CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 1│

Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Learning Objectives
 Appreciate the concept of limit state design and the application of
partial factors of safety
 Determine the design forces for simple structural elements
 Appreciate the concept of load combination and envelope of
design forces

CONTENTS

1.0 Design Code and References

1.0.1 The Design Code and Scope
1.0.2 Other References

1.1 Reinforced Concrete Structure

1.2 Limit State Design
1.2.1 Limit States
1.2.2 Design Approach

1.3 Material Strength

1.3.1 Concrete
1.3.2 Reinforcing Steel
1.3.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength
1.3.4 Example – Tension Capacity of a Reinforcement Bar

1.4 Design Loads

1.4.1 Characteristic Dead Load
1.4.2 Characteristic Imposed Load
1.4.3 Design Load
1.4.4 Examples – Design Load for a Slab
1.4.5 Examples – Design Forces for a Simply-supported Beam

1.5 Load Pattern

1.5.1 Example – Loading for a 2-span Continuous Beam
1.5.2 Loading Arrangement for Design of Continuous Beam
1.5.3 Example – Design Moment and Shear Envelope

1.6 Effective Span

1.6.1 Example – Clear Span and Effective Span

Chapter 1 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.0 Design Code and References

1.0.1 The Design Code and Scope

The Hong Kong Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete – 2013
(hereinafter called HKCP-2013) published by the Buildings Department of
HKSAR is adopted in this course.

Although HKCP-2013 covers the strength of concrete up to grade 100, for

simplicity, concrete not higher than grade 45 is adopted in this course to
illustrate the basic principles of design.

1.0.2 Other References

Other design codes commonly used in Hong Kong are:

(a) BS8110: 1985 and BS8110: 1997, Structural Use of Concrete – Part 1:
Code of Practice for Design and Construction.
 The design rules of HKCP-2013 are quite similar to that of
BS8110: 1985.
 The major change in the 1997 code is that the partial safety
factor for steel reinforcement is changed from 1.15 to 1.05.
However, HKCP-2013 retains the 1.15 partial factor of safety for
steel.
 Both versions of BS8110 have been superseded by Eurocode 2
in UK and European countries.

(b) Eurocode 2 (BSEN1992-1-1:2004): Design of Concrete Structures:

General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
 It is the RC design code for UK and European countries.

(d) Structures Design Manual for Highways and Railways published by

the Highways Department of HKSAR.
 It provides specific requirements on the design of bridges and
associated structures. Eurocodes are adopted in this manual.

Chapter 1 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(e) Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads – 2011 published by
the Buildings Department of HKSAR.
 It specifies the dead loads and imposed loads for design of
buildings and street works in Hong Kong.

(f) Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Building – 2011 Part C – Fire
Resisting Construction published by the Buildings Department of
HKSAR.
 It specifies the minimum size of structural elements and the
minimum concrete cover to reinforcement bars for specified fire
resisting construction of building.

Chapter 1 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.1 Reinforced Concrete Structure

Reinforced concrete (R.C.) is commonly referred to concrete embedded with

steel bars 1. The beauty of R.C. is the perfect complementary of these two
materials. The relatively poor tensile strength and ductility of concrete are
improved by the inclusion of steel bars while the relatively vulnerable to
corrosion and fire damage of steel are protected by concrete cover,
rendering the composite one of the most versatile construction materials.
The following figure shows a typical R. C. beam and how it behaves under
loads.

Elevation of a Concrete Beam under Load

X
Elevation of the Reinforcement

Section X-X

Figure 1.1 – Cracking Pattern and Reinforcement Details

of an R.C. Beam

1 Reinforcement can also be provided in other forms, e.g. welded fabric wire mesh, plates, etc. This course
focuses on the design using steel bars.

Chapter 1 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The main features in the design of reinforced concrete are:

a. Reinforcement bars (rebars) are designed to take up the tensile stress

in the structural element. Tensile stress is induced by structural action,
like direction tension, bending, shear, torsion and also by shrinkage,
temperature effect, etc. Rebars are designed and positioned in the
tension zone of the structural elements to resist the tensile stress.
Concrete is assumed not to take up any tensile stress.

b. Rebars are used to prevent brittle failure of concrete, or, in other

words, it provides ductility to the concrete structure. It is undesirable
for a structure to collapse suddenly without excessive deformation.
The ability of a structure to undergo "plastic deformation", i.e. large
deformation without actual breakage, (i) allows the structure to
re-distribute its internal forces, (ii) dissipates the energy of the
external force and (iii) gives warning for the occupants to escape
before failure. Ductility is an important requirement in structural
design.

c. Rebars may be used to improve the compressive strength of concrete

element provided that the compression bars are adequately
restrained from buckling.

d. Rebars can be properly detailed to disperse cracks in concrete so as

to render them unnoticeable. It is usually accomplished by limiting the
minimum steel ratio and the maximum clear spacing of rebars near
the surface of concrete.

e. Rebars can improve the stiffness of concrete element, i.e. reduce

deflection. The elastic modulus of steel is much higher than that of
concrete and therefore its inclusion increases the sectional modulus
of the concrete element.

f. Rebars are used to tie concrete structural elements together to form a

robust structure so that it will not fall apart with its elements still
hanged together by rebars, when part of the structure is damaged by
accidental load.

Chapter 1 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

g. Rebars have to be adequately embedded in concrete for protection

from corrosion and fire; the alkaline concrete passivizes the corrosion
activities, and the low thermal conductivity of concrete insulates steel
from fire. Provide adequate concrete cover to rebars.

h. Rebars have to be provided with adequate length of interface with

concrete for effective transfer of stresses between steel and concrete
so that they can work together to take up the loads. In other words,
provide adequate bond length to rebars.

Key Words

Tensile stress
Ductility
Buckling
Cracks
Min steel ratio
Max clear bar spacing
Stiffness and deflection
Robustness
Concrete cover
Fire resistance
Corrosion
Bond length

(Identify the key words, which are

printed in italics, when you read
through the text of the teaching
notes.)

Chapter 1 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.2 Limit State Design

1.2.1 Limit States

Before the advent of limit state design, structural design is based on the
concept of permissible stress design, by which the structure is designed
such that the stresses in any parts of the structure would not exceed the
elastic limit of the materials. In other words, it aims to ensure all the
materials in the structure remain linear elastic.

However, it is found that a structure may not collapse or even can still
perform satisfactorily if certain parts of the materials in a structure have
stressed beyond the elastic limit. Hence, a more rational and realistic
assessment of the uncertainties in structural design, the Limit state design
(LSD), is advocated. It aims to ensure an acceptable probability that a
structure will perform satisfactorily during its design life. In other words, it
ensures the structure would not exceed its limit states, which are broadly
classified into two: (i) ultimate limit state (ULS) and (ii) serviceability limit
state (SLS).

Ultimate limit state (ULS) is the state when the structure collapses. It
concerns with the strength and stability of the structure.

Serviceability limit state (SLS) is the state when the structure fails to serve its
purposes. It concerns with deflection, cracking, durability, vibration, etc. of
the structure.

In design, both limit states have to be checked. For commonly encountered

building structures, the usual approach is to design for the strength under
ULS first, and then check if other limit states under SLS, e.g. deflection and
cracking, will not be exceeded. 2

1.2.2 Design Approach

2 For some special structures, the most critical limit state may not be the strength under ULS. For examples,
control of crack width dominates the design of water retaining structure; deflection dominates the design of
long-span prestressed concrete girder; settlement dominates the design of footing, etc.

Chapter 1 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Two important parameters for structural strength design are loads and
material strengths. Loads induce forces in the structure while material
strengths provide capacity for the structure to resist the forces. However, the
values of loads and strengths cannot be ascertained with definite values.
They are statistical values, and therefore their "characteristic values"
together with "safety factors" come in play in structural design.

The characteristic load (F k ) is a magnitude of load that is sufficiently larger

than the average load so that only a very low probability it will be exceeded
during the design life of the building, as illustrated in Figure 1.2 below. The
characteristic load is further multiplied by partial safety factor (γ f ) to obtain
the design load for calculating the design forces of the structural elements.

Design Load = Characteristic Load x γ f

Frequency of
occurrences Not more than 5%
of the occurrences
exceed the
characteristic load

Load
Mean load, Characteristic Design Load,
Fm load, Fk γf Fk

Figure 1.2 – Distribution Curve of Imposed Load

The characteristic strength of the material (f k ) is a value of the strength of the

material that is sufficiently lower than the mean value so that only a small
portion of the materials in the structure is expected to fall below it, as
illustrated in Figure 1.3 below. The characteristic strength is further reduced
by partial safety factor (γ m ) to arrive at the design strength for calculating the
design capacity of the member.

Chapter 1 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Strength = Characteristic Strength / γ m

Frequency Not more than 5%

of test of the test results

fall below the
results
characteristic
strength

Strength
Design Characteristic Mean
strength, fk / γm strength, fk strength, fm

Figure 1.3 – Distribution Curve of Test Results of Material Strength

Structural element is designed such that its design capacity or resistance,

which is calculated from the reduced characteristic strength of the materials,
is larger than the design forces, which is calculated from the increased
characteristic loads:

Design Capacity (f k / γ m ) > Design Force (γ f F k )

Different partial factors of safety are adopted for different types of load and
different material stresses to account for their variability and their effect on
the probability and consequence of structural failure.

The above approach is for ULS checking. On the other hands, SLS checking
in principle uses mean values instead of characteristic values and almost
always does not apply partial factor of safety (i.e. partial factor of safety for
SLS = 1.0.)

Chapter 1 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.3 Material Strength

1.3.1 Concrete

Characteristic strength of concrete is:

• 28-day cube strength
• Not more than 5% of test results will fall below it
• Denoted by f cu in N/mm2 (or MPa)
For example, Grade C40 concrete, f cu = 40 N/mm2 (or 40 MPa)

For simplicity in illustrating the basic principles of design, grade of concrete

not higher than Grade C45 is adopted in this teaching material. Higher
grade concrete requires stricter design on ductility, of which the design
formulae and detailing requirements are slightly modified, that can be found
in the design code.

As the testing condition and the shape and size of test specimen for
compressive cube test is quite different from the actual effect on the concrete
in the structure, in order to accommodate the differences, the cube strength
f cu , is modified by a coefficient for deriving the design formulae in the design
code. In the UK codes and HKCP-2013, a coefficient of 0.67 is adopted and
therefore,

Compressive strength of concrete in the structural element

= 0.67f cu

1.3.2 Reinforcing Steel

Characteristic strength of steel is:

• Yield strength 3
• Not more than 5% of test results will fall below it
• Denoted by f y in N/mm2 (or MPa)

Two specified grades of steel are used in Hong Kong as given the following

3 For certain type of steel, where a yield is not present, 0.2% proof strength is adopted.

Chapter 1 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

table 4:

Mild Steel High Tensile Steel

Grade 250 500B or 500C 5
Specified characteristic strength, f y 250 500
(N/mm2)
Appearance Plain Ribbed
Notation 6 R T

Table 1.1 – Properties of Reinforcement Bars

Preferred nominal size (mm) Nominal cross-sectional area (mm2)

(8) 50.3
10 78.5
12 113.1
16 201.1
20 314.2
25 490.9
32 804.2
40 1256.6
(50) 1963.5
Notes: Sizes in brackets are not commonly used.
For design purpose, the values of area for T12 or above are rounded to nearest 1 mm2.

Table 1.2 – Sizes of Reinforcement Bars

(Extracted from Table 2 of CS2:2012)

4 In the previous version of HKCP, there are two grades of steel, 250 and 460. HKCP-2013 retains grade 250 but
replaces 460 with 500B and 500C. Grade 250 steel is seldom used nowadays.
5 BS4449:2005 replaces grades 250 and 460 with three grades of steel, namely 500A, 500B & 500C, with the
same characteristic proof or yield strength of 500 MPa but of different levels of ductility. Grade 500B is
commonly used. Grade 500A is cold form steel with low ductility while 500C is hot rolled steel with very high
ductility.
6 The notation is according to BS4466:1989. Some engineers in Hong Kong prefer to use "Y" to denote high
yield bars. However, BS4466 has been superseded by BS8666:2005, which uses H to denote Grade 500 steel
and is further subdivided to HA, HB & HC to denote Grade 500A, 500B & 500C. It is expected the current
notation, using T and R, will be used in parallel with the new system for certain period of time.

Chapter 1 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.3.3 Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength

In estimating the capacity or resistance of a structural element, the

characteristic strengths of the material are reduced by the following partial
factors of safety (γ m ):

Material/design consideration Values of γ m for ULS

Reinforcement 1.15

Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.50

Concrete in shear strength without shear 1.25

reinforcement

Bond strength 1.40

Others (e.g. bearing stress) >= 1.50

Table 1.3 – Values of Partial Safety Factors for

Material Strength (γ m ) for ULS
(Extracted from Table 2.2 of HKCP-2013)

The partial factors of safety for material strength (γ m ) are usually

incorporated in the design formulae or design table provided in the design
code.

For SLS, γ m is generally taken as 1.0.

1.3.4 Example – Tension Capacity of a Reinforcement Bar

The design tension capacity of steel is:

T s = (f y / γ m ) A s
= (f y / 1.15) A s
= 0.87 f y A s
where A s = Cross-sectional area of reinforcement bars
or simply called steel area

Question A
Determine the design tension capacity of 2T32 rebar.

Chapter 1 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
fy = 500 MPa
Steel area, A s = 2 x 804 mm2
= 1608 mm2
Design Tension Capacity = 0.87 f y A s
= 0.87 x 500 x 1608 / 103
= 700 kN

Question B
Determine the design tension capacity of a T16-150 rebars.

Solution
(T16-150 means T16 bars at 150mm center-to-center spacing)
fy = 500 MPa
Steel area, A s = 201 / 0.15
= 1340 mm2 per meter width
Design Tension Capacity = 0.87 f y A s
= 0.87 x 500 x 1340 / 103
= 583 kN/m

?
Q.1 – Q.3

1.4 Design Loads

In general, there are three types of load:

• Dead load
• Imposed load
• Wind load.

There are other types of load, like water pressure, earth pressure,
construction load, etc. Details can be found in the relevant design codes.
For the purpose of this course, only dead and imposed loads are
considered.

Chapter 1 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.4.1 Characteristic Dead Load (G k , g k )

Dead loads are the self-weight of permanent items, e.g. structural element
itself (or called self-weight, s/w), partitions, finishes, etc.

It is usually calculated by multiplying the nominal dimensions of the element

with the density of the materials, which is usually specified in the design
code. Examples of material density are given in the table below:

Materials Density (kN/m3)

Reinforced concrete 24.5

Cement mortar 23

Natural stone (granite) 29

Soil 20

Table 1.4 – Examples of Density of Material

(Extracted from Appendix A of the
Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads – 2011)

1.4.2 Characteristic Imposed Load (Q k , q k )

Imposed load 7 arises from the usage of the building. It is highly variable and
depends on the type of occupancy. It is usually specified by the building
regulations or design code. Examples are given in the table below:

7 In the previous design codes, it is called live load. So, the abbreviation, LL, is still frequently used.

Chapter 1 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Usage q k (kPa) Q k (kN)

Domestic 2.0 2.0

Offices for general use 3.0 4.5

Department stores, shops, etc. 5.0 4.5

Table 1.5 – Examples of Imposed Load

(Extracted from Table 3.2 of the
Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads – 2011)

Either the uniformly distributed load q k (kPa) or concentrated load Q k (kN)

whichever produces the most adverse effect shall be used for design.

1.4.3 Design Load (F, w)

The design load is obtained by summation of the characteristic loads

multiplied by their corresponding partial safety factors (γ f ):

F = Σ(γ f F k )

If the structure is designed for dead and imposed loads only, the partial
safety factors for ULS are: 8

Dead Load Imposed Load

Adverse effect 1.4 1.6

Beneficial effect 1.0 0

Table 1.6 – Values of Partial Safety Factors

for Load (γ f ) for ULS
(Extracted from Table 2.1 of HKCP – 2013)

8 For simplicity, only partial safety factors for dead load and imposed load are considered in the course. There are
other partial safety factors for other loads, like wind load, earth load, fire load, etc. Details can be found in the
relevant design code.

Chapter 1 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Therefore, the maximum design load for ULS can be expressed as:

F = 1.4G k + 1.6Q k (in kN)

w = 1.4g k + 1.6q k (in kN/m or kN/m2)

For SLS, γ f is generally taken as 1.0.

1.4.4 Examples – Design Load for a Slab

Question A
Determine the design load for the following slab:
Overall slab thickness, h : 175 mm
Weight of finishes : 1.5 kPa
Usage : Offices for general use

Solution
Dead Load
Finishes : 1.50 kN/m2
Self-weight : 24.5 x 0.175 = 4.29 kN/m2
gk = 5.79 kN/m2
Imposed Load
Office for general usage: qk= 3.00 kN/m2
Design Load, w = 1.4 x 5.79 + 1.6 x 3.00
= 12.91 kN/m2

Question B
Determine the design load for the following slab:
Overall slab thickness, h : 225 mm
Finishes : 20 mm granite + 25 mm cement mortar
Usage : Department stores
Other loads : Allow 1.5 kPa for movable light-weight partitions

Chapter 1 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Dead Load
Finishes : 29 x 0.02 = 0.58 kN/m2
23 x 0.025 = 0.58 kN/m2
Self-weight : 24.5 x 0.225 = 5.51 kN/m2
gk = 6.67 kN/m2
Imposed Load
Department stores : 5.00 kN/m2
Partitions 9 : 1.50 kN/m2
qk = 6.50 kN/m2
Design Load, w = 1.4 x 6.67 + 1.6 x 6.50
= 19.74 kN/m2

?
Q.4 – Q.5

1.4.5 Examples – Design Forces for a Simply-Supported Beam

The design forces for a simply-supported beam are mainly mid-span

moment, M, and support shear, V. For simply-supported beam subjected to
uniformly distributed load (udl), their formulae are as follows:

1
Mid-span Moment, M = 0.125 F L or 0.125 w L2 or 8
w L2

1
Shear at Support, V = 0.5 F or 0.5 w L or 2
wL

where

L = Effective span (in m)

F = 1.4G k + 1.6Q k (in kN)

w = 1.4g k + 1.6q k (in kN/m or kN/m2)

9 Partitions which are permanent in nature with its construction and position indicated on the building plan are
considered as dead load. Partition, the location of which is not defined in the building plan and subject to
change during the usage of the building, shall be regarded as imposed load.

Chapter 1 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question A
Determine the design forces for the following simply-supported beam under uniformly
distributed load (udl):
Effective Span, L = 8 000 mm
Characteristic Dead Load, g k = 29.2 kN/m
Characteristic Imposed Load, q k = 23.5 kN/m

Solution
Gk = 29.2 x 8 = 233.6 kN
Qk = 23.5 x 8 = 188.0 kN
The design load, F = 1.4 x 233.6 + 1.6 x 188.0
= 627.8 kN
Design Mid-span Moment, M = 0.125 F L
= 0.125 x 627.8 x 8
= 627.8 kN-m
Design Shear at Support, V = 0.5 F
= 0.5 x 628
= 313.9 kN

Question B
Determine the design forces for the following simply-supported beam under uniformly
distributed load (udl):
Effective Span, L = 9 000 mm
Overall depth of the beam, h = 750 mm
Breadth of the beam, b = 300 mm
Details of the slab supported by the beam:
Slab thickness = 160 mm
Finishes = 2.0 kPa
Imposed load = 5.0 kPa
Width of slab supported by the beam = 3 300 mm
[Refer to the beam 5B2 on the framing plan in DWG-01 attached at the end of this Chapter
for the details. It is adapted from the 2012/13 examination paper.]

Chapter 1 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Dead Load
Finishes: 2.0 x 3.3 = 6.6 kN/m
Slab S/W: 24.5 x 0.16 x 3.3 = 12.9 kN/m
Beam S/W: 24.5 x 0.3 x (0.75 - 0.16) = 4.3 kN/m
gk = 23.8 kN/m
Imposed Load
5.0 x 3.3 = 16.5 kN/m
qk = 16.5 kN/m
The design load, w = 1.4 x 23.8 + 1.6 x 16.5
= 59.7 kN/m

Design Mid-span Moment, M = 0.125 w L2

= 0.125 x 59.7 x 92
= 604.5 kN-m

Design Shear at Support, V = 0.5 w L

= 0.5 x 59.7 x 9
= 268.7 kN

?
Q.6 – Q.11

Chapter 1 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.5 Load Pattern

For a continuous beam, i.e. beam with more than one span, all spans being
loaded with maximum design ultimate load, i.e. [1.4G k + 1.6Q k ], may not
necessarily produce the most adverse bending moment for design. As
illustrated in the following example for a 2-span continuous beam, the most
critical mid-span moment occurs when only one span is maximum loaded,
i.e. [1.4G k + 1.6Q k ] and another span is minimum loaded, i.e. [1.0G k ].

1.5.1 Example – Loading for a 2-span Continuous Beam

Question
Determine the mid-span design moment for the following 2-span continuous beam.

gk = 11.5 kN/m
qk= 6.0 kN/m

6 000 6 000

Solution
Maximum design load = 1.4g k + 1.6q k
= 1.4 x 11.5 + 1.6 x 6.0
= 25.7 kN/m
Minimum design load = 1.0g k
= 1.0 x 11.5
= 11.5 kN/m

Chapter 1 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Case I – All spans are maximum loaded

25.7 kN/m 25.7 kN/m

115.7 kN-m

65.0 kN-m

Case II – Only one span is maximum loaded while the other span is minimum loaded

25.7 kN/m 11.5 kN/m

Moment Diagram of Case I

83.7 kN-m

78.4 kN-m

Therefore, the design mid-span moment is 78.4 kN-m.

Chapter 1 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.5.2 Loading Arrangement for Design of Continuous Beam

The design code requires the following three load arrangements have to be
considered to determine the design forces, i.e. moment and shear, for
continuous beam (Cl. [Link] of HKCP-2013):

Case I: all spans maximum loaded to obtain the maximum support reactions

1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk

Case 2: alternate spans loaded with maximum and minimum load to obtain
the maximum sagging mid-span moments

1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk

1.0Gk 1.0Gk 1.0Gk

Case 3: any two adjacent spans maximum loaded and all the other spans
minimum loaded to obtain the maximum hogging support moment

1.4Gk+1.6Qk 1.4Gk+1.6Qk
1.0Gk 1.0Gk 1.0Gk 1.0Gk

Figure 1.4 – Loading Arrangement

for Design of Continuous Beam

1.5.3 Example – Design Moment and Shear Envelopes

The concept of bending moment and shear force envelopes is illustrated by

the following example.

Chapter 1 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question
Find the shear force and bending moment envelopes of the beam 1-2-3-4 simply supported
at 2 and 3 with overhang over each support as shown in the following figure.

gk = 15.0 kN/m
qk = 23.0 kN/m

1 2 3 4

2 000 7 000 2 000

Solution
Maximum design load = 1.4g k + 1.6q k
= 1.4 x 15 + 1.6 x 23
= 57.8 kN/m (say 58 kN/m)
Minimum design load = 1.0g k
= 1.0 x 15.0
= 15.0 kN/m
The following table lists 5 possible load patterns and Figures A, B, C, D & E in the following
pages show their load patterns and their shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Load Span with
Effects
Pattern max. load
A 2-3 Max sagging moment of span 2-3
Max shear of span 2-3
B 1-2 & 3-4 Max hogging moment of span 2-3
Max shear and moment of cantilevers 1-2 & 3-4
C All Max support reactions
D 1-2 & 2-3 Max support moment at 2 (but not controlling)
E 2-3 & 3-4 Max support moment at 3 (but not controlling)

By plotting all the shear force diagrams for different load patterns on a single drawing, we
can obtain the shear force envelope which is the outer boundary of all the shear force
diagrams, as shown in Figure F. In similar manner, we can obtain the bending moment
envelope as shown in Figure G. These envelops will then be used for reinforcement
design and detailing.

Chapter 1 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Figure A - Load Pattern A

Figure B - Load Pattern B

Chapter 1 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Figure C - Load Pattern C

Figure D - Load Pattern D

Chapter 1 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Figure E - Load Pattern E

Figure F – Shear Envelope

Figure G – Bending Moment Envelope

Chapter 1 26
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.6 Effective Span

In the analysis of beams and slabs, the supports are idealized as a point
without width. However, in reality supports have width, so we have to identify
the effective span for analysis. 10 The design code defines the effective span
as follows (Cl.[Link](b) of HKCP-2013):

Effective span, L = L n + a 1 +a 2

where L n = Clear span, i.e. distance between faces of

support

a 1 , a 2 lesser of h/2 or S w /2 at each support

=

h = overall depth of the beam

S w = width of the support

Except for beam seating on bearing, where the center of bearing should be
used to assess the effective span.

BEAM
Sw Sw
Clear Span, Ln a2 = h/2 (if h < Sw)
a1 = Sw/2 (if Sw < h)
Effective Span, L

SUPPORT 1 SUPPORT 2
Elevation

Figure 1.5 – Effective Span

10 The design code allows moment reduction over supports to account for the width of the support. They are not
taken into consideration in this course. Details refer to Cl. 5.2.1 of HKCP-2013.

Chapter 1 27
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.6.1 Example – Clear Span and Effective Span

Question
Determine the effective spans of the beam 5B2 and the slab 5S1 as shown in drawing
DWG-01 attached at the end of this Chapter.

Solution
Beam 5B2
Clear Span Ln = 9000 – 250 – 250 = 8 500 mm
a1 = a2 = Min(750/2 or 500/2) = 250 mm
Effective Span L= Ln + a1 + a2
= 8500 + 250 + 250
= 9 000 mm

Slab 5S1
Clear Span Ln = 3300 – 150 – 150 = 3 000 mm
a1 = a2 = Min(300/2 or 160/2) = 80 mm
Effective Span L= Ln + a1 + a2
= 3 000 + 80 + 80
= 3 160 mm

?
Q.12 – Q.15

Chapter 1 28
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 1 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Key Concepts/Terms│

Ultimate Limit State and Serviceability Limit State ULS & SLS

Gk & Qk
Characteristic Dead Load and Imposed Load
gk & qk

Concrete Strength and Steel Strength f cu & f y

Partial Safety Factors for Load and Materials γf & γm

Clear Span and Effective Span Ln & L

Design Load F&w

Design Moment and Shear M&V

Moment Redistribution βb

Chapter 1 30
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 What is the design tension capacity of a T25?

A. 123 kN
B. 213 kN
C. 245 kN
D. 107 kN

Q.2 What is the design tension capacity of 5R12?

A. 141 kN
B. 246 kN
C. 123 kN
D. 57 kN

Q.3 What is the steel area, A s , of T12-200?

A. 565 mm2 /m
B. 113 mm2
C. 22.6 mm2
D. 5656 mm2

Q.4 Determine the characteristic dead load, g k , of a 150 mm thick R C slab with 1.0 kPa finishes.

A. 4.68 kN/m
B. 6.75 kN/m2
C. 6.55 kN/m2
D. 4.68 kN/m2

Chapter 1 31
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.5 Determine the characteristic dead load, g k , of a 175mm thick RC slab with 25 mm thick
cement mortar and 450 mm thick soil on it.

