Lower
Complexity Complex Simple
Cost Higher Lower

UNIT 5 - PYQ QUESTIONS

2025: Q7(a) Explain basic block diagram of power supply including transformer, rectifier, filter and
regulator.

2025: Q7(b) Analyze different types of SMPS topologies (buck, boost, flyback) and their
characteristics.

2024: Q6(a) Draw and explain basic block diagram of a power supply transformer.

2024: Q6(b) Describe rectifier, regulator and bridge rectifier.

2024: Q7(a) What is Zener regulator? Discuss.

2024: Q7(b) Explain operating principle of SMPS.

2023: Q7(i) Bridge rectifier.

2023: Q7(ii) Zener regulator.

2023: Q7(iii) Switched mode power supply.

2022: Q5(a) Explain power supply transformer with block diagrams.

2022: Q5(b) Define switched mode power supply.

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

QUICK REVISION SUMMARY

Key formulas, definitions, and facts for last-minute revision before the exam.

Unit 1 - Key Formulas & Facts

• Ohm's Law: V = IR
• RC Time Constant: tau = RC (63.2% charge / 36.8% discharge)
• RL Time Constant: tau = L/R (63% rise / 37% decay)
• Capacitor charge: Vc(t) = V(1 - e^(-t/RC))
• Inductor current growth: i(t) = (V/R)(1 - e^(-Rt/L))
• Transformer turns ratio: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
• CRO measures: voltage, frequency, phase, waveform shape
• Resistor colour code: BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife

Unit 2 - Key Formulas & Facts

• KCL: Sum of currents at node = 0
• KVL: Sum of voltages in loop = 0
• Thevenin: Replace circuit with Vth in series with Rth
• Norton: Replace circuit with IN in parallel with RN
• Max Power Transfer: RL = Rth, Pmax = Vth^2 / (4*Rth)
• Series LCR resonance: f0 = 1/(2*pi*sqrt(LC)), Z = R (min)
• Parallel LCR resonance: Z = maximum (tank circuit)
• LPF/HPF cutoff: fc = 1/(2*pi*RC)
• LED: Electroluminescence - electron-hole recombination emits light
• Zener: Constant voltage in reverse breakdown = voltage regulator

Unit 3 - Key Formulas & Facts

• BJT currents: IE = IB + IC
• Current gain: beta = IC/IB, alpha = IC/IE, beta = alpha/(1-alpha)
• Load line: IC = (VCC - VCE)/RC
• Voltage Gain: Av = Vout/Vin (dB = 20 log Av)
• Power Gain: Ap = Av x Ai (dB = 10 log Ap)
• Bandwidth: BW = f2 - f1 (-3dB points)
• CE: highest current gain (beta), 180 degrees phase shift, most used
• CB: alpha < 1, highest frequency, lowest input impedance
• CC: voltage gain < 1, highest input impedance, impedance matching

Unit 4 - Key Formulas & Facts

• Op-Amp output: Vout = A(V+ - V-)
• Inverting amplifier gain: Av = -Rf/R1
• Non-inverting amplifier gain: Av = 1 + Rf/R1
• Integrator output: Vout = -(1/RC) * Integral(Vin dt)
• Barkhausen Criterion: |A*beta| = 1 AND phase shift = 0/360 degrees
• Phase Shift Oscillator: f = 1/(2*pi*sqrt(6)*RC)
• Wien Bridge Oscillator: f = 1/(2*pi*RC), Av = 3

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 Basic Electronics (Paper 3.1) | BSc CS Part I | MJPRU

• Astable: 0 stable states, free-running, continuous square wave

• Monostable: 1 stable state, triggered, T = 1.1*RC (555 timer)
• Bistable: 2 stable states, flip-flop, memory element

Unit 5 - Key Formulas & Facts

• Half wave Vdc = 0.318*Vp, efficiency = 40.6%, ripple = 1.21
• Full wave Vdc = 0.636*Vp, efficiency = 81.2%, ripple = 0.48
• Bridge rectifier: 4 diodes, PIV = Vp, same as full wave performance
• Zener regulator: Rs = (Vin - Vz)/(Iz + IL)
• Max Power Transfer condition: RL = Rth
• Buck SMPS: Vout = D*Vin (step-down)
• Boost SMPS: Vout = Vin/(1-D) (step-up)
• SMPS efficiency: 75-95% vs linear 30-60%
• IC regulators: 7805=+5V, 7812=+12V, 7905=-5V, 7912=-12V

Most Important Topics from PYQ Analysis

Unit Most Repeated Topics (3+ times) Important Topics (2 times)

Unit 1 RL/RC circuits & time constant, CRO, Transformer/Relay, Capacitor types
Multimeter
Unit 2 Thevenin's theorem, Filters, LCR circuits Norton's theorem, LED/Zener diode
Unit 3 BJT characteristics & configurations, Biasing Amplifier terms (gain, impedance)
Unit 4 OP-AMP, Comparator & Integrator, Oscillators Summing/Difference amp, Multivibrators
Unit 5 Power supply block diagram, Bridge rectifier, Zener regulator, Series regulator
SMPS

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Basic Electronics Notes | Complete Exam Notes 2022-2025