A. 13.9 kPa
B. 19.4 kPa
C. 4.86 kN/m2
D. 13.9 kN/m

Q.6 Determine the design moment, M, for the following simply-supported beam under a uniformly
distributed load (udl):
Effective Span = 7 000 mm
g k = 21.5 kN/m; q k = 15.2 kN/m

A. 381 kN
B. 225 kN-m
C. 3.33 x 105 kN-m
D. 333 kN-m

Q.7 Determine the design moment, M, for the following simply-supported beam under udl:
Effective Span = 7.0 m
G k = 151 kN; Q k = 106 kN

A. 381 kN
B. 225 kN-m
C. 3.33 x 105 kN-m
D. 333 kN-m

Chapter 1 32
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.8 Determine the design load, F, for the following simply-supported beam under udl:
Effective Span = 7 000 mm
g k = 21.5 kN/m; q k = 15.2 kN/m

A. 381 kN
B. 257 kN
C. 3.33 x 105 kN-m
D. 333 kN-m

Q.9 Determine the design moment, M, for the following cantilever beam under udl:
Effective Span = 3 740 mm
g k = 21.5 kN/m; q k = 15.2 kN/m

A. 381 kN-m
B. 257 kN-m
C. 3.33 x 105 kN-m
D. 333 kN-m

Q.10 Determine the design moment, M, for the following cantilever beam under udl:
Effective cantilever span = 4 000 mm
Characteristic dead load = 15.2 kN/m
Characteristic imposed load = 10.3 kN/m

A. 302 kN-m
B. 151 kN
C. 3.03 x 105 kN-m
D. 204 kN-m

Chapter 1 33
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.11 Determine the design moment, M, for the following cantilever beam under udl:
Effective cantilever span = 3.5 m
Characteristic dead load = 53 kN
Characteristic imposed load = 35 kN

A. 456 kN-m
B. 154 kN-m
C. 228 kN-m
D. 797 kN-m

Q.12 Determine the effective span, L, of the following simply-supported beam:

Center-to-center distance between supports = 5 400 mm
Width of the supports at both ends = 300 mm
Effective depth of the beam = 395 mm
Overall depth of the beam, h = 450 mm

A. 5400 mm
B. 5100 mm
C. 5495 mm
D. 5550 mm

Q.13 Determine the effective span, L, of the following simply-supported beam:

Center-to-center distance between supports = 5 400 mm
Width of the supports at both ends = 500 mm
Effective depth of the beam = 395 mm
Overall depth of the beam, h = 450 mm

A. 5400 mm
B. 4900 mm
C. 5295 mm
D. 5350 mm

Chapter 1 34
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.14 Determine the clear span, L n , of the following simply-supported beam:

Center-to-center distance between supports = 5 400 mm
Width of the supports at both ends = 500 mm
Effective depth of the beam = 335 mm
Overall depth of the beam, h = 400 mm

A. 5400 mm
B. 4900 mm
C. 5235 mm
D. 5550 mm

Q.15 Determine the design moment, M, for the following simply-supported beam under udl:
Clear Span = 6 700 mm
Width of the supports at both ends = 300 mm
Overall depth of the beam, h = 500 mm
g k = 21.5 kN/m; q k = 15.2 kN/m

A. 381 kN-m
B. 257 kN-m
C. 3.33 x 105 kN-m
D. 333 kN-m

Chapter 1 35
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Answers:

Q1 B T: Grade 500 steel, f y = 500MPa; area of a 25 bar = 491mm2; design tension = 500 x 491 / 1.15 = 213 kN

Q2 C T: Grade 250 steel, f y = 250MPa; area of a 12 bar = 113mm2; design tension = 5 x 250 x 113 / 1.15 = 123 kN

Q3 A Area of a 12 bar = 113mm2; total area for 12 bar at 200 spacing = 113 / 0.200 = 565 mm2 per meter

Q4 D g k = 24.5 x 0.150 + 1.0 = 4.68 kN/m2

Q5 A g k = 24.5 x 0.175 + 23 x 0.025 + 20 x 0.450 = 13.9 kN/m2

Q6 D M = 0.125 x (1.4 x 21.5 + 1.6 x 15.2) x 7.02 = 333 kN-m

Q7 D M = 0.125 x (1.4 x 151 + 1.6 x 106) x 7 = 333 kN-m

Q8 A F = (1.4 x 21.5 + 1.6 x 15.2) x 7 = 382 kN

Q9 A; M = 0.5 x (1.4 x 21.5 + 1.6 x 15.2) x 3.7402 = 381 kN-m

Q10 A M = 0.5 x (1.4 x 15.2 + 1.6 x 10.3) x 4.02 = 302 kN-m

Q11 C M = 0.5 x (1.4 x 53 + 1.6 x 35) x 3.5 = 228 kN-m

Q12 A As S w = 300 < h = 450, S w controls, and therefore, L = c/c distance btw supports = 5400 mm

Q13 D As h = 450 < S w = 500, h controls, and therefore, L = 5400 – 500 + 450 = 5350 mm

Q14 B L n = 5400 – 500 = 4900 mm

Q15 D L = 6700 + 300 = 7000mm; M = 0.125 x (1.4 x 21.5 + 1.6 x 15.2) x 72 = 333 kN-m

Chapter 1 36
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
[Present your answers with detailed working steps in a neat, tidy and logical manner.]

AQ1 For the slab 5S1 shown on DWG-01:

(a) Determine the effective span for the slab.(3.16 m)
(b) Determine the design udl load in kPa. (16.29 kN/m²)
(c) Determine the total design load in kN per m width of the slab.
(16.29 kN/m)

AQ2 Determine the design forces for the beam 5B2 shown in DWG-01 with the
following changes:
i. The center-to-center distance between adjacent beams is changed
from 3300 mm to 3500 mm, i.e. the distance between gridlines 6
and 7 is changed to 10 500 mm.
ii. An additional allowance for 300 mm thick soil is required.
iii. The width of the beam is increased to 400mm.
The other design parameters remain unchanged.
(Design Load: 94.5 kN/m, BM: 957 kNm, SF: 425 kN)
(Reference: Question B of Example 1.4.5)

Chapter 1 37
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 2│

Design Formulae for Bending

Learning Objectives
 Appreciate the stress-strain properties of concrete and steel for
R.C. design
 Appreciate the derivation of the design formulae for bending
 Apply the formulae to determine the steel required for bending

CONTENTS

2.1 Material Stress-strain Relations

2.1.1 Concrete
2.1.2 Reinforcement
2.1.3 Example – Design Ultimate Capacity for Axial Compression

2.2 Design Formulae for Bending

2.2.1 Limit to Neutral Axis
2.2.2 Examples – Effective Depth
2.2.3 Simplified Stress Block
2.2.4 Design Formulae for Singly Reinforced Section
2.2.5 Limits of the Lever Arm
2.2.6 The Balanced Section
2.2.7 Examples – Singly Reinforced Section
2.2.8 Design Formulae for Doubly Reinforced Section
2.2.9 Examples – Doubly Reinforced Section

2.3 Flanged Section

2.3.1 Effective Flange Width
1.3.2 Examples – Flanged Section

2.4 Limits to Bar Spacing and Steel Ratio

2.4.1 Bar Spacing
2.4.2 Maximum and Minimum Percentage of Steel

Chapter 2 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2.1 Material Stress-strain Relations

The stress-strain curve of a material describes the deformation of the

material in response to the load acted upon it. In generalized terms,
deformation is presented in terms of change in length per unit length, i.e.
strain, while load is in terms of force per unit area, i.e. stress.

Deformation
Strain, Ɛ = (Dimensionless)
Length

Force
Stress, f = (in N/mm2 or MPa)
Area

The stress-strain curves of concrete and steel provides the fundamental

knowledge to understand the behaviour of the R.C. composite under loads
and for deriving the necessary formulae for R. C. design.

2.1.1 Concrete

Concrete is comparatively very weak in tension. Its tensile strength is about

1/10 of the compressive strength. It is usually ignored in the design.
Therefore, the stress-strain curve of concrete is usually referring to concrete
under compression. Typical stress-strain curves of concrete are shown in
Figure 2.1 below.

The shape of stress-strain curves varies with the strength of the concrete.
The elastic modulus, i.e. the slope of the initial part of the curves, is higher
for higher strength concrete. In addition, the higher is the strength of the
concrete, the more sudden the failure of the concrete, i.e. more brittle.

Chapter 2 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Stress
(MPa)
120

80

40

0
0.001 0.003
Strain
0.002 0.004 0.005

Figure 2.1 – Typical Stress-strain Curves of Concrete

In order to facilitate the derivation of design formulae, an idealized

stress-strain curve in parabolic-rectangular shape is adopted in the design
code as shown in Figure 2.2 below.

Figure 2.2 – Idealized Stress-strain Curve of Concrete for Design

(Figure 3.8 of HKCP-2013)

Chapter 2 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Take note of the following points:

(a) The design ultimate strength of concrete is:

0.67 f cu / γ m = 0.67 f cu / 1.5 ≅ 0.45 f cu

where
 0.67 is to account for the differences between the testing
condition and the actual effect on concrete in the structure.
 1.5 is the partial factor of safety for the strength of concrete
under bending or axial load.

(b) The ultimate compressive strain of concrete is: 1

Ɛ cu = 0.0035

The concrete crushes when it deforms to this value and the failure is
brittle and sudden. This value defines the ultimate limit state, ULS,
of R. C structure.

2.1.2 Reinforcement

Steel is much stronger and more ductile than concrete as illustrated in the
typical stress-strain curves of steel in Figure 2.3.

The initial part of the curve is linear and the slope, i.e. the elastic module, is
constant disregard of the strength. The following value of elastic modulus is
adopted in R.C. design.

E s = 200 kN/mm2 or 200 000 N/mm2

1 This value is for concrete not higher than Grade C60. Concrete becomes more brittle when its strength is higher,
and therefore the value of Ɛcu is lower. Details refer to the design code.

Chapter 2 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Stress
(MPa)

800

700
0.2% Proof
Stress

600

500

400

300
Yield Stress

200

A typical stress-strain
100 curve of concrete

0.04 0.08 0.12

Strain
0.002 0.16 0.20

Figure 2.3 – Typical Stress-strain Curves of Steel

Most of the grades of steel exhibit a definite yield point at which strain
increases suddenly without increase in stress. The stress at this point, i.e.
yield stress, f y , is adopted for design. For steel without yield, 0.2% proof
stress is adopted. Beyond this point, the strength of steel continues to
increase but with substantial increase in strain.

Steel deforms substantially before rupture, and the ultimate strength

increases by more than 8% above the yield, and the ultimate strain is more
than 0.05. This strength hardening and ductility properties render steel a
good structural material.

The tensile and compressive strength properties of steel are the same.
The design code provides an idealized stress-strain curve for design as
given in Figure 2.4.

Chapter 2 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Ɛy

Figure 2.4 – Idealized Stress-strain Curve

of Reinforcement for Design
(Figure 3.9 of HKCP-2013)

Take note of the following points:

(a) The design yield strength is:

f y / γ m = f y / 1.15 = 0.87 f y

(b) Within the elastic range, i.e. before yield:

Stress = E s Ɛ s

= 200 000 Ɛ s

(c) The yield strain, i.e. beyond which the stress of steel is 0.87f y , is:

Ɛ y = 0.87f y / 200 000

For grade 500 steel,

Ɛ y = 0.87 x 500 / 200 000

= 0.002175

Chapter 2 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2.1.3 Example – Design Ultimate Capacity for Axial Compression

The design ultimate capacity of a concrete section subject to axial

compression is given by Eqn 6.5 of HKCP-2013 2:

N uz = Compression Resistance of Concrete

+ Compression Resistance of Steel

= 0.45 f cu A nc + 0.87 f y A sc

where

A nc = Net cross-sectional area of concrete

A sc = Area of steel in compression

Question
Determine the design ultimate capacity for axial compression of the following concrete
section:
Concrete : C40
Dimensions : 400mm x 400mm
Rebars : 4T25 vertical bars fully restrained by links

Solution
A sc = 4 x 491
= 1 964 mm2
A nc = 400 x 400 – 1 964
= 158 036 mm2
N uz = 0.45 f cu A nc + 0.87 f y A sc
= (0.45 x 40 x 158036 + 0.87 x 500 x 1964) x 10-3
= 2845 + 854
= 3 699 kN

2 The application of this equation is subject to the following conditions: (i) the column is subject to axial load only,
without eccentricity and moment, (ii) the rebars restrained from buckling, and (iii) the column is not slender.
Design of column will be discussed in another chapter.

Chapter 2 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2.2 Design Formulae for Bending

When a beam is under downward bending as shown in Figure 2.5 below, the
upper part of the beam is in compression and the lower part is in tension. If
the plane section remains plane after deformation as shown in figure (a), the
strain distribution will be linear as shown in figure (b), with zero strain at the
neutral axis and increasing linearly outward towards the top and bottom
fibers of the section. 3

a d

b c

Elevation of a Beam under Load

Ɛcc
a d

M M x
Neutral
d Axis

Rebar
b c
Ɛst

(a) Deformation of a-b-c-d (b) Strain (c) Stress (Elastic) (d) Stress (Plastic)

Figure 2.5 – Distribution of Stresses and Strains

across a Beam Section

When the load is small and the material is still linear elastic, the stress will be
in linear proportion to the strain. The distribution of the compressive stress
above the neutral axis is then in triangular shape as shown in figure (c).
The concrete below the neutral axis is assumed unable to take up any
tensile stress, and rebars are provided to take up the tension.

3 The "plane section remains plane" assumption is usually valid in beam design, except under some
circumstances, for examples, deep beam with span-to-depth ratio is smaller than 4, at section under very high
shear force, etc. It is out of the scope of this chapter.

Chapter 2 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

If the load is further increased until the section become plastic, the
compressive stress block of concrete will become parabolic in shape and the
tension steel become yielded as shown in figure (d).

2.2.1 Limits to the Neutral Axis

Considering the compatibility of strain in figure (b) above, and assuming

there no slip at the interface of concrete and steel bar, the relationship of the
maximum strain of concrete compression, Ɛ cc, and the strain of steel in
tension, Ɛ st, is given by:

Ɛ cc (d – x)
Ɛ st =
x
where
d = The effective depth of the section. It is the depth
measured from the top of the section (for sagging
moment) to the centroid of the tension reinforcement.

x = The depth of the neutral axis, above which (for sagging

moment) the section is in compression while below
which the section cracks under tension.

In order to ensure ductility, it is desirable to have the tension reinforcement

yielded before the concrete crushes. That is

Ɛ st ≥ 0.002175 when Ɛ cc = 0.0035

Therefore, 0.0035 (d – x)
≥ 0.002175
x

Re-arranging, it becomes x ≤ 0.617 d

In other words, the section should be designed such that depth of neutral
axis should not exceed the limit to ensure ductility.

Chapter 2 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

HKCP-2013 limits the depth of neutral axis to: 4

x ≤ 0.5 d [2.1]

If moment redistribution is more than 10%, i.e. β b < 0.9, the depth of neutral
axis is limited to:

x≤ (β b - 0.4) d [2.1a]

For example, if β b = 0.8, the limiting neutral axis is 0.4d.

2.2.2 Examples – Effective Depth

Question A
Determine the effective depth of the following section:
Overall beam depth, h = 500 mm
Concrete cover = 40 mm
h d
Size of link: 10
Bottom bars: 3T32 in one layer
3T32

Solution
Effective Depth, d = 500 – 40 – 10 – 32 / 2
= 434 mm
d
Bar size / 2
Link size
Cover

Question B
Determine the effective depth of the following section:
Overall beam depth, h = 650 mm
Concrete cover = 45 mm h d

Size of link: 12
2T32
Bottom bars: 2T40 + 3T32 in two layers
2T40 + T32

4 This limit is for concrete not higher than Grade C45. For higher grade of concrete the limit is more stringent.
Details refer to the design code.

Chapter 2 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
The clear spacing between two layers of bars should not be less than (vide Cl.8.2 of
HKCP-2013):
(a) maximum bar size
(b) aggregate size + 5 mm
(c) 20 mm

In this case, the maximum bar size controls, i.e. 40mm.

Distance to the bottom T40 = 650 – 45 – 12 – 20 = 573 mm
Distance to the bottom T32 = 650 – 45 – 12 – 16 = 577 mm
Distance to the 2nd layer T32 = 650 – 45 – 12 – 40 – 40 - 32/2 = 497 mm
1257 x 2 x 573 + 804 x 577 + 804 x 2 x 497
Effective Depth, d =
1257 x 2 + 804 x 3
= 549 mm

Alternatively, the effective depth is simply taken to the "center", instead of the centroid, of
the two layers of rebars as follows.
Effective depth, d = 650 – 45 – 12 – 40 – 40/2
= 533 mm (the deviation is about 2.9% only)
Unless rigorous checking is required, this method is in general acceptable for
manual calculation in design office. In fact, during the initial design stage, the amount
steel required is unknown. Assumption has to be made on the bar size, based on which to
estimate the effective depth for calculating the steel required and then the number and size
of bars. Once the bar size is known, the initial assumption on effective depth has to
verified. If the initial assumption is on conservative side and does not deviate too much
from actual value, the result will then be treated as acceptable and the calculation would not
be re-done.

2.2.3 Simplified Stress Block

?
Q.1 – Q.4

After the steel has yielded, the beam continues to deform until the top
concrete crushes at the ultimate strain, Ɛ cu , and the distribution of
compressive stress in the compression zone, i.e. above the neutral axis, will
then be in the shape of rectangular-parabolic as shown in (b) of Figure 2.6
below. In order to make it more manageable in deriving the design formula
for bending, a simplified rectangular stress block as shown figure (c) of
Figure 2.6 is adopted (Figure 6.1 of HKCP-2013).

Chapter 2 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Ɛcu 0.45fcu 0.45fcu

s/2
x s

Neutral
d Axis
z

Ɛst

Section (a) (b) (c)

Strain at Ultimate Parabolic Stress Simplified Rectangular
Limit State Block Stress Block

Figure 2.6 – Stress and Strain Distribution at Ultimate Limit State

In the simplified stress block, a uniform compressive stress of

0.67 f cu / γ m = 0.45f cu is adopted over a depth of: 5

s = 0.9 x

and, the lever arm, z, between the centroid of the compression force in the
concrete and the tension force of rebars is:

z =d–s/2

Rearranging, s = 2 (d – z)

2.2.4 Design Formulae for Singly-Reinforced Section

The objective of the design formulae is to determine the steel area, A s , with
the following information given:

The design ultimate moment: M

5 It is for concrete not higher than Grade C45. The value of "s" is smaller for higher grade of concrete. Details refer
to the design code.

Chapter 2 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Grade of concrete : f cu

Grade of steel : f y

Breadth of section : b

Effective depth : d

b 0.45fcu

s = 0.9 x
s/2
x
Fcc
Neutral
Axis
M
d z

Fst
As

Section Simplified Rectangular

Stress Block

Figure 2.7 – Simplified Stress Block for R.C. Design

Compression in concrete F cc = 0.45 f cu (b s)

= 0.9 f cu b (d - z)

Tension in the rebar F st = 0.87 f y A s

Take moment about the rebar, and by equilibrium of moment:

M = F cc z

= 0.9 f cu b (d - z) z

Divide both sides by (bd2f cu ), and

let K = M / (bd2f cu ) [2.2]

the equation becomes:

Chapter 2 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(z / d)2 – (z / d) + K / 0.9 = 0

Solve for z/d, the lever arm factor:

Z / d = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5]

and then, the lever arm: z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d [2.3]

This is Eqn 6.10 of HKCP-2013.

Take moment about the centroid of the compression force, and by

equilibrium of moment:

M = F st z

= 0.87 f y A s z

Rearranging, A s = M / (0.87 f y z) [2.4]

This is Eqn 6.12 of HKCP-2013.

2.2.5 Limits of the Lever Arm, z

The limit to the depth of neutral axis, i.e. x ≤ 0.5 d, imposes a lower limit to
the lever arm 6:

z ≥ d – 0.9 (0.5d) / 2

z ≥ 0.775 d [2.5]

If moment redistribution is more than 10%, i.e. β b < 0.9

z ≥ (1.18 – 0.45β b ) d [2.5a]

6 This limit is for concrete not higher than Grade 45. This limit is more stringent for higher grade of concrete.
Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 2 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

In addition, the design code also provides an upper limit to the lever arm (Cl.
[Link] (c) of HKCP2013):

z ≤ 0.95 d

When putting z = 0.95d into the equation of lever arm [2.3], we can find that
the corresponding value of K is 0.0428. In other words,

If K ≤ 0.0428 z = 0.95 d [2.6]

2.2.6 The Balanced Section, K'

If the amount of reinforcement is provided such that the depth of the neutral
axis is just at the limit of 0.5d, the section will then fail by crushing of the
concrete immediately after the steel has yielded. This beam section is called
a balanced section. The corresponding level arm is 0.775d. Putting this
value into the equation of equilibrium of moment about the tension force, the
moment of resistance of the balanced section is:

M bal = F cc z

= 0.9 f cu b (d – 0.775d) 0.775d

Therefore, M bal = 0.157 f cu bd2

and, K' = M bal / (bd2 f cu ) = 0.157

If the design moment of a section is larger than M bal , it will fail by crushing of
concrete before yielding of steel no matter how much tension steel is
provided, that is undesirable; unless compression steel is provided as
discussed in 2.2.8 below.

In other words, if a section is over-reinforced, the neutral axis will exceed the
upper limit leading to failure without ductility, though the moment capacity is
increased, as illustrated in following figure.

Chapter 2 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Moment
As > As,bal (w/o compression steel)

Mbal

As ≅ As,bal

As < As,bal

0
Deflection

HKCP-2013 specifies the K-value for the balanced section as: 7

K' = 0.156 (for β b ≥ 0.9) [2.7]

If moment redistribution is more than 10%, i.e. β b < 0.9, the value of K' is
reduced to:

K' = 0.402 (β b – 0.4) - 0.18 (β b – 0.4)2 [2.7a]

For example, if β b = 0.8, K' = 0.132.

2.2.7 Examples – Singly Reinforced Section

In summary, the procedures to determine the area of tension steel are:

1. Calculate the K value K = M / (bd2 f cu )

2. Check balanced section K < K'

3. Calculate the lever arm z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d

7 It is for concrete not higher than Grade C45. The value of K' is smaller for higher grade of concrete. Details
refer to the design code.

Chapter 2 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4. Check z / d ≤ 0.95

5. Calculate the steel area A s = M / (0.87 f y z)

Question A
Determine the rebars for the following beam section:
Design ultimate moment, M = 350 kN-m βb = 1.0
Breadth, b = 350 mm
Effective depth, d = 480 mm
Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Steel, f y = 500 MPa

Solution
K= M / (bd2 f cu )
= 350 x 106 / (350 x 4802 x 35)
= 0.124
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.124 / 0.9)0.5] x 480
= 0.835 x 480
= 401 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 350 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 401)
= 2 006 mm2
(Provide 2T32 + 1T25)
A s,pro = 2 x 804 + 491
= 2099 mm2

Question B
For the section in Example A, find the moment of resistance of the balanced section and the
corresponding amount of steel.

Solution
M bal = K' f cu bd2

Chapter 2 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 0.156 x 35 x 350 x 4802 x 10-6

= 440 kN-m

z= 0.775 d
= 0.775 x 480
= 372 mm

As = M / (0.87 f y z)
= 440 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 372)
= 2719 mm2

Question C
Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the following beam section:
Breadth, b = 350 mm
Effective depth, d = 480 mm
Area of steel provided, As = 2412 mm2 (i.e. 3T32)
Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Steel, f y = 500 MPa

Solution
(The design formulae in the design 0.45fcu

code are given in the form to facilitate

s = 0.9 x

the determination of steel area from s/2

x
the design moment. This example, Fcc
N.A.
M
however, requires you to work back d z
the ultimate moment capacity of the
Fst
section from the steel area provided.)

Simplified Rectangular
For equilibrium of compression and tension forces: Stress Block
F cc = F st
0.45 f cu (b s) = 0.87 f y A s (assuming steel has yielded)
s= 0.87 f y A s / (0.45 f cu b)
= 0.87 x 500 x 2412 / (0.45 x 35 x 350)
= 190.3 mm

Depth of neutral axis, x = s / 0.9

= 190.3 / 0.9

Chapter 2 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 211.5 mm
< 0.5 x 480 = 240 mm (steel has yielded as assumed)

Lever arm, z = d – s/2

= 480 – 190.3 / 2
= 384.9 mm

Take moment about the centroid of compression zone:

Moment of resistance, M = F st z
= 0.87 f y As z
= 0.87 x 500 x 2412 x 384.9 x 10-6
= 404 kN-m

?
Q.5 – Q.8

2.2.8 Design Formulae for Doubly Reinforced Section

When the design moment becomes so large that

K > K',

compression reinforcement is required to provide additional compressive

resistance in the compression zone of the section. If the area of
compression steel, A' s , is located at d' from the top of the section as shown
in Figure 2.8, the formulae for determining As and A' s are derived as follows.

The neutral axis cannot be further lowered. It remains at the limiting depth
to retain ductility. Therefore,

z = (1.18 – 0.45β b ) d

F cc z = K' f cu bd2
For β b > 0.9,
z = 0.775 d

F cc z = 0.156 f cu bd2

Chapter 2 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Ɛcu
0.45fcu
Ɛsc
d'
Fsc
As ' x s
Fcc
Neutral M
Axis

d – d'
d

z = d – s/2
As
Fst
Ɛst
Section
(a) (b)
Strain at Ultimate Limit Simplified Rectangular
State Stress Block

Figure 2.8 – Stress and Strain Distribution

for Doubly Reinforced Section

Compression in the compression reinforcement:

F sc = f sc A' s

where f sc = stress in the compression steel

Take moment about the tension steel, and by equilibrium of moment:

M = F cc z + F sc (d - d')

= 0.156 f cu bd2 + f sc A' s (d - d')

Rearranging, it becomes
M - 0.156 f cu bd2
A' s =
f sc (d - d')

Chapter 2 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(K – K') f cu bd2
or A' s = [2.8a]
f sc (d - d')

By equilibrium of forces
F st = F cc + F sc
0.87 f y A s = 0.156 f cu bd2 / z + f sc A s '

Rearranging, it becomes
0.156 f cu bd2 f sc
As = + As'
0.87 f y z 0.87 f y

K' f cu bd2 f sc
or As = + As' [2.9a]
0.87 f y z 0.87 f y

The value of f sc can be determined from the strain distribution in Figure 2.8(a)
above, that is
Ɛ sc / (x - d') = Ɛ cu / x
Rearranging, d' / x = 1 - Ɛ sc / Ɛ cu

If Ɛ sc > 0.002175 at Ɛ cu = 0.0035, the compression steel has yielded at the

ultimate limit state, i.e. f sc = 0.87 f y :

In other words, if d' / x < 1 – 0.002175 / 0.0035 = 0.38 [2.10]

(K – K') f cu bd2
A' s = [2.8]
0.87 f y (d - d')

K' f cu bd2
and, As = + A' s [2.9]
0.87 f y z

These are Eqns 6.14 and 6.15 in HKCP-2013.

On the other hand,

Chapter 2 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

if d' / x > 0.38

the compression bars are so close to the neutral axis that they has not
yielded and the stress in the compression bars has to be calculated by:

f sc = E s Ɛ sc

2.2.9 Examples – Doubly Reinforced Section

In summary, the procedures to determine the steel areas for doubly

reinforced section are (for β b > 0.9):

1. Provide comp'n steel, if K > 0.156

2. Calculate the lever arm z = 0.775d

3. Calculate the neutral axis x = 0.5d

4. Check d' / x ≤ 0.38 to ensure rebar has yielded

(K – K') f cu bd2
5. Calculate compression steel A' s =
0.87 f y (d - d')

K' f cu bd2
6. Calculate tension steel As = + A' s
0.87 f y z

Question A
Determine the steel required for the following beam section:
Design ultimate moment, M = 500 kN-m
Breadth, b = 350 mm
Effective depth of tension steel, d = 480 mm
Effective depth to comp'n steel, d' = 70 mm
Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Steel, f y = 500 MPa

Chapter 2 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
K= M / (bd2 f cu )
= 500 x 106 / (350 x 4802 x 35)
= 0.177
β b =1.0 > 0.156 (Compression steel is required)

Lever arm, z = 0.775 d

= 0.775 x 480
= 372 mm

Depth to neutral axis, x = 0.5 d

= 0.5 x 480
= 240 mm

Check d' / x = 70 / 240

= 0.29 < 0.38 (f sc = 0.87f y )

(K – K') f cu bd2
Compression steel req'd, A' s =
0.87 f y (d - d')
(0.177 – 0.156) x 35 x 350 x 4802
=
0.87 x 500 x (480 – 70)
= 332 mm2
(Provide 2T16 Top Bars)
A' s,pro = 2 x 201
= 402 mm2

K' f cu bd2
Tension steel req'd, A s = + As'
0.87 f y z
0.156 x 35 x 350 x 4802
= + 332
0.87 x 500 x 372
= 2721 + 332
= 3053 mm2
(Provide 4 T32 Bottom Bars)
A s, pro = 4 x 804
= 3216 mm2

Chapter 2 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question B
Determine the strain and stress of the compression reinforcement for a doubly reinforced
concrete section with the following information:
d= 350 mm
d' = 70 mmm
Ɛcu
Ɛsc
d'

x
Solution
Neutral
For doubly reinforced section, x= 0.5 d d
Axis

= 0.5 x 350
= 175 mm

d' / x = 70 / 175
= 0.40 > 0.38 (Compression steel has not yielded)

Refer to the strain diagram,

the relationship of the strain of concrete and the strain of steel:
Ɛ sc / (x - d') = Ɛ cu / x
Ɛ sc = 0.0035 x (1 – d'/x)
= 0.0035 x (1- 0.40)
= 0.0021

Stress of comp'n steel, f sc = Es Ɛs

= 200 000 x 0.0021
= 420 N/mm2
Q.9 – Q.13
?
2.3 Flanged Section

Reinforced concrete beams are usually constructed monolithically with the

floor slab, and therefore they will act in integral to resist sagging moment as
shown in the following figure. The slab acts as the top flange of the beam to
share the flexural compressive stress. As the slab is much wider than the
breadth of the beam, the compressive zone can be achieved by a much

Chapter 2 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

shallower neutral axis, which, in most circumstances, falls within the flange
without trespassing into the web of the beam. On the other hand, the flange
does not assist in resisting the hogging moment at the supports, where the
compression zone is at the bottom of the section.

Figure 2.9 – Slab Acting as the Flange of a Beam (Isometric View)

(For clarity of illustration, the main beams supporting beam A-B are not shown)

Chapter 2 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

beff beff

Compression

hf

d
h

Tension bw
bw

T – Section L – Section

Figure 2.10 – Flanged Sections

2.3.1 Effective Flange Width

The flexural compressive stress in the flange is assumed to be uniformly

distributed over an effective width, b eff , which depends on the dimensions of
the beam & slabs and the length of the sagging moment, l pi , which may be
obtained from the following figures.

Notes:
(a) The length of the cantilever, l3, should be less than half the adjacent span.
(b) The ratio of the adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1.5.

Figure 2.11 – Definition of l pi

for Calculation of Effective Flange Width
(Figure 5.1 of HKCP-2013)

For simply-supported beam, the whole span is under sagging moment, and
therefore, l pi = effective span of the simply-supported beam (L).

Chapter 2 26
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

c/c distance of adjacent slabs

Figure 2.12 – Effective Flange Width

(Figure 5.2 of HKCP-2013)

The design of flanged section for bending can be simply treated as the
design of rectangular section by putting:

b = b eff

provided that the neutral axis is within the flange, i.e.

x ≤ hf

or (d – z) / 0.45≤ h f [2.11]

where h f is the thickness of the flange, i.e. the slab.

2.3.2 Examples – Flanged Section

Question A
Determine the effective flange width for an interior span of a continuous beam with
approximately equal spans with the following information:
Breadth, b w = 350 mm

Chapter 2 27
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Effective span, L = 6 700 mm

Clear spacing btw adjacent beams = 2 500mm (same on both sides)

Solution
Internal span of ctu beam l pi = 0.7 x 6700
= 4 690 mm
b1 = b2 = 2 500 / 2
= 1250 mm
b eff,1 = b eff,2 = Min (0.2 x 1250 + 0.1 x 4690 or 0.2 x 4690 or 1250)
= Min (719 or 938 or 1250)
= 719 mm
b eff = 2 x 719 + 350
= 1788 mm
Note: As 719 > 0.1 x 4690, the shear stress between the web and flange has to be checked,
i.e. Note 1 of Figure 2.12, which is outside the scope of this chapter and is ignored for the
purpose of this course.

Question B
Determine the effective flange width for the following simply-supported beam:
Breadth, b w = 300 mm
Effective span, L = 9 000 mm
Clear spacing btw adjacent beams = 2 000mm (same on both sides)

Solution
Simply supported beam l pi = 9000
b1 = b2 = 2000 / 2
= 1000 mm
b eff,1 = b eff,2 = Min (0.2 x 1000 + 0.1 x 9000 or 0.2 x 9000 or 1000)
= Min (1100 or 1800 or 1000)
= 1000 mm
b eff = 2 x 1000 + 300
= 2300 mm

Chapter 2 28
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question C
Determine the steel required for the following beam section:
Design ultimate moment, M = 500 kN-m (sagging)
Breadth, b w = 350 mm
Slab thickness, h f = 150 mm
Effective flange width, b eff = 1780 mm
Effective depth of tension steel, d = 480 mm
Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Steel, f y = 500 MPa

Solution
b = b eff = 1780mm
K= M / (bd2 f cu )
= 500 x 106 / (1780 x 4802 x 35)
= 0.0348
< 0.156 (No compression steel required)
K < 0.0428 Lever arm, z = 0.95d
= 0.95 x 480
= 456 mm
Check x= (480 – 456) / 0.45
= 53 < 150 mm (N.A. is within the flange)

Tension steel req'd, A s = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 500 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 456)
= 2 521 mm2
(Provide 2T40 + 1T20)
A s,pro = 2 x 1257 + 314
= 2828 mm2

This example is similar to Question A in 2.2.9 except that it is a flanged section. As the value
of b in this case is 5 times that of the rectangular section in the previous example, the value
of K is therefore reduced also by almost 5 times and becomes much smaller than K' and, as
a result, the upper bound value of z is adopted. When the total steel area required (2521
mm2) is compared with that required for rectangular section (3053 mm2), there is a saving of
21%.

?
Q.14 – Q.17

Chapter 2 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2.4 Limits to Bar Spacing and Steel Ratio

There are lower and upper limits to the amount of steel and the spacing
between bars in reinforced concrete. The lower bound is to prevent unsightly
cracking due to shrinkage, temperature effect, restrained action and brittle
failure. On the other hand, the upper bound is to prevent congestion of
reinforcement bars that would affect the proper compaction of concrete.

2.4.1 Bar Spacing

Adequate clear spacing should be provided

between bars such that concrete can be placed
and compacted satisfactorily around the bars.
The clear distance (horizontal and vertical)
between individual or horizontal layers of parallel
bars should not be less than (Cl.8.2 of
HKCP-2013):

i. maximum bar size

ii. aggregate size + 5 mm
iii. 20 mm

On the other hands, reinforcement bars cannot be placed too far apart; they
have to be placed close enough to distribute the cracks on the surface of the
concrete element. The maximum spacing of the bars is determined by the
service stress in the rebars, their distance from the concrete surface and the
thickness of the concrete element. Detailed requirements for beams and
slabs can be found in Cl.[Link] and Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013. They will not
be covered in this chapter. For simplicity, the following rules of thumb can be
adopted for preliminary design:

• For beam, the maximum bar spacing requirement can in general be

complied with by providing one bar for every 100 to 150 mm width of the
beam.

Chapter 2 30
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Example
For a beam of 400 mm wide, provide 3 to 4 bars at the outer layer depending on the size
of the bars.

• For slab, under most circumstances, limit the spacing of main bars to not
more than 2h or 250 mm whichever is lesser.

2.4.2 Maximum and Minimum Percentage of Steel

The maximum and minimum limits for Grade 500 steel commonly used in
R.C. design are summarized in the table below: 8

Elements Minimum (%) Maximum (%)

Beam

Flexural tension steel

Rectangular section 0.13

4
Flanged section (b w /b < 0.4) 0.18

Flexural compression steel

Rectangular section 0.20

Column 0.80 6

Wall

Vertical bars 0.40 4

Horizontal bars 0.25

Table 2.1 – Minimum and Maximum Percentage

of Reinforcement (Grade 500)

In calculating the steel ratio for the above table, the gross area of the
concrete, A c , is adopted.

8 There are more specific requirements on the steel ratios, like compression steel in the flange of flanged beam,
steel area at the lapping of rebars, cantilever slab, ductility requirements for members resisting lateral load, etc.
Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 2 31
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

For rectangular section, A c = bh Overall depth, h,

For flanged section, A c = bwh instead of effective
depth, d, is used to
check steel ratio.
Example
For a beam of 600 (h) x 300 (b), the minimum flexural tension
steel is 0.13 x 600 x 300 / 100 = 234 mm2.

?
Q.18 – Q.20

Chapter 2 32
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Key Concepts/Terms│

Design Ultimate Strength of Concrete 0.45 f cu

Ultimate Strain of Concrete Ɛ cu = 0.0035

Design Yield Strength of Steel 087f y

Effective Depth d

Depth of Neutral Axis and Its Limit x < 0.5d

K and Balanced Section K < 0.156

Lever Arm and Its Limits 0.775d < z < 0.95d

Effective Flange Width b eff

Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratios

Chapter 2 33
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 Find the effective depth, d, of the following beam section.

Overall beam depth, h = 600 mm Referred size of link: 10

Concrete cover = 40 mm Preferred size of main bars: 40

A. 510 mm
B. 530 mm
C. 265 mm
D. 550 mm

Q.2 Find the effective depth, d, of the following beam section.

Overall beam depth, h = 625 mm Referred size of link: 12

Concrete cover = 40 mm Main bars: 2 layers of 32

A. 557 mm
B. 541 mm
C. 525 mm
D. 312.5 mm

Q.3 Find the effective depth, d, of the following slab section.

Overall slab thickness, h = 175 mm

Concrete cover = 25 mm Preferred size of main bars: 12

A. 159 mm
B. 138 mm
C. 144 mm
D. 150 mm

Chapter 2 34
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.4 Determine the allowable depth of the neutral axis, x, of the following rectangular beam
section.

Overall beam depth, h = 600 mm Referred size of link: 10

Concrete cover = 35 mm Preferred size of main bars: 32

A. 322 mm
B. 300 mm
C. 539 mm
D. 269.5 mm

Q.5 Determine the K value for the following rectangular beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 350 kN-m

Breadth, b = 300 mm

Effective depth, d = 454 mm Overall depth, h = 520 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa

A. 0.142
B. 0.108
C. 1.415
D. 0.124

Chapter 2 35
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.6 Determine the amount of tension steel, A s , required for the following rectangular beam
section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 422 kN-m

Breadth, b = 325 mm Effective depth, d = 534 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 3212 mm2
B. 2320 mm2
C. 1856 mm2
D. 2134 mm2

Q.7 Determine the amount of tension steel, A s , required for the following rectangular beam
section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 153 kN-m

Breadth, b = 350 mm Effective depth, d = 534 mm

Concrete, f cu = 30 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 701 mm2
B. 2320 mm2
C. 1856 mm2
D. 693 mm2

Q.8 Determine the amount of tension steel, A s , required for the following rectangular beam
section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 26 kN-m

Breadth, b = 1000 mm Effective depth, d = 169 mm

Concrete, f cu = 30 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 372 mm2
B. 366 mm2
C. 327 mm2
D. 701 mm2

Chapter 2 36
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.9 Determine the lever arm, z, for the following rectangular beam section.

K= 0.178

Breadth, b = 350 mm Effective depth, d = 634 mm

Concrete, f cu = 30 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 462 mm
B. 426 mm
C. 317 mm
D. 491 mm

Q.10 Determine the compression steel, A' s , required for the following rectangular beam section.

K= 0.188

Breadth, b = 350 mm Overall depth, h = 700 mm

Effective depth, d = 634 mm d' = 70 mm

Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 3617 mm2
B. 642 mm2
C. 4776 mm2
D. 491 mm2

Chapter 2 37
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.11 Determine the steel required for the following rectangular beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 683 kN-m

Breadth, b = 350 mm Overall depth, h = 575 mm

Effective depth, d = 505 mm d' = 70 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. A' s = 563 mm2 and A s = 3525 mm2

B. A' s = 563 mm2 and A s = 4483 mm2
C. A' s = 666 mm2 and A s = 3272 mm2
D. A' s = 666 mm2 and A s = 3938 mm2

Q.12 Determine the steel required for the following rectangular beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 766 kN-m

Breadth, b = 400 mm Overall depth, h = 545 mm

Effective depth, d = 475 mm d' = 70 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. A' s = 1151 mm2 and A s = 4668 mm2

B. A' s = 1151 mm2 and A s = 3516 mm2
C. A' s = 666 mm2 and A s = 3272 mm2
D. A' s = 666 mm2 and A s = 3938 mm2

Q.13 Determine the lever arm, z, for the following rectangular beam section.

K= 0.150

Breadth, b = 350 mm Effective depth, d = 634 mm

Concrete, f cu = 30 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 462 mm
B. 520 mm
C. 317 mm
D. 491 mm

Chapter 2 38
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.14 Determine the effective flange width, b eff , for the end span of a continuous beam with
approximately equal spans with the following information:

Breadth, b w = 300 mm

Effective span, L = 7 700 mm

Clear distance between adjacent beams = 2 600mm (same on both sides)

A. 2918 mm
B. 2600 mm
C. 2129 mm
D. 1829 mm

Q.15 Determine the effective flange width, b eff , for the following simply-supported beam:

Breadth, b w = 250 mm (same for adjacent beams)

Effective span, L = 8 700 mm

c/c distance between adjacent beams = 3000mm (same on both sides)

A. 1395 mm
B. 2290 mm
C. 2540 mm
D. 2750 mm

Chapter 2 39
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.16 Determine the lever arm, z, for the following flanged beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 666 kN-m (sagging)

Breadth, b w = 400 mm Effective flange width, b eff = 2150 mm

Effective depth, d = 485 mm hf = 200 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 457 mm
B. 355 mm
C. 376 mm
D. 461 mm

Q.17 Determine the steel area required for the following flanged beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 668 kN-m (sagging)

Breadth, b w = 350 mm Effective flange width, b eff = 2050 mm

Effective depth, d = 486 mm hf = 190 mm

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. A' s = 0 mm2 and A s = 3326 mm2

B. A' s = 0 mm2 and A s = 4077 mm2
C. A' s = 823 mm2 and A s = 4900 mm2
D. A' s = 823 mm2 and A s = 3326 mm2

Q.18 In the design of a 600mm (h) x 400mm (b) reinforced concrete beam, if the amount of steel
required for resisting the design moment by the rectangular section is found to be 210 mm2,
which of the following reinforcement is most appropriate?

A. 2T12
B. 2T16
C. 4T12
D. 1T20

Chapter 2 40
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.19 In the design of a 400mm x 400mm reinforced concrete column, if the amount of steel
required for resisting the design axial force is found to be 1250 mm2, which of the following
reinforcement is most appropriate?

A. 4T20
B. 3T25
C. 4T25
D. 12T32

Q.20 Which of the following is the most appropriate rebars for the flanged beam under sagging
moment as described below?

Breadth, b w = 600 mm Effective flange width, b eff = 2050 mm

Effective depth, d = 350 mm hf = 150 mm

Overall depth, h = 400 mm

The amount of bottom steel required to resist the sagging moment = 380 mm2

A. 2T20
B. 2T16
C. 4T12
D. 5T12

Chapter 2 41
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Answers:

Q1 B d = 600 – 40 – 10 – 40/2 = 530 mm

Q2 C d = 625 – 40 – 12 – 32 – 32/2 = 525 mm

Q3 C d = 175 – 25 – 12/2 = 144 mm

Q4 D max x = 0.5d = 0.5 x (600 – 35 -10 – 32/2) = 269.5 mm

Q5 A K = 350 x 106 / (300 x 4542 x 40) = 0.142

Q6 D K = 0.114; z = 0.851 x 534 = 454.7mm; A s = 422 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 454.7) = 2134 mm2

Q7 A K = 0.0511; z = 0.940 x 534 = 501.7mm; A s = 153 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 501.7) = 701 mm2

Q8 A K = 0.0303; z = 0.95 x 169 = 160.6mm, A s = 26 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 160.6) = 372 mm2

Q9 D K = 0.178 > 0.156, therefore, z = 0.775 x 634 = 492 mm

Q10 B A s ' = (0.188 - 0.156) x 35 x 350 x 6342 / (0.87 x 500 x (634 - 70)) = 643 mm2

Q11 D K = 0.1913; A s ' = (0.1913 - 0.156) x 40 x 350 x 5052 / (0.87 x 500 x (505-70)) = 666 mm2; A s =

0.156 x 40 x 350 x 5052 / (0.87 x 500 x 0.775 x 505) + 666 = 3938 mm2

Q12 A K = 0.2122; A s ' = (0.2122 - 0.156) x 40 x 400 x 4752 / (0.87 x 500 x (475-70)) = 1151 mm2; A s =

0.156 x 40 x 400 x 4752 / (0.87 x 500 x 0.775 x 475) + 1151 = 4668 mm2

Q13 B β b = 0.8 < 0.9, max x = (β b – 0.4)d = 0.4 x 634 = 253.6; z = 634 – 0.45 x 253.6 = 520mm
Q14 C b i = 2600 / 2 = 1300mm; l pi = 0.85 x 7700 = 6545 mm; b eff = 2 x min(0.2 x 1300 + 0.1 x 6545, 0.2 x

6545, 1300) + 300 = 2129 mm

Q15 C b i = (3000 - 250) / 2 = 1375mm; l pi = 8700mm; b eff = 2 x min(0.2 x 1375 + 0.1 x 8700, 0.2 x 8700,

1375) + 250 = 2540 mm

Q16 D K = 0.0329 < 0.0428; z = 0.95 x 485 = 461 mm

Q17 A K = 0.0345 < 0.0428; z = 0.95 x 486 = 461.7 mm; A s = 668 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 461.7) = 3326 mm2

Q18 C Min A s = 0.13 x 600 x 400 / 100 = 312 > 210 mm2; preferably provide 4 bars over 400mm; therefore

use 4T12, A s = 452 mm2

Q19 C (A) 100A s / bh = 0.785 < 0.8 unacceptable; (B) At least 4 bars; (D) 100A s / bh = 6.03 > 6

unacceptable

Q20 D Min A s = 0.18 x 600 x 400 / 100 = 432 > 380; although the steel area 4T12 is ok, it is preferable to

provide at least 5 – 6 bars over the width of 600mm.

Chapter 2 42
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
[Present your answers with detailed working steps in a neat, tidy and logical manner.]

AQ1 Given the following information of a rectangular beam section:

Design ultimate moment, M = 425 kN-m

Breadth, b = 600 mm Concrete cover = 35mm

Overall depth, h = 400 mm Preferred Link size: 10

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Preferred Bar size: 32

Steel, f y = 500 MPa

Determine the following:

(a) The effective depth (339 mm)
(b) The K value (0.154)
(c) The lever arm, z (0.78d, 264.7 mm)
(d) The steel area required (3691 mm²)
(e) Number and size of reinforcement bars, and steel area provided
(5T32, 4020 mm²)
(f) Check if the steel provided comply with the max. & min. limits
(4%>1.67%>0.13%, see Table 2.1, p.31))

AQ2 Given the following information of a flanged beam section of a simply

supported beam:
Design ultimate moment, M = 425 kN-m

Breadth, b w = 600 mm Concrete cover = 35mm

Overall depth, h = 400 mm Preferred Link size: 10

Slab thickness, h f = 150 mm Preferred Bar size: 32

Effective span, L = 7 700 mm Steel, f y = 500 MPa

c/c distance btw adjacent beams = 2 500mm Concrete, fcu = 40 MPa

Determine the following:

(a) The effective depth (339 mm)
(b) The effective flange width (2500 mm)

Chapter 2 43
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(c) The K value (0.037)

(d) The lever arm, z (0.95d, 322 mm)
(e) The steel area required (3034 mm²)
(f) Number and size of reinforcement bars, and steel area provided
(4T32, 3216 mm²)
(g) Check if the steel provided comply with the max. & min. limits
(4%>1.34%>0.18%, see Table 2.1, p.31))

Chapter 2 44
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 3│

Design Formulae for Shear, Deflection and Bond

Learning Objectives
 Appreciate the derivation of the design formulae for shear and
apply them to design for shear
 Apply the concept of span-to-depth ratio to check deflection of
beam
 Apply the concept of bond strength to determine the anchorage
and lap length of reinforcement bars

CONTENTS

3.1 Design for Shear

3.1.1 Design Concrete Shear Stress
3.1.2 Shear Reinforcement
3.1.3 Nominal Shear Reinforcement
3.1.4 Maximum Allowable Shear Stress
3.1.5 Enhanced Shear Resistance near Support
3.1.6 Spacing of Links
3.1.7 Examples – Shear Reinforcement for a Section
3.1.8 Examples – Shear Reinforcement for a Simply-supported Beam

3.2 Deflection Check by Span-to-Depth Ratio

3.2.1 Basic Span-to-Depth Ratio
3.2.2 Modification Factors
3.2.3 Examples – Span-to-depth Ratio

3.3 Anchorage and Lap

3.3.1 Minimum Ultimate Anchorage Bond Lengths
3.3.2 Lapping or Reinforcements

Chapter 3 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.1 Design for Shear

Shear in R C beam is designed, according to HKCP-2013, by using the

concept of averaged shear stress, which is calculated by:

V
v= [3.1]
bvd

where
V= design ultimate shear force
d= effective depth of the section
bv = breadth of the section for shear resistance
for rectangular section, b v = b
for flanged section, b v = b w

3.1.1 Design Concrete Shear Stress, v c

Concrete itself has some inherent shear resistance, which is provided by (i)
the uncracked concrete in the compression zone, (ii) aggregate interlocking
and (iii) the dowelling action of tension bars. If the shear stress, v, is less
than this inherent shear resistance, the section is, theoretically, not required
to provide any shear reinforcement. However, in practice, unless the
element is of minor importance or it is a slab, even the shear stress is very
small, nominal shear reinforcement should be provided.

The design concrete shear stress, v c , is defined by the following equation

(Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013):

100 A s 400 1
v c = 0.79 ( )1/3 ( )1/4 [3.2]
bvd d γm

where
100 A s should not be taken as greater than 3. (A s is the steel area of
( )
bvd longitudinal tension steel.)

Chapter 3 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

400 should not be taken as less than 0.67 for members without shear
( )1/4
d reinforcement. 1
400 should not be taken as less than 1 for members with minimum
( )1/4
d shear reinforcement.
γm 1.25, partial factor of safety for shear strength of concrete

The values of v c can also be obtained from the following table.

Table 3.1 – Values of Design Concrete Shear Stress, v c

(Extracted from Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013)

If f cu > 25 MPa, the value of v c has to be multiplied by (f cu / 25)1/3. The value

of f cu should not be taken as greater than 80MPa.

Example
If 100A s / (b v d) = 1.5, d = 300 mm, for Grade C35 concrete,
the value of v c = 0.78 x 1.12 = 0.874 MPa.
(where 1.12 = (35/25)1/3)

3.1.2 Shear Reinforcement

If the averaged shear stress, v, is greater than the design concrete shear
stress, v c , shear reinforcement should be provided. The amount of vertical

1 Members do not required to provide shear reinforcement are normally referring to slabs or beam of minor
important and the design shear stress is very small.

Chapter 3 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

shear links2 required can be derived by assuming that the angle of shear
crack is 45o to the horizontal as illustrated in the figure below.

V d

45o

sv

The number of links crossing the shear cracks = d / s v

Therefore, the shear resistance of the shear links = 0.87 f yv (d/s v )A sv

For equilibrium, the sum of shear resistances due to concrete and shear
links has to be larger than the design shear:

v c b v d + 0.87f yv (d / s v )A sv > V
0.87f yv (d / s v )A sv > V - v c b v d
A sv / s v > b v (v – v c ) /(0.87f yv ) [3.3]

Having determined the value of A sv /s v , the size and spacing of shear links
can be read from the following table:

Spacing of Links in (mm)

Link Size
80 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325

8 1.257 1.005 0.804 0.670 0.574 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.366 0.335 0.309

10 1.964 1.571 1.257 1.047 0.898 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.524 0.483

12 2.827 2.262 1.810 1.508 1.293 1.131 1.005 0.905 0.823 0.754 0.696

16 5.027 4.021 3.217 2.681 2.298 2.011 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.340 1.237

Table 3.2 – Asv / s v Values for Single Link (2 legs) (in mm2 per mm)

2 Other than link or stirrup, shear reinforcement can be in the form of bent-up bars. However, bent-up bars are
seldom used nowadays. Detail design requirements for bent-up bars can refer to Cl.[Link](e) of HKCP-2013.

Chapter 3 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Example
If the shear reinforcement (Grade 250) required is found to be A sv / s v = 0.552,
R10-275-2/legs can be used (A sv / s v pro = 0.571 > 0.552).

3.1.3 Nominal Shear Reinforcement

As mentioned above, even the average shear stress is very small (i.e. v < v c ),
the following nominal shear reinforcement (i.e. minimum links) should be
provided, unless (i) the beam is of minor importance or v < 0.5 v c or (ii) it is a
slab. 3

A sv / s v ≥ 0.4 b v / (0.87 f yv ) [3.4]

where
A sv = cross-sectional area of all legs of a link (in mm2)
sv = spacing of links (in mm)
f yv = characteristic strength of the link (in N/mm2)

In other words, nominal links provide a shear resistance of v r = 0.4 MPa.

Therefore, the shear capacity of a section provided with nominal links is:

V n = (v c + 0.4) b v d [3.5]

Example
The nominal links (Grade 250) required for a beam section with b v = 450mm is
A sv / s v = 0.4 x 450 / (0.87 x 250) = 0.828
Provide R10 - 175 - 2legs.

The detailed requirements of shear reinforcement according to the design

code (Table 6.2 of HKCP-2013) are presented as follows.

3 This formula for nominal link is applicable for concrete not higher than Grade C40. Refer to the design code for
modification for higher grade of concrete.

Chapter 3 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Table 3.3 – Form and Area of Shear Reinforcement in Beam

(Table 6.2 of HKCP-2013)

3.1.4 Maximum Allowable Shear Stress

The shear stress, v, must not exceed the lesser of

(i) 0.8 √ f cu or
(ii) 7 MPa [3.6]

If the shear stress of a section is found to exceed the above limits, the
concrete will crush under shear, and the size of the section has to be
increased.

Example
For Grade C45 concrete,
the maximum allowable shear stress is the lesser of 0.8 √ 45 = 5.4 MPa or 7 MPa,
i.e. 5.4 MPa.

Chapter 3 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.1.5 Enhanced Shear Resistance near Support

If the section is at a distance a v ≤ 2d from

d
the face of a support, the design concrete
shear stress, v c , can be increased by a
Face of
factor of (Cl. [Link](g) of HKCP-2013): support av

2d/a v

The upper limit to the enhanced design concrete shear stress is still the
lesser of 0.8√f cu or 7 MPa.

Simplified Approach

The design code (Cl.[Link](i) of HKCP-2013) provides a simplified approach

for design if the beam is subjected predominantly to uniformly distributed
load. Instead of increasing the design concrete shear stress, v c , a design
shear force with reduced value is adopted for design. The shear force at a
distance, d, from the face of the support, V d , is adopted, which is reduced by
(wd) when compared with the shear at the face of support, V s . The design
procedures are summarized as follows (refer to the shear force diagram
below):

(1) Check the maximum design shear force at the face of support, V s :

If v max = V s / (b v d) ≤ 0.8 √ f cu or 7 MPa then proceed to step (2);

otherwise, re-design by increasing the size of the section.

(2) Design the shear reinforcement for the design shear force at a distance,
d, from the face of support. V d :

V d = V s – wd and v d = V d / (b v d)

If v d < (v c + 0.4), provide nominal links [3.4] over the span;

otherwise, provide shear links [3.3] for V d up to the face of support.

Chapter 3 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design uniformly distributed load, w

Shear Links Nominal Links Shear Links

V
Vs
Vd
Vn

Figure 3.1 – Shear Force Diagram and Shear Reinforcement of

a Simply Supported Beam under UDL (Elevation)

3.1.6 Spacing of Links

Links cannot be placed too far apart. The maximum spacing of links is
limited by Cl.9.2.2 of HKCP-2013: 4

(a) The maximum spacing of links in the direction of the span,

s v ≤ 0.75d [3.7]

(b) At right-angle to the span, the horizontal spacing should be such that
no longitudinal tension bar is more than 150 mm from a vertical leg;
this spacing should in any case not exceed d.

4 There are other detailing requirements affecting the spacing of links. If compression steel is provided, the size
and spacing of link shall comply with the requirements on containment of compression steel as specified in
Cl.[Link] and Cl.9.5.2 of HKCP-2012. The requirements on transverse reinforcement in lap zone specified in
Cl. 8.7.4 of HKCP-2013 may also affect the details of links if there is lapping of rebars.

Chapter 3 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

≤ 0.75d X

Elevation

≤d

≤ 150
Section X - X

Figure 3.2 – Maximum Spacing of Links

In order to maintain the stiffness of the reinforcement cage during fixing and
concreting, it is advisable not to have spacing of links more than 300 mm.

It is common practice also to limit the minimum spacing of links. It is

recommended not to have spacing of link closer than 80 mm.

3.1.7 Examples – Shear Reinforcement for a Beam Section

Question A
Design the shear reinforcement for the following section.
f cu = 30 MPa bv = 200 mm
fy = 500 MPa. h= 200 mm
f yv = 250 MPa. d= 134 mm
Tension rebars: 2T32
Design Shear Force, V = 120 kN

Chapter 3 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Average shear stress v= V / (b v d)
= 120 x 103 / (200 x 134)
= 4.48 MPa
> 0.8 √ 30 = 4.38 MPa
(Concrete will crush. Re-design the section)

Question B
Design the shear reinforcement for the following section.
f cu = 30 MPa bv = 300 mm
fy = 500 MPa. h= 400 mm
f yv = 250 MPa. d= 334 mm
Tension rebars: 2T32
Design Shear Force, V = 120 kN

Solution
Average shear stress v= V / (b v d)
= 120 x 103 / (300 x 334)
= 1.20 MPa
< 0.8 √ 30 = 4.38 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c :

As = 2 x 804 = 1608 mm2
100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 1608 / (300 x 334) = 1.60 < 3

! Counter-check
the value of vc,
0.774, by reading
(400 / d)1/4 =
vc =
=
(400 / 334)1/4 = 1.046 > 1
0.79 x (1.60)1/3 x (1.046) / 1.25 x (30 / 25)1/3
0.774 x 1.063
from Table 3.1.
= 0.82 MPa

v c + 0.4 = 0.82 + 0.4 = 1.22 MPa

> 1.20 MPa (Provide nominal links)

Nominal Links
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 300 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.552
Max s v = 0.75 x d

Chapter 3 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 0.75 x 334 = 250.5 mm

(Provide R10 – 225 – 2legs)
A sv / s v, pro = 0.698 > 0.552

(Although the steel area of R10 – 275 - 2legs is adequate, it cannot fulfill the maximum
spacing requirements.)

Question C
Design the shear reinforcement for the following section.
f cu = 40 MPa bv = 350 mm
fy = 500 MPa. h= 650 mm
f yv = 250 MPa. Cover = 35 mm
Tension rebars: 3T40
Preferred size for link: 12
Design Shear Force, V = 360 kN

Solution
Effective depth, d = 650 – 35 – 12 – 20 = 583 mm
Average shear stress
v= V / (b v d)
= 360 x 103 / (350 x 583)
= 1.76 MPa
< 0.8 √ 40 = 5.06 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c :

As = 3 x 1257 = 3771 mm2
100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 3771 / (350 x 583) = 1.85 < 3
(400/d)1/4 =
vc =
(400 / 583)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
0.79 x (1.85)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (40 / 25)1/3
! 1.0 is used as
links not lesser
than nominal will
= 0.776 x 1.17 be provided

= 0.91 MPa

v c + 0.4 = 0.91 + 0.4 = 1.31 MPa

< 1.76 MPa (Provide shear links)

Shear Links
A sv / s v = b v (v – v c ) / (0.87 f yv )

Chapter 3 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 350 x (1.76 – 0.91) / (0.87 x 250)

= 1.368
Max s v = 0.75 x d
= 0.75 x 583 = 437 mm
(Provide R12 – 150 – 2legs)
A sv / s v, pro = 1.508 > 1.368

?
(Alternatively, R10 – 225 - 4legs (A sv / s v, pro = 2 x 0.698 =1.396) is also adequate.)
Q.1 – Q.9

3.1.8 Example – Shear Reinforcement for a Simply-supported Beam

Question
Design the shear reinforcement for the following simply-supported beam.

Design parameters
Effective depth, d = 550 mm
Beam breadth, b = 300 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 7 000 mm
Width of support, S w1 = S w2 = 300 mm
f cu = 35 MPa
f yv = 250 MPa
Design Load (udl), w = 65 kN/m (S/W included)
Bottom bars provided for bending = 4T25 at mid-span with 2T25 curtailed at
560 from the face of the support

Solution
As h > S w L= c/c distance between support
= 7 000 mm

Chapter 3 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

ai = 300 / 2 = 150 mm
(This beam is symmetrical; shears at both ends are the same.)
V= F/2
= 65.0 x 7 / 2
= 227.5 kN

Max shear at the face of support

Vs = V – w a1
= 227.5 – 65.0 x 150 / 103
= 217.8 kN
vs = 217.8 x 103 / (300 x 550)
= 1.32 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of support

Vd = V s – wd
= 217.8 – 65.0 x 550 / 103
= 182.1 kN
vd = 182.1 x 103 / (300 x 550)
= 1.10 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

As only 2T25 extends a distance d past the critical section,
As = 2 x 491 = 982 mm2
100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 982 / (300 x 550) = 0.60 < 3
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 550)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
vc = 0.79 x (0.6)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.53 x 1.12
= 0.59 MPa

v c + 0.4 = 0.59 + 0.4 = 0.99 MPa

< 1.10 MPa (Provide shear links)

Shear Links
A sv / s v = b v (v – v c ) / (0.87 f yv )
= 300 x (1.10 – 0.59) / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.703
(Provide R10 – 200 - 2legs as shear links)

Chapter 3 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A sv / s v, prov = 0.785 > 0.703

Extent of Shear Links

Vn = (v c + 0.4) b v d Shear Link Nominal Link

d
= 0.99 x 300 x 550 / 103
V
= 163.4 kN Vs
Vd
Dist. btw V n and V s = (217.8 – 163.4) x 103 / 65.0
Vn
= 846.9 mm 0

No. of link req'd = 846.9 / 200 +1

= 5.2
(Provide 6 no. of shear links)
Nominal Links
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 300 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.552

Max s v = 0.75 x d
= 0.75 x 550 = 413 mm
(Provide R10 – 275 – 2legs as nominal links)
A sv / s v, prov = 0.571 > 0.552

6R10-200 SS 6R10-275 SS 6R10-200 SS

Elevation

Chapter 3 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.2 Deflection Check by Span-to-Depth Ratio

In R C beam or slab design, usually, it is not necessary to calculate the

deflection directly. Instead, if the span-to-depth ratio of a beam is not too
large, or, in other words, the section is not too shallow, the deflection of the
beam under serviceability limit state would then deem to be satisfactory.
HKCP-2013 allows the use of this deem-to-satisfy approach in checking the
deflection. The span-to-depth ratio is defined as:

Effective span of the beam or slab

L/d=
Effective depth of the section

and,

Allowable L / d = m l m t m c (Basic L / d )

where ml : Modification factor for long span

mt : Modification factor for tension rebar
mc : Modification factor for compression rebar

As "effective span" and "effective depth" are adopted in definng the ratio,
design codes and text books always refer it to "effective span-to-depth ratio"
or "span-to-effective depth ratio". For simplicity, this teaching material
simply calls it "span-to-depth ratio" or "L/d ratio".

3.2.1 Basic Span-to-depth Ratio

The basic L/d ratio should be obtained from Table 7.3 of HKCP-2013.

Chapter 3 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Table 3.4 – Basic L/d Ratio for R. C. Section.

(Table 7.3 of HKCP-2013)

3.2.2 Modification Factors

The basic L / d ratio has to be reduced if the span is too large. For effective
span > 10 m, the basic L/d ratio should be multiplied by m l :

For L > 10, m l = 10 / L (where L is in meters)

The basic L/d ratio should be modified by the factor, m t , obtained from Table
7.4 of HKCP-2013, which depends on the design ultimate moment and the
service stress of the tension reinforcement at the center of the span (or at
the support of cantilever beam). The units of M/(bd2) and f s are in N/mm2.

Example
For a simply-supported rectangular beam, if M/(bd2) = 5.00 MPa and f s = 300 MPa, the
modification factor, m t = 0.80, and therefore the allowable L/d = 0.80 x 20 = 16.0.

Provision of compression reinforcement can enhance the stiffness of the

section and therefore increases the allowable L/d ratio. If compression
reinforcement is provided, the modification factor for compression steel, m c ,
should be obtained from Table 7.5 of HKCP-2013.

Chapter 3 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Table 3.5 – Modification Factor for Tension Reinforcement

(Table 7.4 of HKCP-2013)

Table 3.6 – Modification Factor for Compression Reinforcement

(Table 7.5 of HKCP-2013)

Chapter 3 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.2.3 Examples – Span-to-Depth Ratio

A simply-supported rectangular beam with the following information given:

f cu = 35 MPa b= 325 mm
fy = 500 MPa. d= 534 mm
Effective Span, L = 8 800 mm
Design Mid-span Moment, M = 320 kN (β b = 1.0)

Question A
Without the knowledge on the rebars, perform a preliminary check on the adequacy of the
beam mentioned above for deflection.

Solution
Basic L / d = 20 (Table 7.3)

M / (bd2) = 320 x 106 / (325 x 5342)

= 3.45 N/mm2
fs = 2/3 x 500 (Assume A s,req = A s,prov )
= 333 MPa (β b = 1.0)
mt = 0.55 + (477 - 333) / [120 (0.9 + 3.45)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.28
= 0.83

Allowable L / d = 0.83 x 20
= 16.6

Actual L / d = 8800 / 534

= 16.5 ≤ 16.6 (Deflection ok)

Question B
For the above beam, with following additional information, check its adequacy for deflection
again.
A s, req = 1575 mm2
Tension steel provided: 2T32 + 1T25

Chapter 3 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Basic L / d = 20 (Table 7.3)

M / (bd2) = 320 x 106 / (325 x 5342)

= 3.45 N/mm2
A s,req / A s,prov = 1575 / (2 x 804 + 491)
= 0.75
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.75
= 250 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477 - 250) / [120 (0.9 + 3.45)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.43
= 0.98

Allowable L / d = 0.98 x 20
= 19.6

Actual L / d = 8800 / 534

= 16.5 ≤ 19.6 (Deflection ok)

Question C
If two additional steel bars, 2T16, are provided in the compression zone of the beam
mentioned above, check the deflection again.

Solution
Assume the additional bars, 2T16, are placed in the compression zone and are fully
restrained from buckling by links. The first part of the calculation is the same, but one more
modification factor, m c , has to be applied.
Basic L / d = 20 (Table 7.3)

mt = 0.98 (Refer to above)

100 A' s,prov / (bd) = 100 x (2 x 201) / (325 x 534)

= 0.23
mc = 1 + 0.23 / (3+0.23) (Table 7.5)
= 1.07

Chapter 3 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Allowable L / d = 0.98 x 1.07 x 20

= 21.0

Actual L / d = 8800 / 534

= 16.5 ≤ 21.0 (Deflection ok)

?
Q.10 – Q.13

3.3 Anchorage and Lap

The composite action of reinforcement bars in concrete depends on the

effective transfer of force between concrete and steel. The bond between
concrete and rebar is developed through both mechanical interaction and
friction at the interface. For simplicity, the bond stress can be visualized as
adhesive strength and idealized as uniformly distributed at the interface of
concrete and rebar.

The design ultimate bond stress, f bu , i.e. the ultimate strength of the
concrete to hold the bar, is given by Eqn 8.3 of HKCP-2013:

f bu = β √f cu

The value of β is given in the following table:

Values of Bond Coefficient β

(Table 8.3 of HKCP-2013)

Chapter 3 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

3.3.1 Minimum Ultimate Anchorage Bond Lengths

A steel bar is embedded in concrete

and is being pulled out by a force as lb
shown in the figure. ϕ

If the embedment length is deep Fs

enough, the bar cannot be pulled
out. In other words, the bond
resistance of the embedded part is
stronger than the tension strength of
the bar, then

Resistance of the bond ≥ Tension capacity in the steel bar

f bu (πϕ) l b ≥ 0.87 f y (πϕ2/4)
0.87 f y
lb ≥ ϕ
4 f bu
= KA ϕ

Hence, the ultimate anchorage bond length can be expressed as multiples

of bar size. When the bar is anchored into the concrete more than this
length, the steel bar cannot be pulled out.

Ultimate Anchorage Bond Lengths (l b )

as Multiples of Bar Diameter (K A)
(Table 8.4 of HKCP-2013)

Chapter 3 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Example
For Grade 500 bars embedded in Grade C40 concrete, the ultimate anchorage bond length
is 35ϕ. Therefore, the ultimate anchorage bond length of T25 bar in Grade C40 concrete is
35 x 25 = 875 mm (say 900 mm).

3.3.2 Lapping of Reinforcements

Lapping of reinforcement bars is required when the force in a bar has to be

transmitted to another bar in the same direction. 5

The length of lapping depends lap Length

on the anchorage bond length,
concrete cover and spacing
between adjacent laps.

The general rule for lapping is

that laps should be staggered
and not located in high stress
zone. Refer to the design code for detail requirements.

5 The transmission of force from one bar to another bar can also be achieved by other means, like welding and
mechanical couplers. Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 3 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Key Concepts/Terms│

Average Shear Stress v

Design Concrete Shear Stress vc

Shear Strength of Nominal Reinforcement 0.4MPa

Maximum Allowable Shear Stress 0.8 √f cu or 7 MPa

Design Shear at the Face of Support Vs

Design Shear at d from Face of Support Vd

Deflection Check by Span-to-Depth Ratio L/d

Modification Factors to Basic Span-to-Depth Ratio ml , mt , mc

Chapter 3 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 Determine the averaged shear stress, v, for the following beam section.

Design ultimate Shear, V = 300 kN

Breadth, b w = 350 mm Effective flange width, b eff = 1550 mm

Effective depth, d = 486 mm Overall depth, h = 575 mm

A. 1.76 MPa
B. 1.49 MPa
C. 0.55 MPa
D. 0.33 MPa

Q.2 Determine the design concrete stress, v c , for the following beam section.

Breadth, b v = 350 mm Effective depth, d = 586 mm

Tension steel provided, A s = 1473 mm2 Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa

A. 0.63 MPa
B. 0.57 MPa
C. 0.51 MPa
D. 0.79 MPa

Q.3 Determine the design concrete stress, v c , for the following beam section.

Breadth, b v = 300 mm Effective depth, d = 336 mm

Tension steel provided, A s = 2412 mm2 Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa

A. 1.29 MPa
B. 0.88 MPa
C. 0.90 MPa
D. 1.03 MPa

Chapter 3 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.4 Determine the minimum value of design concrete stress, v c , for a rectangular beam section
constructed with Grade C45 concrete and reinforced with Grade 500 steel.

A. 0.34 MPa
B. 0.41 MPa
C. 0.51 MPa
D. 0.79 MPa

Q.5 Determine the nominal shear reinforcement required, A sv / s v , for the following beam section.

Breadth, b v = 300 mm Effective depth, d = 336 mm

Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa Steel, f yv = 500 MPa

Design concrete shear stress, v c = 1.05 MPa

A. 0.276 mm2/mm
B. 0.309 mm2/mm
C. 0.724 mm2/mm
D. 0.552 mm2/mm

Q.6 Determine the shear capacity, V n , of the following beam section if it is provided with nominal
shear reinforcement.

Breadth, b v = 300 mm Effective depth, d = 336 mm

Concrete, f cu = 35 MPa Steel, f yv = 500 MPa

Design concrete shear stress, v c = 1.05 MPa

A. 40 kN
B. 146 kN
C. 106 kN
D. 183 kN

Chapter 3 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.7 What is the maximum allowable shear stress of Grade C40 concrete?

A. 0.8 MPa
B. 7.0 MPa
C. 5.06 MPa
D. 5.1 kN/m2

Q.8 If A sv / s v required is 1.20 mm2/mm, which of the following links is most appropriate?

A. T10 – 125 - 2legs

B. T12 – 80 - 2legs
C. T10 – 175 - 2legs
D. T12 – 200 - 2legs

Q.9 If A sv / s v required is 2.40 mm2/mm, which of the following links is most appropriate?

A. T12 – 100 - 2legs

B. T10 – 175 - 4legs
C. T10 – 125 - 4legs
D. T20 – 250 - 2legs

Q.10 Determine the modification factor, m t , to the Basic Span-to-depth ratio for the following
rectangular beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 430 kN-m

Breadth, b = 350 mm Effective depth, d = 475 mm

A s, req = 2556 mm2 Rebars provided: 2T40 + 1T20

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 1.22
B. 0.70
C. 0.80
D. 0.78

Chapter 3 26
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.11 Determine the modification factor, m t , to the Basic Span-to-depth ratio for the following
flanged beam section.

Design ultimate moment, M = 920 kN-m

b eff = 1850 mm Effective depth, d = 685 mm

bw = 400 mm

A s, req = 3250 mm2 Rebars provided: 2T40 + 1T32

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

A. 0.77
B. 1.19
C. 0.82
D. 1.70

Q.12 Find the allowable span-to-depth ratio of the end-span of a one-way continuous slab with the
following information:

M/(bd2) = 2.00 Effective span, L = 9 000 mm

fy = 500 MPa f cu = 35 MPa

A. 22.1
B. 23.0
C. 21.0
D. 25.0

Q.13 Find the allowable span-to-depth ratio for a simply-supported flanged beam with the following
information.

M / (bd2) = 1.50 Effective span, L = 11 000mm

fy = 500 MPa bw / b < 0.3

A. 16.8
B. 16.0
C. 15.3
D. 21.0

Chapter 3 27
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Answers:

Q1 A v = 300 x 103 / (350 x 486) = 1.76 MPa

Q2 A 100A s / (bd) = 0.718; 400 / d < 1 (use 1); v c = 0.566 x 1.119 = 0.63 MPa

Q3 D 100A s / (bd) = 2.393; 400 / d = 1.190; v c = 0.883 x 1.170 = 1.03 MPa

Q4 B Min v c in Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013= 0.34; for Grade C45 concrete 0.34 x 1.216 = 0.41 MPa

Q5 A Nominal A sv / s v = 0.4x300 / (0.87 x 500) = 0.276 mm2 /mm

Q6 B V n = (1.05 + 0.4) x 300 x 336 x 10-3 = 146 kN

Q7 C Max allowable v = 0.8 x √40 =5.06MPa

Q8 A (A) A sv / s v = 1.26 >1.2 Ok; (B) spacing too small; (C) A sv / s v = 0.897 < 1.2 inadequate; (D) A sv / s v

= 1.13 < 1.2 inadequate

Q9 C (A) ) A sv / s v = 2.26 < 2.4 inadequate; (B) ) A sv / s v = 1.79 < 2.4 inadequate; (C) ) A sv / s v = 2.51 <

2.5 OK; (D) ) A sv / s v = 2.5 > 2.4 adequate but bar size is too large, hence (C) is comparatively
better.

Q10 D M / (bd2) = 5.45 MPa; f s = 0.603 x 500 = 302 MPa; m t = 0.55 + 0.23 = 0.78

Q11 B M / (bd2) = 1.06 MPa; f s = 0.653 x 500 = 327 MPa; m t = 0.55 + 0.64 = 1.19

Q12 A Basic L / d = 23; m t = 0.96; allowable L / d = 23 x 0.96 = 22.1

Q13 C Basic L / d = 16, m t = 1.05; allowable L / d = 16 x 1.05 x 10 / 11 = 15.3

Chapter 3 28
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
[Present your answers with detailed working steps in a neat, tidy and logical manner.]

AQ1 Design the shear reinforcement for the following beam section:

f cu = 40 MPa bv = 325 mm

fy = 500 MPa. h= 650 mm

f yv = 250 MPa. Cover = 35 mm

Tension rebars: 3T40

Preferred size for link: 12

(a) If the Design Shear Force, V = 380 kN

(v = 2 N/mm², v c = 0.93 N/mm², As v / S v = 1.61, provide R12-125-2 legs)
(b) If the Design Shear Force, V = 250 kN
(v = 1.32 N/mm², v c = 0.93 N/mm², As v / S v = 0.598, provide R12-300-2 legs)

AQ2 Check the deflection of the following simply-supported beam by

span-to-depth ratio:

Design ultimate moment, M = 1200 kN-m

b eff = 1980 mm Effective depth, d = 685 mm

bw = 450 mm

Effective Span, L = 9 800 mm Rebars provided: 4T40

Concrete, f cu = 40 MPa Steel, f y = 500 MPa

(a) Check by flanged section with A s, req = 4239 mm2. (m t = 1.29)

(b) Check by using rectangular section with A s, req = 5012 mm2. (m t = 0.73)

Chapter 3 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 4│

Design of R C Beams

Learning Objectives
 Identify the data, formulae and procedures for design of R C
beams
 Design simply-supported and continuous R C beams by integrating
the following processes
o determining design loads
o determining design forces by force coefficients
o determining reinforcement for bending and shear
o checking deflection by span-to-depth ratio

CONTENTS

4.1 Design Data, Formulae and Procedures

4.1.1 Design Forces
4.1.2 Force Coefficients
4.1.3 Design for Moment and Shear
4.1.4 Deflection Check by Span-to-depth Ratio

4.2 Simply-supported Beams

4.2.1 Example – Simply-supported Rectangular Beam
4.2.2 Examples – Simply-supported Flanged Beam
4.2.3 Notes on Detailing

4.3 Continuous Beams

4.3.1 Example – Uniformly Loaded & Equal Span

Chapter 4 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.1 Design Data, Formulae and Procedures

A beam is generally referred to a horizontal element designed to take up

gravitational load, and, although it may be designed as an integral of a
structural frame to resist lateral load, the predominant design forces for a
beam are bending moment, M, and shear force, V. 1

The design data, formulae and rules that you have learnt in Chapters 1 to 3,
which are summarized in the "Annex – R C Design Formulae and Data", will
be adopted in this Chapter. You will learn how to integrate and apply them
to carry out the whole process of design calculations for a beam.

The basic steps in designing of R C beams are:

I. Determine the design loads Assumed + Prescribed

Parameters
II. Determine the design forces
III. Determine the reinforcement
IV. Check deflection
V. Detailing

In the each of the above step, we

have to identify the necessary data or
design parameters for inputting into
appropriate formulae to get the
required results and then to check for
compliance with the design code.
Some data may have to be assumed
first and then to be verified when the
result is available. The whole
process always requires several
iterations. For example, the effective
depth of the section has to be Result

assumed to calculate the steel area

required, and if the steel area required

1 Beam may also be subjected to torsion and axial load. They are beyond the scope in this chapter. Refer to
the design code for details.

Chapter 4 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

is then found to be so large that it has exceeded the maximum limit as

specified in the design code, the effective depth will has to be increased and
the calculations are then re-iterated. Experience can help to make more
realistic initial assumptions to reduce the number of iterations in the design
process.

4.1.1 Design Forces

In general, the following data are required to determine the design forces:

(a) Design Loads 2

• Dead Load (G k , g k )
o Principle dimensions and density of (i) the structural elements,
and (ii) finishes, wall, etc. that are permanent in nature
• Imposed Load (Q k , q k )
o Load arises from the (i) usage of the floor and (ii) partition,
heavy furniture or equipment, etc. that are transient in nature
• Partial Factors of Safety for Load

(b) Span
• Center-to-center span
• Support width, S w , and overall depth of the beam, h
• Effective span, L

(c) Force Coefficients

Under most circumstances, force coefficients from design code or
design manuals can be used to obtain the design moments and shears
without undergoing detailed structural analysis. If the configurations of
the beam and/or the loading patterns do not meet the requirements of
using these force coefficients, simplified sub-frame can be used for
structural analysis. 3

2
For the purposes of this course, we focus our discussion on gravitational loads only.
3 Beam may also be part of the structural frame to resist lateral load. Design forces, i.e. moment and shear,
obtained from the lateral analysis have to be considered together with that due to gravitation loads. In order to
ensure robustness of the whole structure in resisting lateral load, additional ductility requirements are imposed.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter. Refer to the design code or other text for details.

Chapter 4 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.1.2 Force Coefficients

For simply-supported beam under uniformly distributed load (udl), the force
coefficients are:

Mid-span Moment, M = 0.125 F L or 0.125 w L2

Shear at Support, V = 0.5 F or 0.5 w L

For continuous beams with approximately equal spans under udl, the
following force coefficients are provided by HKCP-2013:

At outer Near middle At first At middle of At interior

support of end span interior interior span supports
support

Moment 0 0.09FL -0.11FL 0.07FL -0.08FL

Shear 0.45F - 0.6F - 0.55F

Notes:

1. No redistribution of the moments calculated from this table should be made.

2. Characteristic imposed load may not exceed the characteristic dead load.

3. Load should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans.

4. Variation in span length should not exceed 15% of the longest.

Table 4.1 – Force Coefficients for Continuous Beams

with Approximately Equal Span under udl
(Table 6.1 of HKCP-2013)

The values in the above table can be presented in the form of moment and
shear force diagrams as shown below.

Chapter 4 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

0.11FL
0.08FL

Bending
Moment
Diagram

0.07FL
0.09FL

0.45F 0.55F

Shear Force
Diagram

0.55F
0.6F

Figure 4.1 – Moment and Shear Force Diagrams for Continuous Beams
with Approximately Equal Span under udl

In the above table, the design moment at the outer support is zero, i.e.
simply supported. However, reinforced concrete beams are usually
constructed monolithically with the support. In order to avoid unsightly
cracks due to the moment arising from partial fixity at the support, a
minimum design bending moment of at least 15% of the span moment is
recommended by Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013.

4.1.3 Design for Moment and Shear

In general, the procedures to design for moment, M, are:

1. Identify the effective sectional dimensions and design parameters.

2. Calculate the K value and check if K < K'.

3. Calculate the lever arm z and check its limits.

4. Calculate the amount of steel required, A s and/or A' s .

5. Determine the size and number of bars.

6. Check if the limits to steel area ratio are complied with.

Chapter 4 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

In general, the procedures to design for shear, V, are:

1. Identify the effective sectional dimensions and design parameters.

2. Calculate the maximum shear at the faces of the supports, V s .

3. Check if the shear stress v s exceeds the maximum allowable shear

stress, i.e. 0.8√f cu .

If v s < 0.8√f cu , proceed to next step

If v s > 0.8√f cu , increase the size of the section

4. Calculate the shear forces at d from the faces of the supports, V d .

5. Calculate v c .

6. Check if the shear stress v d exceeds v c + 0.4.

If v d < v c +0.4, provide nominal link.

If v d > v c +0.4, provide shear link and determine the extent.

7. Determine the size and spacing of the links.

8. Check if the limits to spacing of links are complied with.

4.1.4 Deflection Check by Span-to-depth Ratio

In general, the procedures to check deflection by span-to-depth ratio are:

1. Determine the basic L/d ratio.

2. Determine the modification factors, m l , m t & m c .

3. Determine the allowable L/d ratio.

4. Check if the actual L/d ratio exceeds the allowable or not.

Chapter 4 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.2 Simply-supported Beams

The whole design process of a simply-supported beam is illustrated by three

examples in this section. They show you how to integrate what you have
learnt in the previous chapters. The basic procedures of the design are:

1. Determine the effective span, L, a 1 & a 2

2. Determine the design load and forces, M & V

3. Determine the effective dimensions, d, b eff , b w , b v .

4. Design the bars for mid-span moment

5. Design for the shear at supports

6. Check deflection by span-to-depth ratio

The example in 4.2.1 demonstrates the basic process to design a simple

rectangular beam.

Two examples in 4.2.2 provide a more realistic illustration on the whole

process of design. A beam from the framing plan in DWG-01 is used as a
demonstration. It is a flanged section. Calculations of loading and
determination of effective flange width are included in the design process.
The beam is then re-designed with some changes: the beam depth is
reduced and additional load is imposed. You can appreciate the implications
of these changes on the design. The reinforcement details of the beams
are presented as DWG-02 at the end of this Chapter.

4.2.1 Example – Simply-supported Rectangular Beam

Question
A rectangular beam simply supported at both ends as shown below. Design the
reinforcement and check if the deflection is acceptable or not.

Chapter 4 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Sw1 Sw2

Center-to-center distance btw supports

Elevation Section

Design parameters
Beam overall depth, h = 750 mm
Beam breadth, b = 300 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 9 050 mm
Width of LHS support, S w1 = 400 mm
Width of RHS support, S w2 = 850 mm
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
f yv = 250 MPa
Cover = 35 mm
Preferred bar size = 40 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Design Load (udl), w = 60 kN/m (S/W included)

Solution
Effective Span
Clear Span, L n = 9050 – 400 / 2 – 850 / 2
= 8425 mm
Effective Span, L = Ln + a1 + a2

The smaller of 8425 + Min (400 / 2, 750 / 2) + Min (850 / 2, 750 / 2)

Sw/2 or h/2 is = 8425 + 200 + 375
used to calculate = 9 000 mm
L.

Design Forces
(In this question, it is not necessary to determine the design load as it is given.)
Design Load, w = 60 kN/m (given)
Design Moment, M = 0.125 w L2

Chapter 4 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 0.125 x 60.0 x 92
= 607.5 kN-m
Design Shear, V = 0.5 w L
= 0.5 x 60 x 9
= 270 kN

Effective Depth
d= 750 – 35 – 10 – 40 / 2
= 685 mm

Design for Bending Moment

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 607.5 x 106 / (300 x 6852 x 35)
= 0.123
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.123 / 0.9)0.5] x 685
= 0.837 x 685
= 573 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 607.5 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 573)
= 2 437 mm2
(Provide 2T40)
A s,pro = 2 x 1257
= 2 514 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 2514 / (300 x 750) = 1.117
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Design for Shear at Support

Max shear at the face of LHS support
Vs = V – wa 1
= 270 – 60 x 200 / 103
= 258 kN
v max = v s = V / (b v d)
= 258 x 103 / (300 x 685)
= 1.26 MPa

Chapter 4 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of LHS support

Vd = 258 – wd
= 258 – 60 x 685 / 103
= 217 kN
vd = 217 x 103 / (300 x 685)
= 1.06 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 2514 / (300 x 685) = 1.22 < 3
The tables/equations
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 685)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
quoted in the

As pro instead of As req

vc = 0.79 x (1.22)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3 calculations are

is used for As in = 0.675 x 1.12 referring to

determining vc = 0.76 MPa HKCP-2013.

v c + 0.4 = 0.76 + 0.4 = 1.16 MPa

> 1.06 MPa (Provide nominal links)
Nominal Links
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 300 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.552
Max s v < 0.75 x d
= 0.75 x 685 = 514 mm
(Provide R10 – 275 – 2legs)
A sv / s v, pro = 0.571 > 0.552

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 20 (Simply-supported Rectangular Beam) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 607.5 x 106 / (300 x 6852)

= 4.32 N/mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 2437 / 2514 = 0.969
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.969 = 323 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477 - 323) / [120 (0.9 + 4.32)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.246
= 0.796

Chapter 4 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Allowable L / d = 0.796 x 20 = 15.92

Actual L / d = 9000 / 685
= 13.14 ≤ 15.92 (Deflection ok)

4.2.2 Example – Simply-supported Flanged Beam

Question A
Design the R C beam, 5B2, shown on the framing plan in DWG-01 of Chapter 1. The
following are the design parameters for the beam.
Design parameters
Beam overall depth, h = 750 mm
Beam breadth, b = 300 mm
Slab thickness, h f = 160 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 9 000 mm
Width of support, S w = 500 mm (similar at both ends)
c/c distance btw adjacent beams = 3 300 mm (similar on both sides)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
f yv = 250 MPa
Cover = 35 mm
Preferred bar size = 32 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Solution
Effective Span
As h > S w L= c/c distance between supports
= 9 000 mm
a1 = a2 = S w /2 = 250 mm

Loading
Load width = 3300 mm It is the c/c distance
between adjacent beams.
Dead Load
Finishes: 2.0 x 3.3 = 6.6 kN/m
Slab S/W: 24.5 x 0.16 x 3.3 = 12.9 kN/m

Chapter 4 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Beam S/W: 24.5 x 0.3 x (0.75-0.16) = 4.3 kN/m

gk = 23.8 kN/m
Imposed Load
5.0 x 3.3 = 16.5 kN/m
qk = 16.5 kN/m

The design load, w = 1.4 x 23.8 + 1.6 x 16.5

= 59.7 kN / m

Design Forces
Design Moment, M = 0.125 x 59.7 x 92
= 604 kN-m
Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 59.7 x 9
= 269 kN

Effective Depth
d= 750 – 35 – 10 – 32/2
b
eff
= 689 mm
x
hf

Effective Flange Width

d
h
(Equal slab span on both sides of the beam)
b1 = b2 = 1 500 mm
bw = b = 300 mm b
w

L pi = L = 9 000 mm
b eff,1 = b eff,2 = Min (0.2 x 1500 + 0.1 x 9000 or 0.2 x 9000 or 1500)
= Min (1200 or 1800 or 1500)
= 1200 mm
b eff = 2 x 1200 + 300
= 2 700 mm

Design for Bending Moment

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 604 x 106 / (2700 x 6892 x 35)
= 0.013
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Or, simply state:

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d
"as K < 0.0428,
use z = 0.95d" = [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.013 / 0.9)0.5] x 689

Chapter 4 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 0.985 x 689 (use 0.95 x 689)

= 655 mm

Check neutral axis, x = (689 – 655) / 0.45

= 76 < 160 mm (N.A. is within the flange)

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 604 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 655)
= 2 120 mm2
(Provide 3T32)
A s,pro = 3 x 804
= 2 412 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 2412 / (300 x 750) = 1.072
> 0.18 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Design for Shear at Support

(As this beam is symmetrical, shears at both ends are the same.)
Max shear at the face of support
Vs = V – wa 1
= 269 – 59.7 x 250 / 103
= 254 kN

bv = bw v max = v s = 254 x 103 / (300 x 689)

= 1.23 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of support

Vd = 254 – wd
= 254 – 59.7 x 689 / 103
= 213 kN
vd = 213 x 103 / (300 x 689)
= 1.03 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 2412 / (300 x 689) = 1.17 < 3
(400 / d) = (400 / 689)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
vc = 0.79 x (1.17)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.666 x 1.12
= 0.746 MPa

Chapter 4 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

v c + 0.4 = 0.746 + 0.4 = 1.146 MPa

> 1.03 MPa (Provide nominal links)
Nominal Links
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 300 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.552
Max s v < 0.75 x d
= 0.75 x 689 = 517 mm
(Provide R10 – 275 – 2legs)
A sv / s v, prov = 0.571 > 0.552

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 16 (Simply Supported Flanged Beam) (Table 7.3)

M / (bd2) = 604 x 106 / (2700 x 6892)

= 0.471 N/mm2
beff instead of bw
is used for b in
A s,req / A s,pro = 2120 / 2412
L/d checking = 0.879
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.879 = 293 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477 - 293) / [120 (0.9 + 0.471)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 1.118
= 1.668

Allowable L / d = 1.668 x 16 = 26.69

Actual L / d = 9000 / 689
= 13.06 ≤ 26.69 (Deflection ok)

Question B
Re-design the R C beam, 5B2, in Example A, as 5B2A with the following changes:
Q1 – Q2
?
Beam overall depth, h = 550 mm (reduced)
Additional load = 100 mm thick brick wall with 15mm cement mortar on
both sides, 3.0 m high seating directly on the beam
over the whole span
Density of brick is 21.7 kN/m3
Density of cement mortar is 23 kN/m3

Chapter 4 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Design parameters
Beam overall depth, h = 550 mm (revised)
Beam breadth, b = 300 mm
Slab thickness, h f = 160 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 9 000 mm
Width of support, S w = 500 mm (similar at both ends)
c/c distance btw adjacent beams = 3 300 mm (similar on both sides)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
f yv = 250 MPa
Cover = 35 mm
Preferred bar size = 40 mm (An increased value is assumed)
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Effective Span
As h > S w L= c/c distance between supports
= 9 000 mm
a1 = a2 = S w / 2 = 250 mm

Loading
Load width = 3.3 m
Dead Load
Finishes: 2.0 x 3.3 = 6.6 kN/m
Wall: (21.7 x 0.1 + 23 x 0.03) x 3.0 = 8.6 kN/m (additional)
Slab S/W: 24.5 x 0.16 x 3.3 = 12.9 kN/m
Beam S/W: 24.5 x 0.3 x (0.55 - 0.16) = 2.9 kN/m
gk = 31.0 kN/m
Imposed Load
5.0 x 3.3 = 16.5 kN/m
qk = 16.5 kN/m

The design load, w = 1.4 x 31.0 + 1.6 x 16.5

= 69.8 kN / m

Chapter 4 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Forces
Design Moment, M = 0.125 x 69.8 x 92
= 707 kN-m
Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 69.8 x 9
= 314 kN

Effective Depth
d= 550 – 35 – 10 – 40 / 2
= 485 mm (revised)

Effective Flange Width

(Equal slab span on both sides of the beam)
b1 = b2 = 1 500 mm
bw = b = 300 mm
L pi = L = 9 000 mm
b eff,1 = b eff,2 = Min (0.2 x 1500 + 0.1 x 9000 or 0.2 x 9000 or 1500)
= Min (1200 or 1800 or 1500)
= 1200 mm
b eff = 2 x 1200 + 300
= 2 700 mm

Design for Bending Moment

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 707 x 106 / (2700 x 4852 x 35)
= 0.032
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

K < 0.0428 z= 0.95 d

= 0.95 x 485
= 461 mm

Check neutral axis, x = (485 – 461) / 0.45

= 53 < 160 mm (N.A. is within the flange)

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 707 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 461)
= 3 526 mm2
(Provide 3T40, as assumed)

Chapter 4 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A s,pro = 3 x 1257
= 3 771 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 3771 / (300 x 550) = 2.285
> 0.18 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Design for Shear at Support

(As this beam is symmetrical, shears at both ends are the same.)
Max shear at the face of support
Vs = V – wa i
= 314 – 69.8 x 250 / 103
= 297 kN
v max = v s = 297 x 103 / (300 x 485)
= 2.04 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of support

Vd = 297 – wd
= 297 – 69.8 x 485 / 103
= 263 kN
vd = 263 x 103 / (300 x 485)
= 1.81 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

Only 2T40 extends to the supports (see DWG-02)
As = 2 x 1257 = 2514 mm2
100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 2514 / (300 x 485) = 1.73 < 3
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 485)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
vc = 0.79 x (1.73)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.759 x 1.12
= 0.85 MPa

v c + 0.4 = 0.85 + 0.4 = 1.25 MPa

< 1.81 MPa (Provide shear links)
Shear Links
A sv / s v = b v (v – v c ) / (0.87 f yv )
= 300 x (1.81 – 0.85) / (0.87 x 250)
= 1.324
(Provide R10 – 100 -2legs as shear links)

Chapter 4 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A sv / s v, prov = 1.570 > 1.324

d
Extent of Shear Links
Vn = (v c + 0.4) b v d
Shear Link Nominal Link

= 1.25 x 300 x 485 x 10-3 d

= 182 kN V
Vs
Dist. btw V n and V s = (297 - 182) x 103 / 69.8 Vd
Vn
= 1648 mm
0
No. of links req'd = 1648 / 100 +1
= 17.5 (Provide 18 no. of shear links)

Nominal Links
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 300 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.552
Max s v <
=
0.75 x d
0.75 x 485 = 363 mm
Q3 – Q4
?
(Provide R10 – 275 – 2legs as nominal links)
A sv / s v, prov = 0.571 > 0.552

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 16 (Simply Supported Flanged Beam) (Table 7.3)

M / (bd2) = 707 x 106 / (2700 x 4852)

= 1.11 N/mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 3526 / 3771 = 0.935
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.935 = 312 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477 - 312) / [120 (0.9 + 1.11)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.684
= 1.234

Allowable L / d = 1.234 x 16 = 19.74

Actual L / d = 9000 / 485
= 18.55 ≤ 19.74 (Deflection ok)

Chapter 4 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.2.3 Notes on Detailing

The reinforcement details of the simply-supported beams of Questions B

and C in 4.2.2 above are shown in DWG-02 at the end of the Chapter. Take
note of the following in the details: 4

(a) In order to support the links, top bars are provided at the top corners
of the links. They are called carriers, and should not be regarded as
compression steel unless they are properly restrained from buckling.

(b) In theory, there is no hogging moment at the supports and therefore

top bar is not required. However, in order to avoid unsightly cracks
due partial fixity to the supporting beams, a certain amount of rebars
are provided at the top of the supports.

(c) Provision of 3 number of bars on the tension face of the beam with
300mm width, the bar spacing deems appropriate for dispersing the
cracks. (Refer to chapter 2 for details.)

(d) The maximum moment at mid-span is adopted as the design moment

to determine the reinforcement bars. The bending moment in the
beam is decreasing, theoretically, to zero at the supports and
therefore it is not necessary to have all the bottom bars extended to
the supports. The design code requires at least half of the steel be
extended to and anchored into the supports.

4.3 Continuous Beams

The design process of continuous beam is quite similar to that of

simply-supported beam except that hogging moments at supports have to
be designed for in continuous beam. For beam in building structures,
sagging moment in the mid-span is usually resisted by flanged section while
hogging moments in the supports are resisted by rectangular section.

4 The rules of reinforcement detailing are beyond the scope of this chapter. Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 4 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Three examples are provided to demonstrate the whole design process of a

continuous beam. The example in 4.3.1 demonstrates the basic principle
of the design. It is a continuous beam of approximately equal span under
uniformly distributed load, and therefore the force coefficients in 4.1.2
mentioned above can be used to determine the design forces. For
demonstration purpose, only one of the spans of the continuous beam is
designed in the example.

Questions A & B in 4.3.2 let you appreciate the design of a long-span beam
by sub-frame analysis. It accentuates the heavily reinforced sections at the
supports, and illustrates the effect of moment redistribution on the design.

4.3.1 Example – Uniformly Loaded & Equal Span

Question
DWG-03 at the end of this Chapter shows the framing plan of a roof garden. There is a
continuous beam RB21-RB22-RB23. Design the reinforcement and check the deflection
for the end span, RB21 of this beam.

Solution
Design parameters
The following design parameters can be obtained from DWG-03:
Beam overall depth, h = 600 mm
Beam breadth, b = 350 mm
Slab thickness, h f = 150 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 6 500 mm (same for all spans)
Width of LHS support, S w1 = 200 mm
Width of RHS support, S w2 = 350 mm
c/c distance btw adjacent beams = 3 200 mm (same on both sides)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
f yv = 250 MPa
Cover = 40 mm
Preferred bar size = 32 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN / m3

Chapter 4 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Allowance for roofing = 2.0 kPa

Allowance for soil = 450 mm thick
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Effective Span
As h > S w , L= center-to-center distance btw support
= 6 500 mm
a1 = S w1 / 2 = 100 mm
a2 = S w2 / 2 = 175 mm

Loading
Load width = 3200 mm
Dead Load
Roofing: 2.0 x 3.2 = 6.4 kN/m
Soil: 20 x 0.45 x 3.2 = 28.8 kN/m
Slab S/W: 24.5 x 0.15 x 3.2 = 11.8 kN/m
Beam S/W: 24.5 x 0.35 x (0.60-0.15) = 3.9 kN/m
gk = 50.9 kN/m
Imposed Load
5.0 x 3.2 = 16.0 kN/m
qk = 16.0 kN/m

The design load, w = 1.4 x 50.9 + 1.6 x 16.0

= 96.8 kN/m
F= 96.8 x 6.5
= 629 kN

Design Forces (Table 6.1)

Design Moments
At LHS support, M = 0
At mid-span, M = 0.09 x 629 x 6.5
= 368 kN-m
At RHS support, M = - 0.11 x 629 x 6.5
= - 450 kN-m
Design Shears
At LHS support, V = 0.45 x 629
= 283 kN

Chapter 4 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

At RHS support, V = 0.6 x 629

= 377 kN

Design for Mid-span Bending Moment

M= 368 KN-m (sagging Mt resisted by flanged section)

Effective Depth, d = 600 – 40 – 10 – 32 / 2

= 534 mm

Effective Flange Width (equal slab span on both sides of the beam)
b1 = b2 = 1 425 mm
bw = b = 350 mm
(End-span) L pi = 0.85 x 6500 mm
= 5525 mm
b eff,1 = b eff,2 = Min (0.2 x 1425 + 0.1 x 5525 or 0.2 x 5525 or 1425)
= Min (837.5 or 1105 or 1425)
= 837.5 mm
b eff = 2 x 837.5 + 350
d
= 2 025 mm

K= M / (bd2f cu )
b
w
= 368 x 106 / (2025 x 5342 x 35)
= 0.018
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

K < 0.0428 z= 0.95d = 0.95 x 534

= 507 mm

Check neutral axis, x = (534 – 507)/0.45

= 60 < 150 mm (N.A. is within the flange)

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 368 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 507)
= 1 668 mm2
(Provide 2T32+1T20 bottom)
A s,pro = 2 x 804 + 314
= 1 922 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 1922 / (350 x 600) = 0.92

Chapter 4 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

> 0.18 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Design for LHS Support Shear

(The design moment is zero.
Therefore, A s and d of the bottom bars are used for shear design.)
Max shear at the face of support
Vs = V – wa 1
= 283 – 96.8 x 100 / 103
= 273 kN
v max = v s = 273 x 103 / (350 x 534)
= 1.46 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of support

Vd = Vs – w d
= 273 – 96.8 x 534 / 103
= 221 kN
vd = 221 x 103 / (350 x 534)
= 1.18 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 1922 / (350 x 534) = 1.03 < 3
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 534)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
vc = 0.79 x (1.03)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.64 x 1.12
= 0.72 MPa

v c + 0.4 = 0.72 + 0.4 = 1.12 MPa

< 1.18 MPa (Shear link is required)
Shear Link
A sv / s v = b v (v – v c ) / (0.87 f yv )
= 350 x (1.18 – 0.72) / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.740
Nominal Link
A sv / s v = 0.4 x b v / (0.87 f yv )
= 0.4 x 350 / (0.87 x 250)
= 0.644
Max s v < 0.75 x d

Chapter 4 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 0.75 x 534 = 400.5 mm

(Provide R10 – 200 – 2legs)
A sv / s v, prov = 0.785 > 0.644 and 0.740

Design for RHS Support Bending Moment

M= 450 kN-m (hogging Mt. resisted by rectangular section)
Effective depth, d = 600 – 40 – 10 – 32 / 2
= 534 mm
d

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 450 x 106 / (350 x 5342 x 35) b
w

= 0.129
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K / 0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.129 / 0.9)0.5] x 534
= 0.827 x 534
= 442 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 450 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 442)
= 2 340 mm2
(Provide 3T32 top)
A s,pro = 3 x 804
= 2 412 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 2412 / (350 x 600) = 1.15
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Design for RHS Support Shear

Max shear at the face of support
Vs = V – wa 2
= 377 – 96.8 x 175 / 103
= 360 kN
v max = v s = 360 x 103 / (350 x 534)
= 1.93 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)

Shear at d from the face of support

Chapter 4 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Vd = Vs – w d
= 360 – 96.8 x 534 / 103
= 308 kN
vd = 308 x 103 / (350 x 534)
= 1.65 MPa

Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)

100A s / (b v d) = 100 x 2412 / (350 x 534) = 1.29 < 3
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 534)1/4 < 1 (use 1.0)
vc = 0.79 x (1.29)1/3 x (1.0) / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.69 x 1.12
= 0.77 MPa
v c + 0.4 = 0.77 + 0.4 = 1.17 MPa
< 1.65 MPa (Shear link is required)
Shear Link
A sv / s v = b v (v – v c ) / (0.87 f yv )
= 350 x (1.65 – 0.77) / (0.87 x 250)
= 1.42
(Provide R10 – 200 - 4legs as shear link)
A sv / s v, prov = 2 x 0.785 = 1.57 > 1.42
Extent of Shear Link
Vn = (v c + 0.4) b v d
= 1.17 x 350 x 534 / 103
= 219 kN
Dist. btw V n and V s = (360 - 219) x 103 / 96.8
= 1457 mm
No. of link req'd = 1457 / 200 +1
= 8.3 (Provide 9 no. of shear links)

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 18.5 (End Span of Flanged Beam) (Table 7.3)

M / (bd2) = 368 x 106 / (2025 x 5342)

= 0.637 N/mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 1668 / 1922 = 0.868
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.868 = 289 MPa
Use mid-span mt = 0.55 + (477 - 289) / [120 (0.9 + 0.637)] (Table 7.4)
moment and steel
= 0.55 + 1.019
to check L/d ratio.

Chapter 4 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 1.569

Allowable L / d = 1.569 x 18.5 = 29.03

Actual L / d = 6500 / 534
= 12.17 ≤ 29.03 (Deflection ok)

Chapter 4 26
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 4 27
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 4 28
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 Given the following design parameters:

Design Moment, M = 860 kN-m

Concrete: f cu = 40 MPa
Reinforcement, f y = 500 MPa

Determine the areas of steel required for the following cases:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Rectangular Rectangular
Flanged Section Flanged Section
Section Section
bw = 400 400 750 750
d= 680 680 380 380
d' = 70 70 70 70
b eff = --- 2000 --- 2000
hf = --- 150 --- 150
K=
z=
A' s =
As =

Q.2 Calculate the nominal shear reinforcement (f yv = 250MPa) for the following beam sections:

(a) (b) (c)

Rectangular Section Flanged Section Rectangular Section
bw = 400 400 750
d= 680 680 380
b eff = --- 2000 ---
hf = --- 150 ---
A sv /s v =
Links:

Chapter 4 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.3 Given the following information of a beam:

Distance from the end of effective span to the face of support, a i = 200mm

Effective depth of the beam section, d = 573 mm

Design load (udl), w = 36 kN/m

Design shear force at the support, V = 250 kN

(a) Calculate the design shear force at the face of support, V s .

(b) Calculate the design shear force at d from the face of the support, V d .
(c) What is the value of design shear force shall be used to check for crushing of concrete?

Q.4 Calculate the shear reinforcement (f yv = 250MPa) required for the following sections:

(a) (b) (c)

bv = 400 400 750
d= 680 680 380
vc = 0.92 0.78 0.92
vd = 1.82 1.45 1.28
A sv /s v =
Links:

Answers:
Q1a=0+3430; Q1b=0+3060; Q1c=1366+6641; Q1d=0+5723

Q2a=0.736(R10-200-2/legs); Q2b=0.736(R10-200-2/legs); Q2c=1.379(R10-225-4/legs)

Q3a=242.8; Q3b=222.2; Q3c=242.8;

Q4a=1.655(R12-125-2/legs); Q4b=1.232(R10-125-2/legs); Q4c=1.379(R10-225-4/legs)

Chapter 4 30
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│

AQ1 By using the flange beam design approach, please re-design the
reinforcement and check the deflection for the beam 5B2 shown in DWG-01
of Chapter 1 with the following changes (refer to Question A of 4.2.2 for the
original design):
(A s req = 3380 mm², v c = 0.786 N/mm², m t = 1.46)

i. The center-to-center distance between adjacent beams is changed

from 3300 mm to 3500 mm, i.e. the distance between gridlines 6 and
7 is changed to 10 500 mm.
ii. An additional allowance for 300 mm thick soil is required.
iii. The width of the beam is increased to 400 mm.

The design parameters are as follows:

Beam overall depth, h = 750 mm

Beam breadth, b = 400 mm

Slab thickness, h f = 160 mm

c/c distance btw supports = 9 000 mm

Width of support, S w = 500 mm (similar at both ends)

c/c distance btw adjacent beams = 3 500 mm (similar on both sides)

f cu = 35 MPa

fy = 500 MPa

f yv = 250 MPa

Cover = 35 mm

Preferred bar size = 40 mm

Preferred link size = 10 mm

Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa

Soil thickness = 300 mm

Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Chapter 4 31
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AQ2 By using the rectangular beam approach, please re-design the Beam 5B2
in AQ1.
(A s req = 4029 mm², v c = 0.865 N/mm², m t = 0.84)

AQ3 By using the flange beam design approach, please design the
reinforcement and check the deflection for the interior span, RB22, of the
continuous beam in 4.3.1, and as shown in DWG-03. Adopt the design
parameters in 4.3.1.
(A s req = 1297 mm², v c = 0.77 N/mm², m t = 1.68)

Chapter 4 32
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 5│

Design of R C Slabs

Learning Objectives
 Differentiate one-way and two-way slabs
 Design simply-supported and continuous one-way slabs by
integrating the processes of
o determining design loads
o determining design forces by force coefficients
o determining of reinforcement for bending and shear
o checking of deflection by span-to-depth ratio
 Extend the design method to design simple R C stairs

CONTENTS

5.1 Types of Slabs

5.2 Design Loads and Forces
5.2.1 Example – Design Loads and Forces for Simply-supported One-way Slab
5.2.2 Force Coefficients for Continuous One-way Slab

5.3 Design of Slabs

5.3.1 Design for Moment and Shear
5.3.2 Deflection Check by Span-to-depth Ratio
5.3.3 Distribution Bars
5.3.4 Examples – Simply-supported One-way Slab
5.3.5 Examples – Continuous One-way Slab

5.4 Stairs
5.4.1 Types of Stairs
5.4.2 Design for Stair Slabs
5.4.3 Example – Self-weight of Stair Flight
5.4.4 Examples – Longitudinally-spanned Stairs

Chapter 5 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.1 Types of Slabs

When a slab is supported on two opposite edges as shown in the

left-hand-side of the following figure, it bends in one direction only. It is called
a one-way slab. The arrows marked on the slab indicate the direction of
span and are pointing to the supporting edges. The main reinforcement bars
for resisting bending are provided in the direction of span.

Support
Support Support

Support Support
Support

One-way Slab Two-way Slab

On the other hand, if the slab is supported on four edges as shown in the
right-hand-side of the figure, it bends in two directions as indicated by the
arrows marked on the slab. It is called a two-way slab. Reinforcements in
two directions have to be designed to resist the bending in their respective
direction.

In reality, most of the slabs are surrounded by beams on four edges. If the
length-to-width ratio, i.e. aspect ratio, of the slab is more than 2 as shown in
Figure 5.1 below, the supporting beams on shorter edges can be ignored,
and the slab is therefore treated as a one-way slab being supported on the
two opposite longer edges only.

L > 2L

Effective Support

Effective Support

Figure 5.1 – Aspect Ratio of One-way Slab

Chapter 5 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

In addition to the slab supported on two or four edges as mentioned above,

slab can also be supported on a single edge, i.e. cantilever slab, or directly
on columns, i.e. flat slab. If the span of the slab is very large, it will become
so thick that it would be more economical to change the solid slab into ribbed,
waffle or hollow slab.

In this chapter, we will focus on the design of one-way simply-supported and

continuous slabs to illustrate the essences of R.C. slab design. The relevant
design formulae, rules and tables you have learnt in Chapters 1 to 3 are
applicable. You can also refer to the “Annex – R C Design Formulae and
Data”.

5.2 Design Loads and Forces

When a slab is subjected to uniformly distributed load (udl), we can take a

unit width, say 1 m, of the slab to design as a beam. In other words, the
slab can be visualized as a series of beams of 1 m width placed side-by-side
as shown below. The design loads and forces are then presented in per
meter width. 1

1m

1m

Figure 5.2 – Unit Width of Slab for Design

1 Slab subjected to uniformly distributed load (udl) is adopted in this chapter to illustrate the fundamental
procedures in slab design. Slabs may be subjected to concentrated load in the forms of point load or line load.
An effective width of the slab has to be determined to design for the extra moment and shear induced by the
concentrated load. Details can be found in the design code.

Chapter 5 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.2.1 Example – Design Loads and Forces for a Simply-supported

One-way slab

For simply-supported one-way slab under uniformly distributed load (udl),

the force coefficients, similar to those for beam design, are:

Mid-span Moment, M = 0.125 F L or 0.125 w L2

Shear at Support, V = 0.5 F or 0.5 w L

Question
Determine the design forces for the following simply-supported one-way slab.
Design parameters
Slab thickness, h : 150 mm
c/c distance btw supports : 3 000 mm
Width of the supporting beam, S w : 350 mm (same for both ends)
Allowance for finishes : 1.5 kPa
Usage of the floor : Department Store

Solution
Dead Load
Finishes : 1.50 kN/m2
Self-weight : 24.5 x 0.15 = 3.68 kN/m2
gk = 5.18 kN/m2

Imposed Load
Department Store: qk= 5.00 kN/m2

Design Load, w = (1.4 x 5.18 + 1.6 x 5.00) x 1m

= 15.25 kN/m

As h < S w Effective Span, L = 3000 – 350 + 150

= 2 800 mm

Design Moment, M = 0.125 x 15.25 x 2.82

= 14.95 kN-m

Chapter 5 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 15.25 x 2.8

= 21.35 kN

!
The design moment
and shear are in per
meter width of the
slab.
Q.1
?
5.2.2 Force Coefficients for Continuous One-way Slab

For continuous slabs with approximately equal spans under udl, the
following force coefficients (extracted from Table 6.4 of HKCP-2013) can be
adopted:

At outer Near middle At first At middle of At interior

support of end span interior interior span supports
(simply support
supported)

Moment 0 0.086FL -0.086FL 0.063FL -0.063FL

Shear 0.4F - 0.6F - 0.5F

Notes:
1. Area of each bay exceeds 30 m2.
2. Characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5kPa.
3. The ratio of characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not
exceed 1.25.
4. An allowance of 20% redistribution of the moments at the supports has been made.
5. Load should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans.

Table 5.1 – Force Coefficients for Continuous One-way Slabs

with Approximately Equal Span under udl
(Extracted from Table 6.4 of HKCP-2013) 2

A bay mentioned in "Note 1" of the above table is defined as a strip across
the full width of a structure bounded on the other two sides by lines of

2 The force coefficients for continuous end support is omitted from this table. If necessary, refer to the original
table in the design code for details.

Chapter 5 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

supports as illustrated below:

Figure 5.3 – Definitions of Panel and Bay

(Figure 6.5 of HKCP-2013)

The values in the above table can be presented in the form of moment and
shear force diagrams as shown below.

0.086FL
0.063FL

Bending
Moment
Diagram

0.063FL
0.086FL

0.5F 0.5F
0.4F

Shear Force
Diagram

0.5F
0.6F

Figure 5.4 - Moment and Shear Force Diagrams

for Continuous One-way Slabs
with Approximately Equal Span under udl

In the above table, the design moment at the outer support is zero, i.e.
simply supported. However, reinforced concrete slabs are usually
constructed monolithically with the supporting beam. In order to avoid
unsightly cracks due to the bending arising from partial fixity at the support, a
minimum design moment of at least 50% of the mid-span moment is

Chapter 5 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

recommended by Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013.

Take note of the following differences when compared with that for beam in
Chapter 4 (i.e. Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1):

(a) The force coefficients for slab are in general smaller than those for
beam. The support moments are about 22% lesser, and the
mid-span moments are 5% to 10% lesser.
(b) A redistribution of 20% is allowed for the support moments of slab,
i.e. β b = 0.8, and therefore K' is reduced to 0.132 for designing the
section at supports. (There is no redistribution for mid-span
moments, and the value of K’ for mid-span moment remains
0.156.)

(c) The nominal design moment at the outer (or end) support for slab
(simply-supported) is 50% instead of 15% (for beam) of the
mid-span moment.

If a slab does not fulfill the conditions to use the force coefficients in the
above table, structural analysis has to be performed to determine the design
forces. The most unfavorable arrangement of design loads as described in
Section 1.5 of Chapter 1 has to be designed for. However, if the slab fulfills
conditions 1 to 3 stated in the notes of Table 5.1 above, a single-load case of
maximum design load on all spans can be adopted for design.
Q.2
?
5.3 Design of Slab

The design method for slabs is quite similar to that for beam with the
following differences:

(a) The breadth of the section, b = 1 000 mm, i.e. taking one meter
width for design.

(d) No compression bar is usually designed for unless the slab is very
thick, i.e. h > 200mm, and heavily loaded. Simply check if K < K';

Chapter 5 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

otherwise, increase the slab thickness and re-design the slab.

(e) For slab supported on beams, the design shear stress is usually
very small and not critical. 3 Simply check if v < v c ; otherwise,
increase the slab thickness and re-design the slab.

(f) The steel area, A s , obtained is per meter width of the slab, i.e. in
mm2 per m. The reinforcement is provided in the terms of bar
spacing instead of number of bars.
Example
If A s,req = 723 mm2/m, we can provide:
T12-150 (A s,pro = 113 / 0.150 = 754 mm2 / m); or
Q.3
?
T10-100 (A s,pro = 78.5 / 0.100 = 785 mm2 /m)
The steel area can be read from the following table.

Bar Bar Spacing in mm

Size 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350

8 503 402 335 287 251 223 201 183 168 144

10 785 628 524 449 393 349 314 286 262 224

12 1131 905 754 646 565 503 452 411 377 323

16 2011 1608 1340 1149 1005 894 804 731 670 574

Table 5.2 – Steel Area in mm2 per m Width

5.3.1 Design for Moment and Shear

In general, the procedures to design for moment, M, are:

1. Identify the effective sectional dimensions and design parameters.

2. Calculate the K value and check if K < K'.

3. Calculate the lever arm z and check its limits.

4. Calculate the amount of steel required, As .

3 Design for shear is critical for slabs supported directly on columns, i.e. flat slab, or slabs subjected to high
magnitude concentrated load. The thickness of this types of slab is always controlled by punching shear stress
at the perimeter of the column or concentrated load.

Chapter 5 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5. Determine the bar size and spacing.

6. Check if the limits to steel area are complied with.

In general, the procedures to design for shear, V, are:

1. Identify the effective sectional dimensions and design parameters.

2. Calculate v c .

3. Check if the shear stress v exceeds v c .

If v < v c , no shear reinforcement is required.

If v > v c , increase the thickness of the slab and re-design it.

5.3.2 Deflection Check by Span-to-depth Ratio

In general, the procedures to check deflection by span-to-depth ratio are:

1. Determine the basic L/d ratio.

2. Determine the modification factors m t .

3. Determine the allowable L/d ratio.

4. Check if the actual L/d ratio exceeds the allowable or not.

5.3.3 Distribution Bars

For one-way slab, the reinforcement bars designed to resist the bending
moment are placed in one direction only, i.e. in the direction of span. In
addition to these main reinforcement bars, secondary reinforcement bars
have to be provided in the direction at right angle, i.e. transverse, to the main
bars to tie the slab together and to distribute uneven loading or any
accidental concentrated load that may arise during its life of usage. These
secondary reinforcement bars are called distribution bars, A sd , which has to
fulfill the following requirements:

Chapter 5 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(a) The steel area shall not be less than:

0.13%bh, &
20% of the main steel
Refer to Chapter
2 for bar spacing
(b) The spacing shall not be more than 3h & 400mm.
requirement for
main bars.

5.3.4 Examples – Simply-supported One-way Slab

Question A
Design the reinforcement and check if the deflection is acceptable for the following
simply-supported one-way slab.
Design parameters
Slab thickness, h = 175 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 4000 mm
Width of supporting beams, S w = 250 mm
f cu = 30 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
Preferred bar size = 10 mm
Characteristic imposed load = 3.0 kPa (Offices)
Allowance for finishes = 1.0 kPa
Partition load = 1.0 kPa (Lightweight undefined)

Solution
Dead Load
Finishes : 1.00 kN/m2
Self-weight : 24.5 x 0.175 = 4.29 kN/m2
gk = 5.29 kN/m2
Imposed Load
Partition load : 1.00 kN/m2
Offices : 3.00 kN/m2
qk= 4.00 kN/m2

Design Load, w = (1.4 x 5.29 + 1.6 x 4.00) x 1

= 13.81 kN/m
As h < S w Effective Span, L = 4000 – 250 + 175

Chapter 5 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 3925 mm
Design Moment, M = 0.125 x 13.81 x 3.9252
= 26.6 kN-m
Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 13.81 x 3.925
= 27.1 kN

Design for Bending Moment

Effective depth, d = 175 – 25 – 10/2
= 145 mm

! b = 1000
K=
=
=
M / (bd2f cu )
26.6 x 106 / (1000 x 1452 x 30)
0.042
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

K < 0.0428 z= 0.95d = 0.95 x 145

= 137.8 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 26.6 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 137.8)
= 444 mm2 / m
(Provide T10-175 Bottom)
Alternatively, As,pro A s,pro = 78.5 / 0.175
can be read from
= 449 mm2 / m
table.
100A s / bh = 100 x 449 / (1000 x 175) = 0.256
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Distribution Bar A sd = Max (0.13% x 1000 x 175 or 449 x 20%)

= Max (227.5 or 89.8)
= 227.5 mm2 / m
(Provide T10-300 DB)

Check Shear at Support

v= 27.1 x 103 / (1000 x 145)
In this case, v < 0.34, the
smallest value in Table 6.3 of = 0.187 MPa
HKCP-2013. The calculation
of vc can be omitted. Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)
100A s /(b v d) = 100 x 449 / (1000 x 145) = 0.31 < 3

Chapter 5 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

(400/d)1/4 = (400 / 145)1/4 = 1.289 (> 0.67)

vc = 0.79 x (0.31)1/3 x 1.289 / 1.25 x (30/25)1/3
= 0.551 x 1.06
= 0.584 MPa
> 0.187 MPa (No shear reinforcement is req'd)

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 20 (Simply Supported Slab) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 26.6 x 106 / (1000 x 1452)

= 1.264 N / mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 444 / 449 = 0.99
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.99 = 330 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477-330) / [120 (0.9+1.26)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.567
= 1.12

Allowable L / d = 1.12 x 20 = 22.3

Actual L / d = 3925 / 145
= 27.1 > 22.3 (Deflection not ok)

(Increase the tension steel to T10-125 Bottom)

A s,pro = 78.5 / 0.125 = 628 mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 444 / 628 = 0.707
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.707 = 236 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477-236) / [120 (0.9+1.26)]
= 0.55 + 0.93
= 1.48

Allowable L / d = 1.48 x 20 = 29.6 > 27.1 (Deflection ok)

Comment: For this slab, deflection controls the amount the steel required.

Chapter 5 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question B
Present the reinforcement detail of the slab in Question A in proper engineering drawing.

Solution

Notes on the detailing: 4

(a) Top bars are provided at the supports for anti-cracking purposes. The nominal
requirement is 50% of the steel required at mid-span. They are provided with full
anchorage length into the supports and extend 0.15L or 45ϕ into the span.

(b) The bar spacing of 125mm for main bars and 250mm for top bars deem appropriate.
Refer to chapter 2 for details.

(c) Pay attention that the slab may be designed to act as the top flange of the
supporting beams to take up flexural compressive stress. If it is the case, the
amount of top bars has to be increased to 15% and extends into the slab over the
whole effective flange width of the flanged section.

(d) Theoretically, 50% of the bottom bars can be curtailed at about 0.1L from the
support. However, for simplicity, all the bottom bars are extended into the support in
this case.

(e) The bottom bars have to extend 12ϕ beyond the centerline of the support.

4 The rules of reinforcement detailing is beyond the scope of this chapter. Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 5 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.3.5 Example – Continuous One-way Slab

Question A
Design the end span of the continuous slab. 5S1, shown on the framing plan in DWG-01 of
Chapter 1. The following are the design parameters for the slab.
Design parameters
Slab thickness, h = 160 mm
c/c distance btw supports = 3 300 mm
Width of support, S w = 300 mm (similar at both ends)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
Preferred bar size = 10 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Solution
Effective Span
As h < S w L= 3300 – 300 + 160
= 3 160 mm
Loading
Dead Load
Finishes: 2.00 kN/m2
Slab S/W: 24.5 x 0.16 = 3.92 kN/m2
gk = 5.92 kN/m2
Imposed Load qk = 5.00 kN/m2

Design load, F = (1.4 x 5.92 + 1.6 x 5.00) x 3.16

= 51.5 kN per m width
Design Forces
Bay size ≅ 9 x 9.9
= 89.1 m2 > 30 m2
Imposed load is not greater than 1.25 dead load.
Imposed load is not greater than 5kPa.
The force coefficients in Table 6.4 of HKCP-2013 can be used.

Chapter 5 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Moment, M = 0.086 x 51.5 x 3.16

The moment
= 14.0 kN-m coefficients for both
Design Shear, V = 0.6 x 51.5 span and support
are the same.
= 30.9 kN
Effective Depth d= 160 – 25 – 10/2
= 130 mm

Design for Bending Moment

K= M / (bd2f cu )
Support moment is
= 14.0 x 106 / (1000 x 1302 x 35)
adopted for rebar
design, which has a = 0.024
redistribution of 20%.
β b = 0.8 < 0.13 (Singly reinforced)

K < 0.0428 z= 0.95d = 0.95 x 130

= 123.5 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 14.0 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 123.5)
= 260 mm2 / m
(Provide T10-250 Top at supports
and T10-250 Bottom at mid-span)
A s,pro = 314 mm2 / m
100A s / bh = 100 x 314 / (1000 x 160) = 0.196
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Distribution Bar A ds = Max (0.13% x 1000 x 160 or 314 x 20%)

= 208 mm2
(Provide T10-300 DB)
Check Shear at Support
v= 30.9 x 103 / (1000 x 130)
= 0.23 MPa
< 0.34, the smallest value of v c in Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013
(No shear reinforcement required)
Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio
Basic L /d = 23 (End span of continuous slab) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 14.0 x 106 / (1000 x 1302)

= 0.828 N/mm2

Chapter 5 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A s,req / A s,pro = 260 / 314 = 0.828

fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.828 = 276 MPa
βb = 0.8 is for support

! moment. For L/d checking,

mid-span moment is used.
mt =
=
=
0.55 + (477-276) / [120 (0.9+0.828)]
0.55 + 0.969
1.52
(Table 7.4)

Allowable L / d = 1.52 x 23 = 34.9

Actual L / d = 3160 / 130
= 24.3 ≤ 34.9 (Deflection ok)

Question B
Design the interior span of the continuous slab. 5S1, shown on the framing plan in DWG-01
of Chapter 1. The design parameters in Question A are still applicable.

Solution
The effective span, effective depth and the design loads of the interior span of this beam are
the same as that for the end-span in Question A. The only differences are the design
moment, design shear and span-to-depth ratio. Although they are not critical for this case,
the calculation is presented below as an illustration of the complete process of design.
Design Forces
Design Moment, M = 0.063 x 51.5 x 3.16
= 10.3 kN-m
Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 51.5
= 25.8 kN

Design for Bending Moment

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 10.3 x 106 / (1000 x 1302 x 35)
= 0.017
β b = 0.8 < 0.132 (Singly reinforced)

K < 0.0428 z= 0.95d = 0.95 x 130

= 123.5 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 10.3 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 123.5)
= 192 mm2 / m
(Provide T10-300 Top at the supports

Chapter 5 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

and T10-300 Bottom at mid-span)

A s,pro = 262 mm2 / m
100A s / bh = 100 x 262 / (1000 x 160) = 0.164
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Distribution Bar A ds = Max (0.13% x 1000 x 160 or 262 x 20%)

= 208 mm2 / m
(Provide T10-300 DB)

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 26 (Interior span of continuous slab ) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 10.3 x 106 / (1000 x 1302)

= 0.609 N / mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 192 / 262 = 0.733
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.733 = 244 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477-244) / [120(0.9+0.609)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 1.287
= 1.84

Allowable L / d = 1.84 x 26 = 47.8

Actual L / d = 3160 / 130
= 24.3 ≤ 47.8 (Deflection ok)

Chapter 5 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.4 Stairs

A stair is composed of the following elements:

Flight The inclined slab supporting steps

Waist The thickness of flight slab measured perpendicular to the

soffit

Steps Divisions of the total vertical rise of a flight, composed of

treads and risers

Tread The horizontal length or depth of a step

Riser The vertical dimension of a step

Landing The horizontal slab connecting flights

Handrails On both sides of the flight to facilitate climbing of the stairs

and in some cases in the form of parapet to prevent falling
out of the stairs

Cross Section of a Stair

Steps and handrail/parapet are usually not regarded as parts of the structure
of a stair unless they are specifically designed as structural elements.

Chapter 5 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.4.1 Structural Forms of Stairs

A stair can be transversely-spanned

and supported on both sides of the
stairs as illustrated in Figure 5.5.
The direction of span is perpendicular
to, or transverse to, the direction of the
flight. In the design of this type of
stairs, the main bars are placed in the
direction of the steps.
Figure 5.5 –
Transversely-spanned Stair Slab

A stair can be longitudinally-spanned

in the direction of the flight and is
supported at the ends of the flight and
landing as illustrated in Figure 5.6.
The main bars of this type of stair are
placed along the flight direction and
extend to the end supports.

Figure 5.6 –

Longitudinally-spanned flight can be Longitudinally-spanned Stair Slab

supported by the landing slabs, which, Supported by End Walls

in turn, are transversely-spanned and

supported on the walls at both sides of
the landing as illustrated in Figure 5.7.

There are other possible structural

schemes for stair design, e.g.
cantilever steps, flight supported by
stringer beams, cantilever stairs, etc.
In this Chapter, longitudinally-spanned
Figure 5.7 –
stairs are used to highlight the salient
Longitudinally-spanned Stair Slab
points in stair design.
Supported by Landing Slabs

Chapter 5 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.4.2 Design of Stair Slabs

The design of stair slabs is quite similar to that for solid slab with the
following points highlighted:

(a) The following dead load have to be taken into account:

i. The weight of the steps (see 5.4.3)

ii. Adjustment to the self-weight of the stair slab for the increased
length of the inclined flight slabs (see 5.4.3)

iii. The weight of handrail/parapet, if any

(b) Although the slab is inclined, as

the loads are acting vertically
downward under gravitational
action, the projected horizontal
distance is used in determining
the effective span as illustrated in
the following examples.

(c) The depth of the section, h, used

for design is the minimum
thickness perpendicular to the
soffit of the inclined stair slab, i.e. the waist. The effective depth, d, is
then determined by using this value of h. The steps are usually
ignored in the calculation of the structural capacity of stair slab.

(d) The allowable span-to-depth ratio can be increased by 15% if the

stair flight occupies at least 60% of the span (Cl.[Link] of
HKCP-2013).

As a consequence of (a) mentioned above, the dead weight of flight slab is

usually larger than that of landing slab. For simply-supported
longitudinally-spanned stairs, the following formulae are useful in
determining the mid-span moment and support shear.

For a simply-supported beam subjected to partial udl loads, w 1 and w 2 ,

symmetrically loaded as shown in the figure below,

Chapter 5 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

W2
W1 W1

L1 L2 L1

the reactions or shears at the supports are:

V = w 1 L 1 + 0.5 w 2 L 2 [5.1]

The mid-span moment is:

M = w 1 L 1 (L 1 + 0.5L 2 ) – w 1 L 1 (0.5L 1 + 0.5L 2 )

+ 0.5w 2 L 2 (L 1 + 0.5L 2 ) – 0.5w 2 L 2 (0.25L 2 )

= 0.5w 1 L 1 2 + 0.5w 2 L 2 (L 1 + 0.25L 2 ) [5.2]

5.4.3 Example – Self-weight of Stair Flight

Question
Determine the self-weight of the following stair flight:
Tread = 250 mm
Riser = 150 mm
Waist thickness, h = 175 mm

Solution
For a meter width of the stair flight
For a single step horizontal length = 250 mm
Inclined length = (2502 + 1502)1/2
= 292 mm
Weight of a step 24.5 x 0.150 x 0.250 /2 = 0.459 kN / m
Weight of the waist 24.5 x 0.292 x 0.175 = 1.252 kN / m
Total = 1.711 kN / m

Chapter 5 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Therefore, udl per meter horizontal length of the flight = 1.711 / 0.25
= 6.84 kN / m
(per meter width)

Alternatively,
For a meter width of the stair flight
Ratio of inclined length to horizontal length = (2502 + 1502)1/2 / 250
= 1.166
Weight of a step 24.5 x (0.25 x 0.150 / 2) / 0.25 x 1 = 1.84 kN / m
Weight of the waist 24.5 x 0.175 x 1.166 x 1 = 5.00 kN / m
Total udl per meter horizontal length of the flight = 6.84 kN / m
(per meter width)
Q.4
?
5.4.4 Examples – Longitudinally-spanned Stairs

Question A – Longitudinally-spanned Stair Supported by End Walls

Design the reinforcement and check the deflection of the stair slab as shown in DWG-04
with the following design parameters.
Design parameters
Waist, h = 275 mm
Tread = 250 mm
Riser = 150 mm
Number of risers, N = 14
Flight horizontal length, L 2 = 250 x 14 = 3500 mm
Flight width, W = 1200 mm
Landing slab thickness = 275 mm (same as waist)
Landing clear width, L n = 1200 mm (same at both ends)
Width of support, S w = 200 mm (same at both ends)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
Preferred bar size = 16 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 1.5 kPa
Allowance for handrail/parapet = (assume negligible)
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Chapter 5 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Effective Span
Effective L 1 = 1200 + min (200 / 2 or 275 / 2)= 1300mm
Overall L = 3500 + 2 x 1300
= 6100 mm

Loading (landing, w 1 )
Dead Load
Self-weight 24.5 x 0.275 = 6.74 kN / m2
Finishes 1.50 kN / m2
gk = 8.24 kN / m2
Imposed Load qk = 5.00 kN / m2

The design load, w 1 = (1.4 x 8.24 + 1.6 x 5.00) x 1

= 19.53 kN / m (per meter width)

Loading (flight, w 2 )
Inclined length ratio = (2502 + 1502)0.5 / 250 = 1.166
Dead Load
Steps 24.5 x 0.150 / 2 = 1.84 kN / m2
Self-weight 24.5 x 0.275 x 1.166 = 7.86 kN / m2
Finishes 1.50 kN / m2
gk = 11.2 kN / m2
Imposed Load qk = 5.00 kN / m2

Chapter 5 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The design load, w 2 = (1.4 x 11.2 + 1.6 x 5.00) x 1

= 23.67 kN / m (per meter width)

Design Forces
Design Mid-span Mt, M = 0.5 x 19.53 x 1.32
+ 0.5 x 23.67 x 3.5 x (1.3 + 0.25 x 3.5)
= 16.5 + 90.1
= 107 kN-m (per meter width)

Design Shear, V = 19.53 x 1.3 + 0.5 x 23.67 x 3.5

= 67 kN (per meter width)

Design for Mid-span Bending Moment

Effective Depth, d = 275 – 25 – 16/2
= 242 mm
K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 107 x 106 / (1000 x 2422 x 35)
= 0.052
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K/0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.052/0.9)0.5] x 242
= 0.938 x 242
= 227 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 107 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 227)
= 1084 mm2 / m
(Provide T16-125 bottom)
A s,pro = 201 / 0.125
= 1608 mm2 / m
100A s / bh = 100 x 1608 / (1000 x 275) = 0.585
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Distribution Bar A ds = Max (0.13 x 1000 x 275 / 100 or 1608 x 20%)

= 358 mm2 / m
(Provide T12-275 DB)

Chapter 5 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Check Shear at Support

v= 67 x 103 / (1000 x 242)
= 0.28 MPa < 0.34 MPa
(the smallest value of v c in Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013)
(No shear reinforcement required)

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 20 (simply-supported slab) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 107 x 106 / (1000 x 2422)

= 1.83 N / mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 1084 / 1608 = 0.67
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.67 = 224 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477-224) / [120(0.9+1.83)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.772
= 1.32

L2 / L = 3500 / 6100 = 0.57 < 60% (no increase in L/d Ratio)

Allowable L / d = 1.32 x 20 = 26.4

Actual L / d = 6100 / 242
= 25.2 ≤ 26.4 (Deflection ok)

Comments:
?
Q.5 & Q.6

• In this example, it is the deflection that controls the amount of steel required. The
amount of steel provided is about 48% more than that required for resisting the
design moment so as to reduce the service stress in the bars and therefore
increase the modification factor to the L/d ratio.

• The width of the flight is not large in this example; it may be more convenient to use
the actual width of 1200mm instead of a unit width of 1000mm for design. If the
actual width is used in the design calculations, i.e. b = 1200mm, the A s obtained is
then the total area for the whole section instead of per meter width and therefore
rebars to be provided will then be in terms of number of bars instead of spacing.

Chapter 5 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question B – Longitudinally-spanned Stair Supported by Landing

Slabs
Design the reinforcement and check the deflection of the stair slab as shown in DWG05 with
the following design parameters.
Design parameters
Waist, h = 200 mm
Tread = 250 mm
Riser = 150 mm
No. of Risers = 14
Horizontal length of the flight, L 2 = 250 x 14 = 3500 mm
Width of the flight = 1200 mm
Thickness of the landing slab = 200 mm (same as the waist)
Width of landing, L b = 1200 mm (same at both ends)
Clear span of the landing, L n = 2600 mm
Width of support, S w = 200 mm (same at both ends)
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
Preferred bar size = 12 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 1.5 kPa
Allowance for handrail/parapet = (assume negligible)
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Chapter 5 26
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
In this example, the flight slab is supported by landing slabs. Hence, two slabs have to be
designed: (I) flight slab and then (II) landing slab. The widths of the landing slabs, L b , will be
regarded as the widths of the supports to the flight slab and will be used for determining the
effective span, L 2 + 2L 1 , of the flight slab, where L 1 is the lesser of L b /2 or 1800mm, (Cl.
[Link] of HKCP-2013). As the width of support is comparatively large, and there is no
loading at the support width, partial udl is adopted in the design. The support reaction, R,
from the flight slab will be transmitted to the landing slab for design.

(I) Design of Flight Slab

Effective Span
Effective L 1 = min(1200/2 or 1800) = 600
Overall L = 3500 + 2 x 600
= 4700 mm

Loading (flight, w)
Inclined length ratio = (2502 + 1502)0.5 / 250 = 1.166
Dead Load
Steps 24.5 x 0.150 / 2 = 1.84 kN / m2
Self-weight 24.5 x 0.2 x 1.166 = 5.71 kN / m2
Finishes 1.50 kN / m2
gk = 9.05 kN / m2
Imposed Load qk = 5.00 kN / m2

The design load, w = (1.4 x 9.05 + 1.6 x 5.00) x 1

= 20.7 kN / m (per meter width)

Design Forces
Design Mid-span Mt, M = 0.5 x 20.7 x 3.5 x (0.6 + 0.25 x 3.5)
= 53.4 kN-m (per meter width)

Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 20.7 x 3.5

= 36.2 kN (per meter width)

Design for Mid-span Bending Moment

Effective Depth, d = 200 – 25 – 12/2
= 169 mm

Chapter 5 27
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 53.4 x 106 / (1000 x 1692 x 35)
= 0.053
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K/0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.053/0.9)0.5] x 169
= 0.937 x 169
= 158 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 53.4 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 158)
= 775 mm2 / m
(Provide T12-100 bottom)
A s,pro = 113 / 0.100
= 1130 mm2 / m
100A s / bh = 100 x 1130 / (1000 x 200) = 0.565
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Distribution Bar, A sd = Max (0.13%bh or 0.2A s,pro )

= Max (260 or 226) = 260 mm2 / m
(Provide T10 -250 DB)
A sd,pro = 78.5 / 0.25 = 314 mm2 / m

Check Shear
Max shear at the face of support
v= 36.2 x 103 / (1000 x 169)
= 0.21 MPa < 0.34 MPa
(the smallest value of v c in Table 6.3 of HKCP-2013)
(No shear reinforcement required)

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 20 (simply-supported slab) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 53.4 x 106 / (1000 x 1692)

= 1.87 N / mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 775 / 1130 = 0.686
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.686 = 228 MPa

Chapter 5 28
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

mt = 0.55 + (477-228) / [120(0.9+1.87)] (Table 7.4)

= 0.55 + 0.75
= 1.30

L2 / L = 3500 / 4700 = 0.74 > 60%

Allowable L / d = 1.30 x 1.15 x 20 = 29.9

Actual L / d = 4700 / 169
= 27.8 ≤ 29.9 (Deflection ok)

(II) Design of Landing Slab

The landing slab supports two types of loads:

i. Reactions from the flight slabs, R, which

are two partial udl separated by the gap of
the flights; and,

ii. Self-weight, finishes, imposed load, etc.

that are acting directly on the landing slab,
w, which, are, to be precise, also a partial
udl over the clear span of the landing only.

Although the above two loads, to be precise, are

partial udl, as the width of support and the gap
between flights are usually comparatively very
small and can be ignored for simplicity, the loads
can therefore be assumed to be distributed
uniformly over the whole effective span as
illustrated in the following calculations.

Effective Span
As h = S w , Effective L= 2600 + 200
= 2800 mm

Loading (landing)
Width of the landing = 1200 mm
Dead Load
From flight slab 9.05 x 3.5 / 2 = 15.84 kN / m

Chapter 5 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Self-weight 24.5 x 0.2 x 1.2 = 5.88 kN / m

Finishes 1.5 x 1.2 = 1.80 kN / m
gk = 23.52 kN / m
Imposed Load
From flight slab 5.00 x 3.5 / 2 = 8.75 kN / m
Landing slab 5.00 x 1.2 = 6.00 kN / m
qk = 14.75 kN / m

Design load, w = (1.4 x 23.52 + 1.6 x 14.75) / 1.2

= 47.11 kN / m (per meter width)

Design Forces
Design Mid-span Mt, M = 0.125 x 47.11 x 2.82
= 46.2 kN-m

Design Shear, V = 0.5 x 47.11 x 2.8

= 66 kN

Design for Mid-span Bending Moment

Effective Depth, d = 200 – 25 – 12/2
= 169 mm

K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 46.2 x 106 / (1000 x 1692 x 35)
= 0.046
β b = 1.0 < 0.156 (Singly reinforced)

Lever arm, z = [0.5 + (0.25 – K/0.9)0.5] d

= [0.5 + (0.25 – 0.046/0.9)0.5] x 169
= 0.946 x 169
= 160 mm

Tension steel req'd, A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)

= 46.2 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 160)
= 664 mm2 / m
(Provide T12-150 bottom)
A s,pro = 113 / 0.150
= 754 mm2 / m

Chapter 5 30
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

100A s / bh = 100 x 754 / (1000 x 200) = 0.377

> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

Check Shear
Max shear at the face of support
v= 66 x 103 / (1000 x 169)
= 0.39 MPa
< 0.8 √ 35 = 4.73 MPa (Concrete does not crush)
Calculate the design concrete shear stress, v c : (Table 6.3)
100A s /(b v d) = 100 x 754 / (1000 x 169) = 0.45 < 3
(400/d)1/4 = (400 / 169)1/4 = 1.24 (> 0.67)
vc = 0.79 x (0.45)1/3 x 1.24 / 1.25 x (35/25)1/3
= 0.6 x 1.12
= 0.671 MPa > 0.39 MPa

Check Deflection by Span-to-depth Ratio

Basic L /d = 20 (simply-supported slab) (Table 7.3)

M/(bd2) = 46.2 x 106 / (1000 x 1692)

= 1.62 N/mm2
A s,req / A s,pro = 664 / 754 = 0.881
fs = 2/3 x 500 x 0.881 = 294 MPa
mt = 0.55 + (477-294) / [120(0.9+1.62)] (Table 7.4)
= 0.55 + 0.605
= 1.16

Allowable L / d = 1.16 x 20 = 23.2

Actual L / d = 2800 / 169
= 16.6 ≤ 23.2 (Deflection ok)

Comment:
Although the configuration of the stairs in Questions A and B are the same, different
structural arrangements can lead to substantial saving in materials. The thickness of the
stair slabs and the amount of steel required for the stair in Question B are reduced by about
27% and 30% respectively.

Chapter 5 31
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 5 32
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 5 33
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 Given the following design parameters of a one-way simply-supported slab:

Slab thickness, h : 175 mm
c/c distance btw supports : 3 300 mm
Width of the supporting beam, S w : 400 mm (same for both ends)
Allowance for finishes : 1.5 kPa
Partition: 1.5 kPa (light weight, undefined)
Usage of the floor : Offices

(a) Determine the characteristic loads in kPa.

(b) Determine the design load in kN per meter width of the slab.
(c) Determine the design forces.

Q.2 (a) Identify the conditions under which a single-load case of maximum design load on all
spans can be used for slab design.
(b) Identify the additional conditions to those you have identified in (a) for the usage of the
force coefficients in Table 5.1 (i.e. Table 6.4 of HKCP-2013).

Q.3 Determine the rebars for the following slabs:

(a) (b) (c)

Slab thickness 150mm 175mm 200mm
Steel area required (mm2/m) 338 634 1265
Bar size
Spacing (mm)
A s,pro
100A s /bh

Chapter 5 34
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.4 Determine the self-weight of the following stair flight:

Tread = 225 mm
Riser = 175 mm
Waist thickness, h = 150 mm

Q.5 For the stair in Question A of 5.4.4, if the clear width of the landing of the staircase, L n is
proposed to be increased to 1300mm.
(a) Determine the new design bending moment.
(b) Check if the original bar provided is adequate or not.
(c) Determine the allowable L/d ratio and check if deflection is acceptable or not and give
advice.

Q.6 Determine the reinforcement for the flight slab of a stair with the following given:
Waist thickness, h = 280 mm
Cover = 35 mm
Preferred bar size = 16 mm
f cu = 35 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Design Moment, M = 122 kN-m per m width

Answers:
Q1a: g k =5.79kPa, q k = 4.50kPa; Q1b: 15.31kN/m; Q1c:M=18.1kN-m, V=23.6kN
Q2a: (i) one-way slab with bay size > 30m2, (ii) Q k /G k ≤ 1.25, (iii) q k ≤ 5kPa;
Q2b: (i) the load is substantially uniformly distributed, (ii) 3 or more spans, (iii) approximately equal span.
Q3a: T10-225, 0.23; Q3b: T12-175, 0.37; Q3c: T16-150, 0.67
Q4: 6.81kN/m per m width
Q5a: M=113.4kN-m; Q5b: A s,req =1153, ok; Q5c: Allowable L/d = 25.0, unacceptable, increase h or A s
Q6: A s,req = 1279mm2/m, provide T16-150, A sd = 364mm2/m, provide T10-200, comment: pay attention to L/d ratio.

Chapter 5 35
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
(Present your calculations with detailed working steps in a logical, neat and tidy
manner.)

AQ1 Re-design the reinforcement and check the deflection of the end span of the
the continuous one-way slab, 5S1 as shown in DWG-01 of Chapter 1 with
the following changes (make reference to Question A of 5.3.5 for the original
design):
i. The center-to-center distance between beams is changed from 3300
mm to 3500 mm, i.e. the distance between gridlines 6 and 7 is changed
to 10 500 mm.
ii. An additional allowance for 300 mm thick soil is required.
iii. The width of the beam is increased to 400mm.
(A s req : 420 mm²/m, m t : 1.17, v c : 0.34 x (35/25)(1/3) = 0.38 N/mm²)

AQ2 If a very heavy equipment is to be placed on the slab, 5S1 of AQ1, at the
area marked "Area A" on the DWG-01 of Chapter 1. Give advice on the
possible implications to the design of the slab, without doing any detail
calculations. (Adapted from 2012/13 Sem 3 examination paper.)

AQ3 For the slab RB1 shown in DWG-03 in Chapter 3,

(a) Identify the essential design parameters from the drawing and
determine the design load for one span in kN per m width.
(L: 3 m, w: 85.65 kN)
(b) Given the following force coefficients, check the adequacy of
providing T10-125 as top and bottom bars for the slab.
(A s req : 523.7 mm²/m)
At outer support Mid-span Support (β b = 0.8)

Moment 0 0.080FL -0.100FL

Shear 0.4F - 0.6F

(c) Check if shear reinforcement is required.

(v: 0.43 N/mm², v c : 0.77 N/mm²)
(d) Check if the deflection of the slab is acceptable by span-to-depth
ratio. (m t : 1.46)

Chapter 5 36
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AQ4 Design the reinforcement and check the deflection by span-to-depth ratio of
the stairs as shown in DWG-04 with the following design information:
(A s req : 1172 mm²/m, v: 0.29 N/mm², m t : 1.37)

Design parameters
Waist, h = 275 mm
Tread = 260 mm
Riser = 160 mm
Number of Risers, N = 14
Flight horizontal length, L 2 = 260 x 14 = 3640 mm
Flight width, W = 1250 mm
Landing slab thickness = 275 mm (same as waist)
Landing clear width, L n = 1250 mm (same at both ends)
Width of support, S w = 200 mm (same at both ends)
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 25 mm
Preferred bar size = 16 mm
Density of concrete = 24.5 kN/m3
Allowance for finishes = 1.5 kPa
Allowance for handrail/parapet = (assume negligible)
Characteristic imposed load = 5.0 kPa

Chapter 5 37
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

CHAPTER 6│

Design of R C Columns and Walls

Learning Objectives
 Classify columns for design
 Design R C short braced columns for uniaxial and biaxial loads
 Extend the design method to design R C walls

CONTENTS

6.1 Columns
6.1.1 Classification of Columns
6.1.2 Example – Effective Height to Width Ratio
6.1.3 Design Forces
6.1.4 Example – Reduction of Design Loads
6.1.5 Example – Design Moment by Simplified Sub-frame Analysis

6.2 Design of Column Section

6.2.1 Design Formula for Axially Loaded Column
6.2.2 Example – Short Braced Column under Axial Load
6.2.3 Design Charts for Combined Axial Load and Uniaxial Moment
6.2.4 Examples – Design of Short Braced Column under Uniaxial Loads
6.2.5 Design for Biaxial Moment
6.2.6 Examples – Design of Short Braced Column under Biaxial Loads
6.2.7 Transverse Reinforcement

6.3 Walls
6.3.1 Classification of Walls
6.3.2 Design for Axial Load
6.3.3 Design for Axial Load and In-plane Moment
6.3.4 Design for Axial Load and Out-of-plane Moment
6.3.5 Examples
6.3.6 Notes on Detailing

Chapter 6 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.1 Columns

A column is generally referred to a vertical member designed to resist mainly

compression. In building construction, columns are usually constructed
monolithically with beams to form an integral structural frame. Hence, a
column will inevitably, in addition to compression, have to take up bending
moment transmitted from beams to which it is connected. Therefore, unlike
beam section, which is designed solely for bending, column section has to be
designed for combined action of axial compression, N, and moment, M. In
this chapter, the basic assumptions for beam in Chapter 2 will be adopted to
derive the design charts for column, and then you will learn how to make use
of these design charts to design column sections and then extend this method
to design R C walls.

N
Before embarking on the calculation to
Δ
determine the amount of steel required
for a column section, the design forces
have to be established. In addition to
the forces applied directly to the
δ
member or obtained by elastic analysis,
when a member is under compression,
additional bending may be induced
when it deflects laterally as shown in the
figure on the right.

There are two types of lateral deflection.

The first one is the result of side sway of
the whole structural frame, Δ, and the
second one is due to bending of the
column itself, δ. They will then induce
Column Height

additional moments, NΔ and Nδ

respectively to the column.
Buckling of
Slender Column
If the column is too slender, this due Axial
Compression
additional moment will induce further
lateral deflection, and then further
additional bending and so on leading to

Chapter 6 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

sideway buckling failure of the column that

is sudden and catastrophic. Braced so that
lateral deflection is
very small

If this lateral deflection is restrained and if

the column is sturdy and stiff enough to

Column Height
resist further propagation of lateral Column is sturdy
enough against
deflection and bending, this additional further bending

moment may be small and can even be

Short
neglected in the design. This is the case Braced
when the structure is braced against side Column

sway and the column is not slender, which

is called short braced column. The design of this type of column is the focus
of this Chapter.

6.1.1 Classification of Columns

According to the structural behaviour of the column in a structure as

described above, columns can be classified into:

(a) Braced or non-braced

If a structure is provided with wall or bracing to resist lateral forces, the

columns of this structure can then be regarded as braced, and the lateral
deflection due to side sway of the structure would then be so small that
additional moment induced by side sway, or Δ-effect, can be ignored in
the design. 1

Example
For the structural framing plan as illustrated in the following figure, lateral loads in the
Y-direction will be resisted by shear walls at both ends of the structure and therefore
the columns are considered as braced in the Y-direction. However, as the bending
stiffness of the wall in the X-direction is comparatively small, the columns will deflect
under lateral loads in the X-direction and therefore the columns are considered as
non-braced in the X-direction.

1 Otherwise, reference shall be made to Cl. [Link] of HKCP-2013 for additional design moments. It is beyond
the scope of the chapter.

Chapter 6 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Y
X A B C D

3
2
1

Framing Plan
of the Typical Floor of a Multistory Building

(b) Short or slender

For braced column, if the effective height to width ratio of the column is
less than 15, the column can then be regarded as short, and additional
moment due to lateral deflection of the column, or δ-effect, can be ignored
in the design. 2

Short braced column: L ex / h and L ey / b < 15

Take note that effective height, L e , instead of overall height is used in

defining the slenderness of a column. It is given by:

L e = βL o [6.1]

where

L o = The clear height between end restraints

The value of β is given in the following table:

2 Otherwise, reference shall be made to Cl. [Link] of HKCP-2013 for additional design moment. For non-
braced column, this ratio is reduced to 10.

Chapter 6 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

End Condition at the Bottom

1 2 3

End Condition
1 0.75 0.80 0.90

at the Top
2 0.80 0.85 0.95

3 0.90 0.95 1.00

Table 6.1 – Values of β for Braced Columns

(Table 6.11 of HKCP-2013)

The end conditions are defined as follows (extracted from Cl. [Link](e)ii
of HKCP-2013): 3

Condition 1. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams on either side which are at least as deep as the overall dimension
of the column in the plane considered. Where the column is designed
to a foundation structure, this should be of a form specifically designed
to carry the moment.

Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams on either side which are shallower than the overall dimension of
the column in the plane considered.

Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which,

while not specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the
column will, nevertheless, provide some nominal restraint.

6.1.2 Example – Effective Height to Width Ratio

Question
A braced column is shown in the figure below. Beams are connected monolithically to it.
With the information given, determine whether the column is short or slender.

3 Value of β for non-braced column is in general larger than that for braced column. Refer to Table 6.12 of
HKCP-2013 for details.

Chapter 6 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Column: h = 550 mm (in Y-direction)

b= 450 mm
Floor-to-floor height = 7000 mm
Beams at the Top
Depth of the beam in X-direction = 400 mm
Depth of the beam in Y-direction = 425 mm
Beams at the Bottom
Depth of the beam in X-direction = 500 mm
Depth of the beam in Y-direction = 475 mm

Solution
Plane in the X-Direction (bending about Y-axis)
Beam depth/column width Condition
Top end 400/450 < 1 2
Bottom end 500/450 > 1 1
β= 0.80
L oy = 7000 – 400 = 6600 mm
L ey = 0.80 x 6600 = 5280 mm
Effective height to width ratio, L ey /b = 5280 / 450
= 11.7 < 15 (Short column)

Plane in the Y-Direction (Bending about X-axis)

Beam depth/column width Condition
Top end 425/550 < 1 2
Bottom end 475/550 < 1 2

Chapter 6 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

β= 0.85
L ox = 7000 – 425 = 6575 mm
L ex = 0.85 x 6575 = 5589 mm
Effective height to width ratio, L ex /h = 5589 / 550
= 10.2 < 15 (Short column)

Therefore, it is a short braced column. Q.1

?
6.1.3 Design Forces

In general, structural analysis is required to obtain the design forces to design

a column section. The design code requires that the structure has to be
analyzed by appropriate load arrangements to obtain the following critical
combinations of design axial forces and moments (Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013):
i. maximum axial load combined with co-existent bending moment,

ii. minimum axial load combined with co-existent bending moment,

iii. maximum bending moment combined with co-existent axial load, and

iv. any another co-existent combination of axial load and bending

moment which will be more critical to the column design than the
above cases.

In the absence of rigorous structural analysis, the design code allows the
following simplified methods to obtain the design forces:

(a) The design axial force may be calculated by assuming slabs and beams
simply supported (Cl.[Link](c) of HKCP2013); or, in other words, by
tributary area method as illustrated in the following figure.

Chapter 6 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Figure 6.1 – Tributary Area for

Determination of Column Load (Plan)

(b) If a column, by nature of the structure, is not subjected to significant

moments, the design moment can be obtained by using nominal
eccentricity, e min (Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013):

e min = minimum (0.05 x depth of the column, 20mm) [6.2]

M = N e min

This is the nominal design moment for column; or, in other words, the
design moment of a column should not be taken as less than this value.

(c) Design moment may be obtained by simplified sub-frame analysis in

accordance with Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013 as illustrated in the following
figure.

Chapter 6 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

K = Stiffness of the member

Kcu K = 4E(bh3/12)/L (for rectangular beam with
fixed end)
M es = The unbalance fixed end moment (FEM)
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk of beams
= (FEM of b 1 ) – (FEM of b 2 )
Kb1 Kb2
FEM = (1/12)wL2 (for beam under udl)
M cl = Moment to the lower column
Kcl
= M es K cl / (K cu + K cl + 0.5K b1 + 0.5K b2 )
M cu = Moment to the upper column
= M es K cu / (K cu + K cl + 0.5K b1 + 0.5K b2 )

Figure 6.2 – Simplified Sub-frame Analysis

for Determination of Design Moment for Column

Notes to Figure 6.2

i. The remote ends of the members are assumed to be fixed; unless, it
is clearly more reasonable to be pinned.

ii. Beam of longer span, b1, is maximum loaded while that of the shorter
span, b2, is minimum loaded to obtain the maximum unbalanced
moment.

iii. For rectangular beam with fixed end, K = 4E(bh3/12)/L, where b =

breadth of the section, h = overall depth of the section, (bh3/12) =
moment of initia of the section, L = length of the element. As the
Youngs’ Modulus of the material, E, is constant, it can be omitted.

iv. In the formulae of moment distribution, the stiffness of beams is

reduced by 0.5 to account for the decrease in stiffness when the beam
cracks under bending.

6.1.4 Example – Reduction of Design Loads

If a column carries loads from more than one floor, the total distributed
imposed load on it may be reduced by 5% per additional floor up to the
maximum of 40%. Details of this allowance shall refer to Cl.3.7 of the Code
of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads – 2011.

Chapter 6 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Question
A 600 x 600 short braced column supports beams in approximately symmetrical arrangement.

The tributary area for the column is 95 m2.

Dead load, g k = 5.3 kPa (assuming self-weight of the column included).

Imposed load, q k = 3.0 kPa.

Number of floors supported = 10.

Determine the design axial force for the column.

Solution
Allowable percentage reduction = (10-1) x 5% = 45% > 40% (use 40%)
Dead Load, G k = 5.3 x 95 x 10
= 5 035 kN
Imposed load, Q k = 3.0 x 95 x 10 x (1 – 40%)
= 1 710 kN
Design axial load, N = 1.4 x 5035 + 1.6 x 1710
= 9 785 kN
(Comment: If there is no reduction, the total design axial load is 11 609 kN. Although the
reduction in imposed load is 40%, the reduction in total design axial load is only 16%.)

6.1.5 Example – Design Moment by Simplified Sub-frame Analysis

Question
A braced short column supports beams B1 and B2 on each side and an upper column with
the following design parameters. Determine the maximum design moment transmitted from
the beams.
Column dimensions b= 350 mm
h= 400 mm (in the direction of the beams)
Floor-to-floor height, L c = 3500 mm (same for upper and lower columns)
Beam dimensions hxb= 700 x 300 mm (same for B1 & B2)
Span of B1, L b1 = 9700 mm
Span of B2, L b2 = 5000 mm
Loading on the beams B1 & B2
Dead Load, g k = 30.16 kN / m (beam self-weight included)
Imposed Load, q k = 53.25 kN / m

Chapter 6 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Solution
Max design load for beam = 1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25
= 127.4 kN / m
Min design load for beam = 1.0 x 30.16
= 30.2 kN / m
FEM B1 = (1 / 12) x 127.4 x 9.72
= 999 kN-m
FEM B2 = (1 / 12) x 30.2 x 5.02
= 63k N-m
Unbalanced moment, M es = 999 – 63
= 936 kN-m
Moment Distribution
K cl = K cu = 4 x (1 / 12 x 350 x 4003) / 3500
= 2.133 x 106 mm3
0.5K b1 = 0.5 x 4 x (1 / 12 x 300 x 7003) / 9700
= 1.768 x 106 mm3
0.5K b2 = 0.5 x 4 x (1 / 12 x 300 x 7003) / 5000
= 3.430 x 106 mm3
Moment Distribution Factor = 2.133 / (2 x 2.133 + 1.768 + 3.430)
= 0.225
Therefore,
Design moment to column, M = 936 x 0.225
= 211 kN-m

FEM=999
?
Q.2 (a)

FEM=63

127.4 30.2

B1 B2

Chapter 6 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.2 Design of Column Section

6.2.1 Design Formulae for Axially Loaded Column

(a) Short Column Subjecting to Axial Load with Moment due to Nominal
Eccentricity

If a column, due to the nature of the structure, cannot be subjected to

significant moments, it may be designed by Eqn 6.55 of HKCP-2013:

N = 0.4f cu A c + 0.75f y A sc [6.3]

This formula is useful for design of columns, which are, in theory,

subjected to axial load only, such as load transferred to the column by
centrally-positioned bearing, or columns supporting very stiff structure or
very deep beam. Comparing with the ultimate capacity, N uz = 0.45f cu A c
+ 0.87f y A sc , it is reduced by about 10% to account for the nominal
eccentricity of 0.05h.

(b) Short Braced Column Supporting an Approximately Symmetrical

Arrangement of Beams

If the spans of the beams supported on both sides of a column are

approximately equal, i.e. not differ by more than 15% of the longer, and
the design loads are uniformly distributed, the column can be designed
by Eqn 6.56 of HKCP-2013:

N = 0.35f cu A c + 0.67f y A sc [6.4]

The axial load capacity given by this formula deems to have taken into
account the moment induced by asymmetric loading of the beams.

Note that the above two formulae have included an allowance for γ m .

Chapter 6 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.2.2 Example – Design of Short Braced Column for Axial Load

Question
Design the main reinforcement for the column in the example of 6.1.4 with the following
design parameters.
Column dimensions: h = b = 600 mm
Grade of concrete , f cu = 40 MPa
Reinforcement bars, f y = 500 MPa

Solution
Design axial compression, N = 9,785 kN (from 6.1.4)
As the column is supporting approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams
Eqn 6.56 of HKCP-2013 is adopted.
N= 0.35f cu A c + 0.67f y A sc
0.67 f y A sc = 9 785 x 103 – 0.35 x 40 x 600 x 600
= 4745 x 103 N
A sc = 4745 x 103 / (0.67 x 500)
= 14 164 mm2
(Provide 8T40 + 8T32)

! to steel ratio for

column refer to
Table 2.1 in Chapter
A sc,pro =
100A sc / bh =
8 x 1257 + 8 x 804 = 16 488 mm2
4.6%
> 0.8% and < 6% (Steel ratio ok)
2 or the Annex.

Chapter 6 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.2.3 Design Charts for Combined Axial and Uniaxial Moment

When a symmetrically-reinforced rectangular section is subjected to

combined axial force and moment, the strain and stress distribution is shown
in the following figure. The assumptions for the analysis of beam section in
Chapter 2 are still applicable.

Ɛcu
kc fcu
Ɛs2
d'
Fs2
As/2 x ks x
Fcc
Neutral
Axis
d
N
M
As/2 Fs1

Ɛs1
Section
(a) (b)
Strain at Ultimate Simplified Rectangular
Limit State Stress Block

Figure 6.3 – Strain and Stress Distribution of Column Section

Given the values of b, h, d, f y and f cu of the section, assuming an amount of

steel, As , try with a value of the depth of neutral axis, x, and then calculate
the values of M and N by the following steps:

(i) By compatibility of strain, with the crushing strain of concrete Ɛ cu =

0.0035, calculate the strains of top and bottom bars, Ɛ s1 & Ɛ s2 .
(ii) Calculate the stresses of the bars by using the stress-strain relation of
steel and then the forces, F s1 and F s2 in the bars.

(iii) Calculate the compression force, F cc , in the concrete by using

simplified stress block.

(iv) By equilibrium of axial forces and moments, the values of N and M can
then be obtained.

Chapter 6 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Repeat the above steps for another value of x, and so on an M-N

interaction curve can then be plotted as shown below.

N
f
Nuz

e
d

c
Compression failure
b

Tension failure
a
0 M

When the value of x is very small, the Ɛcu

strain of tension bars at the bottom of the Ɛs2

section is very large as illustrated in the

x
figure on the right. Bottom bars have
yielded before the concrete crushes.
Bending is dominating and the section will
fail in flexural tension. The values of M &
N fall on the lower part of M-N curve
between points "a" and "b". Ɛs1

Strain distribution
When the value of x increases, the strain when x is small

of the bottom bars decreases and it will Ɛ cu

reach a point at which the bottom bars Ɛ s2

yields at the same time when concrete

crushes. It is point "b" on the M-N curve
x
and is called balanced failure. When the
value of x increases beyond this point of
balance, the section will fail by crushing of
concrete before yielding of tension steel.
Axial compression becomes dominating. Ɛ s1

Strain distribution btw

points "b" and "d"

Chapter 6 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

When the value of x increases further, the

compression in the top bars increases Ɛcu

and then yields at point "c" of the M-N Ɛs2

curve. On the other hand, the tension in

bottom steel decreases and then equal to
zero at point "d" on the M-N curve where
the value of x equals to d, that means the x

neutral axis is at the centroid of the

bottom steel, and beyond which the
bottom bars changes from tension to
Ɛs1
compression.
Strain distribution
beyond point "e"
When the value of x is larger than h, i.e.
beyond point "e" on the M-N curve, the whole section is then in compression.
The ultimate value of x is reached when both top and bottom bars yield in
compression and, at this point, the moment becomes zero and the section is
at the ultimate axial capacity, N uz .

The M-N interaction curve represents the capacity of the section reinforced
with an amount of steel, As . If the point of coordinates of the design forces,
(N, M), falls within the curve, that means the section is stronger than enough
to resist the design forces, and vice versa. Hence, it is desirable to identify a
value of As of which the N-N curve just touches and embraces the point of
the design forces.

By altering the value of As , a set of M-N curves in the form of design chart
can be derived to facilitate the determination of the amount of steel required
for a column section. Instead of d, N, M and A s , the following dimensionless
parameters are used to derive a set of generalized design charts.

d N M As fy

h bhf cu bh2f cu bhf cu

A set of five typical Column Design Charts and the notes on their derivation
are attached at the end of this chapter for reference.

The steps in using the Column Design Charts for design are as follows:

Chapter 6 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

i. Estimate the value of d / h, round-down to the nearest 0.5, and then

select the Chart with corresponding d/h value.
ii. Calculate the values of N / (bhf cu ) and M / (bh2f cu ) and plot it on the
Chart.
iii. Linear interpolate the value of A s f y / (bhf cu ) from the two adjacent
curves.

For example,
If d / h = 0.825, use the Design Chart with d/h = 0.80.
If N / (bhf cu ) = 0.45 and M / (bh2f cu ) = 0.094, the value of A s f y / (bhf cu ) read from the
Design Chart is 0.34, as illustrated below. 4

6.2.4 Examples – Design of Short Braced Column under Uniaxial

4 A more rigorous approach is to find also the value of Asfy / (bhfcu) from the Chart with d / h = 0.85, which is 0.30 in
this case, and then calculate the value of Asfy / (bhfcu) corresponding to d / h = 0.825 by linear interpolation, i.e.
(0.30 + 0.34) / 2 = 0.32. Nevertheless, the value of 0.34 is on the safe side and the difference is only 6%.

Chapter 6 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Loads

Question A
DWG-06 shows a part plan and the elevation of a braced building structure. Determine the
main reinforcement bars for column C2 at Ground Floor by considering the loading
arrangement that will create the maximum bending moment to the column.
Design parameters
Column C2
Column breadth, b = 350 mm (in X-dir)
Column depth, h = 400 mm
Floor-to-floor height = 3500 mm (same for all floors)
Beams in Y-direction
Beams BY1 & BY2, h x b = 700 x 300 mm
Beam BY1 span, L by1 = 9900 – 400/2 = 9700 mm
Beam BY2 span, L by2 = 5000 mm
Beams in X-direction
Beams BX1 & BX2, h x b = 500 x 300 mm
Beam BX1 span, L bx1 = 3500 mm
Beam BX2 span, L bx2 = 3600 mm

Slab thickness = 225 mm (same for all floors)

Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa (same for all floors)
Imposed load = 15.0 kPa (same for all floors)
No of storeys = 3
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 40 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Preferred bar size = 40 mm

Solution
The column is obviously a short column because even the floor-to-floor height to width ratio,
i.e. 3500 / 350 = 10 << 15.

Loading to Beams in Y-Directions

Load width = (3600 + 3500) / 2 = 3550 mm
Dead Load
Slab 24.5 x 0.225 x 3.550 = 19.57 kN/m

Chapter 6 18
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Finishes 2.0 x 3.550 = 7.10 kN/m

Beams 24.5 x 0.3 x 0.475 = 3.49 kN/m
30.16 kN/m
Imposed Load 15.0 x 3.550 = 53.25 kN/m

Loading to Beams in X-Direction

(No load transferred from slab)
Dead Load only
Beams self-weight 24.5 x 0.3 x 0.275 = 2.02 kN/m

Self-weight of Column
Dead Load only 24.5 x 0.35 x 0.40 x 3.5 = 12.00 kN per floor

Axial Load from the Floors Above 1/F

Dead Load
Beams in Y-Dir 2 x 30.16 x (9.7 + 5.0) / 2 = 443 kN
Beams in X-Dir 2 x 2.02 x (3.6 + 3.5) / 2 = 14 kN
Column S/W 2 x 12.0 = 24 kN
481 kN
Imposed Load
Beams in Y-Dir 2 x 53.25 x (9.7 + 5.0) / 2 = 783 kN

The maximum bending moment 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

occurs when BY1 maximum 3/F

loaded while BY2 minimum

1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
loaded at 1/F. The critical
2/F
situation arises when the axial
forces transferred from floors
1.4Gk + 1.6Qk 1.0Gk
above 1/F are also maximum, as 1/F
BY1 BY2
illustrated in the figure on the
left. (Other loading cases will be C1 C3
C2
explored in Question B)

Design Axial Forces

Reduction to imposed load = 1 – 2 x 5% = 0.9
Axial load from above 1/F 1.4 x 481 + 1.6 x 783 x 0.9 = 1801 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY1 (1.4 x 30.16 +1.6 x 53.25 x 0.9) x 9.7 / 2 = 577 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY2 1.0 x 30.16 x 5.0 / 2 = 75 kN

Chapter 6 19
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Beams in X-Dir at 1/F 1.4 x 2.02 x (3.6 + 3.5) / 2 = 10 kN

Column S/W 1.4 x 12 = 17 kN
2480 kN
Design Moment in Y-Direction (i.e. about X-Axis)
Max Design Load on BY1 1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 = 127.4 kN / m
Min Design Load: on BY2 1.0 x 30.16 = 30.2 kN / m
FEM B1 = (1 / 12) x 127.4 x 9.72
= 999 kN-m
FEM B2 = (1 / 12) x 30.2 x 5.02
= 63 kN-m
Unbalanced moment, M es = 999 – 63
= 936 kN-m
Moment Distribution
K cu = 4 x (1 / 12 x 350 x 4003) / 3500
= 2.133 x 106 mm3
K cl = K cu = 2.133 x 106 mm3
0.5 K b1 = 2 x (1 / 12 x 300 x 7003) / 9700
= 1.768 x 106 mm3
0.5 K b2 = 2 x (1 / 12 x 300 x 7003) / 5000
= 3.430 x 106 mm3
Moment Distribution Factor = 2.133 / (2 x 2.133 + 1.768 + 3.430)
= 0.225
Therefore,
Design moment to column, M = 936 x 0.225
= 211 kN-m

Steel Area by Design Chart

d= 400 – 40 – 10 – 40 / 2 = 330
d/h= 330 / 400 = 0.825 (use 0.80)
N / (bhf cu ) = 2480 x 103 / (350 x 400 x 40)
= 0.44
M / (bh2f cu ) = 211 x 106 / (350 x 4002 x 40)
= 0.094
A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.33
As = 0.33 x 350 x 400 x 40 / 500
= 3696 mm2
(Provide 4 T40)
A s,pro = 4 x 1257 = 5028 mm2

Chapter 6 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

100A s / (bh) = 3.6 > 0.8 and < 6 (Steel Ratio ok)

Question B
?
Q.2 & Q.4

For the column in question A, determine the main reinforcement required for the following
two loading cases:
(i) Maximum design axial load with coexist moment
(ii) Minimum design axial load from floors above with maximum moment
Summary of Loading (from Question A)
Loading to Beams in Y-Directions
Dead Load 30.16 kN/m
Imposed Load 53.25 kN/m
Loading to Beams in X-Direction
Dead Load 2.02 kN/m
Imposed Load 0.00 kN/m
Self-weight of the column
Dead Load 12.0 kN per floor
Axial Load from the Floors Above 1/F
Dead Load 481 kN
Imposed Load 705 kN (reduced by 10%)

Solution
Case (i) – Max. Axial Load
Design Axial Forces
Axial load from above 1/F 1.4 x 481 + 1.6 x 783 x 0.9 = 1801 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY1 (1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 x 0.9) x 9.7 / 2 = 577 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY2 (1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 x 0.9) x 5.0 / 2 = 297 kN
Beams in X-Dir at 1/F 1.4 x 2.02 x (3.6 + 3.5) / 2 = 10 kN
2685 kN
Design Moment in Y-Direction (i.e. about X-Axis)
Max Design Load: 1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 = 127.4 kN/m
Min Design Load: 1.0 x 30.16 = 30.2 kN/m
FEM B1 = (1 / 12) x 127.4 x 9.72
= 999 kN-m
FEM B2 = (1 / 12) x 127.4 x 5.02
= 265 kN-m
Unbalance moment, M es = 999 – 265
= 734 kN-m

Chapter 6 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Moment Distribution Factor = 0.225

Therefore,
Design moment to column, M = 734 x 0.225
= 165 kN-m
Steel Area by Design Chart
d/h= 330 / 400 = 0.825 (use 0.80)
N / (bhf cu ) = 2685 x 103 /(350 x 400 x 40)
= 0.48
M / (bh2f cu ) = 165 x 106 /(350 x 4002 x 40)
= 0.074
A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.30 (Not critical compared with Q.A)

Case (ii) – Min. Axial Load

Design Axial Forces
Axial load from above 1/F 1.0 x 481 = 481 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY1 (1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 x 0.9) x 9.7 / 2 = 577 kN
Beam in Y-Dir at 1/F, BY2 1.0 x 30.16 x 5.0 / 2 = 75 kN
Beams in X-Dir at 1/F 1.0 x 2.02 x (3.6 + 3.5) / 2 = 10 kN
1143 kN
Design Moment in Y-Direction (i.e. about X-Axis)
Max Design Load: 1.4 x 30.16 + 1.6 x 53.25 = 127.4 kN/m
Min Design Load: 1.0 x 30.16 = 30.2 kN/m
FEM B1 = (1 / 12) x 127.4 x 9.72
= 999 kN-m
FEM B2 = (1 / 12) x 30.2 x 5.02
= 63 kN-m
Unbalance moment, M es = 999 – 63
= 936 kN-m
Moment Distribution Factor = 0.225
Therefore,
Design moment to column, M = 936 x 0.225
= 211 kN-m
Steel Area by Design Chart
d/h= 330 / 400 = 0.825 (use 0.80)
N / (bhf cu ) = 1143 x 103 / (350 x 400 x 40)
= 0.20
M / (bh2f cu ) = 211 x 106 / (350 x 4002 x 40)
= 0.094

Chapter 6 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.16 (Not critical compared with Q.A)

The results of the three loading cases in Questions A, B(i) and B(ii) are plotted
in the following figure.

B (i)

B (ii)

For this column, it is apparent that the critical load case is "A", which is well
above the balanced failure mode. However, in some cases, if the result for
maximum design axial load is close to balanced failure mode, the other cases
may become more critical.

Chapter 6 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.2.5 Design for Biaxial Moment

When a symmetrically-reinforced
rectangular column section is
subjected to bending in two directions
as shown in figure on the right, it can
be designed by transforming the
biaxial moment into uniaxial moment
using the following equations (Eqn
6.57 and 6.58 of HKCP-2013), and the
section can then be designed for an
increased moment about the
corresponding axis only.

For M x /h' ≥ M y /b', M x ' = M x + β(h'/b')M y [6.5]

For M x /h' < M y /b', M y ' = M y + β(b'/h')M x [6.6]

The values of β are given by the following table.

N/(bhf cu ) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ≥ 0.6

β 1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30

Table 6.2 – Values of the Coefficient β for Biaxial Bending

(Table 6.14 of HKCP-2013)

6.2.6 Example – Design of Short Braced Column 350

Y
under Biaxial Loads

Question
X X
400

Determine the main reinforcement for the column section

shown in the figure on the right hand side with the following
design parameters.
Y

Chapter 6 24
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Design Parameters
Design Axial Load, N = 1800 kN
Design Moment about X-axis, M x = 85 kN-m
Design Moment about Y-axis, M y = 95 kN-m
f cu = 30 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 40 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Preferred bar size = 32 mm

Solution
b= 350 mm
b' = 350 – 40 -10 – 32 / 2 = 284 mm
h= 400 mm
h' = 400 – 40 – 10 – 32 / 2 = 334 mm
M x / h' = 85 / 334 = 0.25
M y / b' = 95 / 284 = 0.33
As M y / b' > M x / h', increase M y for design
N / (bhf cu ) = 1800 x 103 / (350 x 400 x 30)
= 0.43
β= 0.53 – (0.53 - 0.42) x 0.3 = 0.497
My' = 95 + 0.497 x (284 / 334) x 85
= 131 kN-m
As bending about Y-axis is considered,
the following parameters are used for Design Chart

d/h=
h=
d=
350
284
284 / 350 = 0.81 (use 0.80)
! The definition of h is the
dimension of the column
section in the direction of

N / (bhf cu ) = 0.43 the design [Link]

M / (bh2f cu ) = 131 x 106 / (400 x 3502 x 30) = 0.089

A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.29
As = 0.29 x 400 x 350 x 30 / 500
= 2436 mm2
(Provide 4 T32)
A s,prov = 4 x 804 = 3216 mm2
100A s / (bh) = 2.3 > 0.8 and < 6 (Steel Ratio ok)

Q.3 & Q.5

?
Chapter 6 25
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.2.7 Transverse Reinforcement

In addition to the main reinforcement bars provided in the longitudinal

direction along the height of column, transverse reinforcement, in the forms
of links, cross-ties, etc., should be provided to restrain the main bars from
buckling under compression. The requirements on the provision of these
transverse reinforcements are:

i. Bar size ≥ 6 or 1/4 x size of the longitudinal bar.

ii. Spacing ≤ 12 x size of the longitudinal bar, b and h, 400mm whichever
is lesser.
iii. All corner bars, alternate bars shall be restrained in 2 directions.
iv. No unrestrained bars should be more than 150mm from a restrained
bar.
v. 2-direction restraint should be provided by links passing round the bar
with an included angle of not more than 135o.
vi. Circular or spiral links should be provided to circular column.

The following figures extracted from Figure 9.5 of Cl.9.5.2 of HKCP-2013

shows the details of the requirements.

Chapter 6 26
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.3 Walls

A vertical member is regarded as wall instead of

column when the length to thickness ratio of the
section is more than 4.

With its high in-plane stiffness, walls are usually

used in building structure to resist lateral forces

Height
acting on the building by in-plane bending of the
wall. The design of wall for the combined effect
of axial load and in-plane moment is quite similar
to that for column. A wall can be visualized as strips
of column placed together side-by-side for design.

Walls may also be designed to resist out-of-plane moment, e.g. walls of water
tank, earth retaining structures, etc. of which, if the design force is
predominantly transverse bending, the design principles of slab can be
adopted.

6.3.1 Classification of Walls

(a) Slender or Stocky Wall

Similar to column, walls are categorized into braced or non-braced, and

then, according to the effective height to thickness ratio, classified into
slender or stocky wall. For wall, the out-of-plane direction of bending
governs the classification. If a wall is classified as slender, additional out-
of-plane moment has to be designed for. 5 This chapter focuses on the
design for stocky braced reinforced wall 6, of which

L e /h < 15

5 For slender reinforced concrete wall, determination of additional moment is similar to that for slender column.
Refer to Cl. [Link] of HKCP-2013 for details. It is beyond the scope of this chapter.
6 Take note that the determination of Le and the limits on Le/h are different for non-braced wall and for plain wall.
Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 6 27
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Example
A 180mm thick reinforced wall is constructed monolithically with 150mm slabs at each
floor and the floor-to-floor height is 3200mm, and the building structure is braced.

Unrestrained height, L o = 3200 - 150 = 3050mm.

As the slab thickness at both top and bottom is thinner than the wall, the restraints
belong to condition 2, and therefore β = 0.85.
Effective height L e = 0.85 x 3050 = 2593mm.
L e /h = 2593/180 = 14.4 < 15. It is a stocky wall.

(b) Reinforced or Plain Wall

When the design forces of the wall is so small that the strength of the
concrete alone is adequate to resist the design forces, the wall can then
be designed as plain wall. In other words, plain wall is walls of which the
design is based on without reinforcement, although nominal
reinforcement of 0.25% has to be provided. 7 On the other hand,
reinforced wall are walls of which reinforcement bars have to be provided
to resist the design forces, and the nominal reinforcement for reinforced
wall is 0.4%.

6.3.2 Design for Axially Loaded Stocky Wall

If a stocky braced wall supports an approximately symmetrical arrangement

of slabs, it can be designed by the following formula (Eqn 6.59 of HKCP-
2013):

n w ≤ 0.35f cu A c + 0.67f y A sc [6.7]

where, n w is the total design axial load on the wall. An allowance for γ m is
included in the formula.

7 Not only the nominal steel requirement is different, the determination of effective height, the design formulae,
etc. for plain wall are also different from those for reinforced wall. Hence, you have to decide at the outset
whether the wall is to be designed as plain wall or reinforced wall, or you can do it by try and error. This chapter
focusses on the design of reinforced wall.

Chapter 6 28
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

It is identical to [6.4] above for column design, which deems to have taken
into account of the out-of-plane bending moment induced by asymmetric
loading of the slabs.

6.3.3 Design for Axial Load and Out-of-plane Moment

Where a wall section is designed for combined axial load and out-of-plane
moment, a unit length, i.e. 1.0m, of the wall can be designed as a column and
the Column Design Charts can be used for design.

Example
A 3000 x 250 braced stocky wall is b

subjected to a design axial load of 4000

kN/m and an out-of-plane design moment X X

d
h
of 145 kN-m/m. Given f y = 500 MPa, f cu =
40 MPa, cover = 30mm.

N / (bhf cu ) = 0.40
M / (bh2f cu ) = 0.058
d=250-30-10-16/2=202mm, d/h = 0.81 (use 0.80)
From Column Design Chart, A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.13
Therefore, A s = 0.13x250x1000x40/500 = 2600 mm2/m
Provide T16-150 on both faces. A s,prov = 2680 mm2/m

Note: In this example, loads are given in per meter run, and therefore the calculations
is also done in per meter run without taking into account of the overall length of the wall.

6.3.4 Design for Axial Load and In-plane Moment

There are various methods to analysis and design wall section subjected to
in-plane moment. Two simplified methods are introduced here.

(a) M-N Interaction Chart Method

Similar to column, assuming an amount of reinforcement for the wall

section, try various values of the depth of neutral axis, x, to obtain an M-

Chapter 6 29
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

N interaction curve. If the point of coordinates of the design forces, (M,

N) falls within and very close to the curve, the amount of reinforcement
you have assumed is therefore acceptable; otherwise, the amount of
reinforcement has to be adjusted to derive another M-N curve until an
appropriate one is obtained. 8

For simplicity, Column Design Chart can be used if the wall is

symmetrically reinforced, as described below:

(i) Treat the wall as a rectangular column section with its length 9 as
depth, h, while its thickness as breath, b.
b
(ii) Group the reinforcement bars into top half
and bottom half. Determine the depth, d, to
the centroid of the bottom steel bars. Use
this value to obtain the d/h ratio. If the wall

d
uniformly reinforced along its length, d = h –

h
X X
h / 4 = 0.75h, and therefore d/h is simply
taken as 0.75.
(iii) Calculate N / (bhf cu ) and M / (bh2f cu ) and then
obtain the value of A s f y / (bhf cu ) from the
Column Design Chart with corresponding d/h
value.

(b) Linear Load Distribution Method

The combined effect of axial load and in-plane moment can be regarded
as a linear distribution of axial forces and then design the wall as strips
of column as described below:

(i) Transform the design moment, M, and the design axial load, N, by
elastic method into a linear distribution of axial force per unit length
along the length of the wall as shown below.

8 Pay attention that this method is based on the assumption that plane section remain plane, i.e. strain distribution
is linear. However, if the height to length ratio of the wall is small, it will behave more like a deep beam.
9 Be careful with the usage of the notation, h, which is not referring to the length of the wall, but, with its usual
meaning in slab and beam design, to which thickness and depth is referred, and is therefore very often referring
the thickness of the wall. However, when the length of the wall is designed for in-plane bending, h refers to the
length. To be more precise, h is defined as the dimensions of the section in the direction of the design moment.

Chapter 6 30
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

N
M

2
N/b + 6M/b
2
N/b – 6M/b

b/n

(ii) Visualize the wall as n number of columns with length equal to b/n
each. Calculate the design axial load at the center of each strip by
linear interpolation.
(iii) Determine the amount of steel required for each strip of column by
[6.3] above for column under axial load.

(vi) If the value of the design axial load of a strip is negative, that means
it is under tension; ignore the concrete and provide reinforcement to
take up the tension.

6.3.5 Examples

Question A
Determine the main reinforcement for the following stocky braced wall by using appropriate
Column Design Chart.
Design Parameters
Wall dimensions b x h = 350 x 4000
Design Axial Load, N = 27000 kN
Design in-plane Moment, M = 12000 kN-m
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa

Chapter 6 31
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Cover = 30 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Preferred bar size = 32 mm

Solution
N / (bhf cu ) = 27000 x 103 / (350 x 4000 x 40)
= 0.48
M / (bh2f cu ) = 12000 x 106 / (350 x 40002 x 40)
= 0.0536
Assume the steel is uniformly distributed, therefore d / h =0.75
From Column Design Chart of d / h = 0.75
A s f y / (bhf cu ) = 0.22
As = 0.22 x 350 x 1000 x 40 / 500
= 6160 mm2 per meter width
(Provide T32-250 BF)

! Limits to steel ratio

for column refer to
Table 2.1 in Chapter
A s,prov =
100A s / (bh) =
2 x 804 / 0.250 = 6432 mm2
1.8 > 0.4 and < 4 (Steel Ratio ok)
2 or the Annex.

Question B
Determine the main reinforcement for the following stocky braced wall by using Linear Load
Distribution Method.
Design Parameters
Wall dimensions h x b = 350 x 4000
Design Axial Load, N = 27000 kN
Design Moment in-plane M = 12000 kN-m
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 30 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Preferred bar size = 32 mm

Solution
N/b= 27000 / 4 = 6750 kN/m
6M / b2 = 6 x 12000 / 42 = 4500 kN/m
As 6750 – 4500 > 0, there is no tension.
Divide the wall into 4 strips
Width of each strip = 4000 / 4 = 1000 mm

Chapter 6 32
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The max load on each strip is tabulated as follows

Strip 1 2 3 4
Width 1000 1000 1000 1000
Loading due to N 6750 6750 6750 6750
Loading due to M -3375 -1125 1125 3375
Total Axial Force 3375 5625 7875 10125
Capacity of Concrete, 0.4f cu bh 5600 5600 5600 5600
Force taken up by steel 0 25 2275 4525
A s = N s /(0.75f y ) 1400 1400 6067 12067
Provide T16-275 T16-275 T32-250 T32-125
100A s /(bh) = 0.42 0.42 1.84 3.68

Comments:

1. The nominal reinforcement for wall is 0.4%. Therefore, the amount of steel required
to strip 1 is 350 x 1000 x 0.4 /100 = 1400 mm2.

2. Although the configuration and design forces for the walls in questions A and B are
the same, two design methods come up with two different reinforcement
requirements.

3. The total amount of steel required in Question A is 4 x 6160 = 24640mm2, while that
for Question B is 1400 + 1400 + 6067 + 12067 = 20934mm2, about 15% lesser.

4. The reinforcement distribution in Question A is uniform, and therefore, it does not

matter if the direction of design moment is reversed. On the other hand, the
distribution of reinforcement in Question B is better positioned to take up the stress
induced by the specific direction of the moment.

5. If the design in Question B has to cater for reversal of bending, the amount of steel
required will then be 2 x (6067 + 12067) = 36268mm2, about 47% more than that of
Question A. However, it has to note that the equation used to determine steel area
in Question B has taken into account of the out-of-plane moment due to nominal
eccentricity of the axial load, which has not been accounted for in Question A.

Chapter 6 33
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.3.6 Notes on Detailing

The design code limits the spacing of vertical bars in wall (Cl.9.6.2 of HKCP-
2013) as follows:

Spacing of vertical bars < lesser of 400mm and 3 x wall thickness

If the wall is subjected to out-of-plane bending, bar spacing requirements

similar to that for slab may have to be adopted.

In addition, vertical compression bars have to be restrained from buckling by

provision of horizontal bars or transverse bars. Details refer to the design
code (Cl.9.6.3 and Cl.9.6.4 of HKCP-203). 10

10
The rules of detailing is beyond the scope of this chapter. Refer to the design code for details.

Chapter 6 34
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 35
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 36
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 37
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 38
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 39
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 6 40
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 The following are the dimensions for a column and the connecting beams of a building structure
which is provided with shear walls to resist lateral loads.

Column: h = 550 mm (in Y-direction)

b= 450 mm
Floor-to-floor height = 6800 mm
Beams at the Top
Depth of the beam in X-direction = 400 mm
Depth of the beam in Y-direction = 450 mm
Beam at the Bottom
Depth of the beam in X-direction = 400 mm
Depth of the beam in Y-direction = 450 mm

(a) Determine the effective heights, L ex and L ey .

(b) Determine the effective height to width ratios.
(c) Classify whether the column is short or not.

Q.2 A short braced column at the roof floor of a building structure supporting two beams, B1 and
B2, on each side in the Y-direction with the following design parameters.

Column dimensions, h = b = 400 mm

Floor-to-roof height, Lc = 4000 mm
Beam dimensions, h x b = 650 x 300 mm
Span of B1, L b1 = 9000 mm
Span of B2, L b2 = 9000 mm
Loading on the beams B1 & B2
Dead Load, g k = 100 kN/m (beam self-weight included)
Imposed Load, q k = 75 kN/m
Loading the in X-direction: (negligible,)

f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 40 mm

Chapter 6 41
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Preferred link size = 10 mm

Preferred bar size = 40 mm

(a) Determine the maximum design moment transmitted from the beams by Simplified Sub-
frame Analysis.
(b) Determine the co-existing design axial load for the design moment in (a).
(c) Find the steel area required for the above design forces by using Column Design Chart.
(d) Determine the maximum design axial force for the column by tributary area method.
(e) Use equation 6.4 (i.e. Eqn.6.56 of HKCP-2013) to find the steel area required.
(f) Compare the results in (c) and (e).

Q.3 Given the following information of a short braced column which is subjected to axial load only:

Column dimensions: h x b = 400 x 400 mm

Design Axial Compression, N = 4000 kN
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 40 mm
Preferred link size = 10 mm
Preferred bar size = 40 mm

(a) Determine the nominal design moment of the column.

(b) Determine the A s f y / (bhf cu ) value and the A s required for the column from the Column
Design Chart.
(c) Determine the area of steel required by using Eqn 6.55 of HKCP-2013.
(d) Compare the results of (b) and (c)

Q.4 For the column C2 in Question A of 6.2.4, if the length of the column from G/F to 1/F is increased
to 4.5m and the others remain unchanged,

(a) Determine design moment to the column.

(b) Determine the steel area required.

Chapter 6 42
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.5 Determine the area of main reinforcement required for the following braced short columns by
completing the table.
Design Axial Load, N= 4800 kN Preferred link size = 10
Design Moment about X-axis, M x = 450 kN-m Preferred bar size = 40
Design Moment about Y-axis, M y = 200 kN-m Cover = 40 mm
fy = 500 MPa
f cu = 40 MPa

(a) (b) (c)

b= 500 370 670
h= 500 670 370
b'=
h'=
M x / h' =
M y / b' =
N/(bhf cu ) =
β=
M=
d/h =
M/(bh2f cu ) =
A s f y /(bhf cu ) =
As =

Answers:
Q1a: L ex = 5398, L ey = 5440; Q1b: L ex /h = 9.8, L ey /b=12.1; Q1c: Short Column
Q2a: M es =1080kN-m; M=444kN-m; Q2b:1642kN;
Q2c: N/(bhf cu ) = 0.26, M/(bh2f cu ) =0.174, use Chart (d/h=0.80),, A s f y /(bhf cu ) =0.50, As=6400mm2;
Q2d: 2340+22(SW) = 2362kN; Q2e: 364mm2.
Q3a: 80kN-m; Q3b:0.30, 3840mm2; Q3c: 3840mm2
Q4a: 173kN-m; Q4b: A s f y /(bhf cu ) = 0.26. A s = 2912mm2
Q5a: M=538, d/h=0.86, A s =7600; Q5b: M=627, d/h=0.90, A s =6200; M=494, d/h=0.81, A s =10800

Chapter 6 43
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
(Present your calculations with detailed working steps in a logical, neat and tidy
manner.)

AQ1 Design the edge column C1 shown on DWG-06 with the following information
given.
(Design Moment: 353 kNm, Design Axial Load: 1965 kN, Design Chart Value: 0.53, A s req : 5936 mm²)

Design parameters
Column C1
Column breadth, b = 350 mm (in X-dir)
Column depth, h = 400 mm
Floor-to-floor height = 3500 mm (same for all floors)
Beams in Y-direction
Beams B Y1 , h x b = 700 x 300 mm
Beam B Y1 span, L by1 = 9900 – 400/2 = 9700 mm
Beams in X-direction
Beams B X3 & B X4 , h x b = 500 x 300 mm
Beam B X3 span, L bx1 = 3500 mm
Beam B X4 span, L bx2 = 3600 mm

Slab thickness = 225 mm (same for all floors)

Allowance for finishes = 2.0 kPa (same for all floors)
Imposed load = 15.0 kPa (same for all floors)
External wall supported on B X3 & B X4 = 10.35 kN/m
No of storeys = 3
f cu = 40 MPa
fy = 500 MPa
Cover = 40 mm
Preferred link size = 10
Preferred bar size = 40

Chapter 6 44
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AQ2 The dimensions of a braced reinforced concrete column of a multi-story building are
The image part with relationship ID rId43 was not found in the file.

given below and in the figure:

Depth, h = 550mm
h' = 470mm
Breadth, b = 400mm
b' = 320mm

Clear height between floor beams,

Lo = 5,000mm

Concrete: Grade C35

Reinforcement: Grade 500

The top and bottom ends of the column are connected monolithically to reinforced
concrete beams deeper than the dimensions of the column in both directions.

(a) Check the slenderness of the column and comment on its implications on the
column design. (about x-axis: 6.8; about y-axis: 9.4; short column)
(b) The design ultimate loads for the column at roof floor are found to be as follows:
Axial compression, N = 1,000 kN
Moment about x-axis, M x = 300 kN-m
Moment about y-axis, M y = 100 kN-m
(M x’ : 424.8 kNm)
Calculate the percentage of steel required for the column at roof floor. (1.33%)
(c) The design ultimate loads for the column at the fourth floor below the roof floor
are found to be as follows:
Axial compression, N = 5,500 kN
Moments are same as (b).
(M x’ : 344.1 kNm)
Calculate the percentage of steel required for the column at this floor. (3.85%)
(d) Estimate the percentage of steel required, by using Eqn 6.56 of HKCP-2013
given below for the column in (c), i.e. N = 5,500 kN, and ignoring the design
moments. (3.81%)
N = 0.35f cu A c + 0.67f y A sc
(e) Discuss your observations in the above calculations.

Chapter 6 45
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AQ3 The dimensions of a short braced reinforced concrete

column are given in Figure Q.3a on the right hand side:

Depth, h = 500 mm

h' = 425 mm

Breadth, b = 400 mm

Floor-to-floor height, L c = 5000 mm

Concrete: Grade C35

Reinforcement: Grade 500

This column supports two roof beams B Y1 and B Y2 on each

side in the Y-direction with the following information: Figure Q.3a
Cross-section of the Column

Beam depth = 650 mm

Beam breadth = 300 mm

Span of B Y1 , L b1 = 9000 mm

Span of B Y2 , L b2 = 7700 mm

Loading on the beams, B Y1 and B Y2 :

Dead load, g k = 120 kN/m

Imposed load, q k = 80 kN/m

Loading from beams in the X-direction and the self-weight of column can be ignored.

(a) Apply the Simplified Sub-frame Method as illustrated in Figure Q.3b to verify
that the maximum design moment transferred from the beams is M x = 705 kN-
m.
(b) Verify that the design axial load which co-exists with the design moment in (a)
is N = 1794 kN.
(c) Find the steel area of reinforcement required for the design forces in (a) and (b)
by using the Column Design Chart and then design the reinforcement for it.
(Design chart: 0.51; Link: T10/R10 – 400c/c)

Chapter 6 46
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│CHAPTER 7│

Design of Simple Footings and Pile Caps

Learning Objectives
 Design the reinforcement for simple footing by integrating the
following processes:
o Determination of ultimate design load and soil pressure
o Identify the critical sections for design for bending and shear
o Design the reinforcement for bending
o Check shear stresses
 Design the reinforcement required for simple pile cap by
integrating the following process
o Determine the tensile force in the reinforcement by truss
analogy and design the reinforcement accordingly
o Check shear stresses

CONTENTS

7.1 Simple Pad Footing

7.1.1 Allowable Soil Bearing Pressure
7.1.2 Example – Size of Pad Footing
7.1.3 Design Loads for R C Design
7.1.4 Critical Sections for R C Design
7.1.5 Distribution of Reinforcement
7.1.6 Example – Simple Pad Footing

7.2 Simple Pile Cap

7.2.1 Truss Analogy
7.2.2 R C Design
7.2.3 Design for Shear
7.2.4 Example – Simple Pile Cape

Chapter 7 1
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.1 Simple Pad Footing

The foundation of a structure is designed to transmit the load from the

structure to the ground safely by spreading the force out or transferring the
force down to a suitable bearing stratum. If the load is not very large and a
suitable soil stratum can be identified not very deep into the ground, the
foundation can be in the form of a pad to spread the load from the column
onto the soil as shown in Figure 7.1. It is called a pad footing, spread footing,
or, in a more academic term, shallow foundation, or simply, footing.

Fc – Column Load
Column

wi – Imposed load at floor level

Ground
ws – Weight of soil

wf – Footing self-weight
Pad Footing

ps – Soil pressure

Figure 7.1 – Loading and Soil Pressure

of Symmetrically-loaded Pad Footing on Granular Soil (Section)

In the design of footing, two aspects have to be checked:

(i) Pressure at the bearing stratum (geotechnical design)

(ii) Reinforced concrete design of the footing (structural design)

The first checking, or geotechnical design, is to ensure the pressure exerted

by the base onto the soil would not induce excessive settlement or even
rupture the soil. That involves geotechnical analysis of the soil to determine
the suitable founding level and the minimum base area, or bearing area, of
the footing. However, the focus of this chapter is on the latter one, i.e. the
structural design of the footing, which is to determine the thickness of the
footing and the reinforcement required. The structural design approach for R
C footing is quite similar to that for R C slab. The design formulae you have

Chapter 7 2
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

learnt in Chapters 1 to 3, or summarized in the Annex are applicable.

However, in order to complete the picture of the whole design process, the
soil pressure check is also briefly discussed and illustrated with a simple
example. More information on the determination of soil bearing capacity
and settlement can be found in other courses.

For the purpose of this course, to illustrate the essences of the structural
design of footing, we will focus on the design of simple concentrically-loaded
square footing seating on granular soil.

7.1.1 Soil Bearing Pressure

Soil, like all other materials, deforms under the action of load that will then
cause settlement to the structure. Therefore, the pressure exerted on the soil
under working load should not induce excessive settlement to the structure
so as not to impair the function of the building. It is the serviceability limit state
(SLS) requirement for the design.

In addition, the footing, when under design ultimate load, should be designed
such that it would not subside into the soil, or, in other words, the ultimate
pressure exerted on the soil would not be so large that it ruptures the soil,
pushing the soil to flow, and therefore leads to collapse of the building. This
is the ultimate bearing pressure of the soil, and is the ultimate limit state (ULS)
requirement for the design.

The deformation behaviour and the ultimate strength of a soil mass depends
on the geotechnical properties of the soil. For footing seating on granular soils,
the safe soil bearing pressure is usually controlled by settlement, i.e. SLS.
Hence, for simplicity, an allowable soil bearing pressure, q a , is usually
adopted for checking the SLS of a pad footing seating on granular soil. 1

The adequacy of the base area of the footing is checked by ensuring the
additional pressure exerted on the soil due to the working load, i.e. unfactored

1 For footing seating on fine-grained or cohesive soil, both ultimate soil pressure and settlements are important
consideration. The behavior of settlement in fine-grained or cohesive soil is different from that in granular soil; it
is time dependent. The distribution of soil pressure under the footing is also different. It is beyond the scope of
this chapter. Details shall refer to relevant text books and publications.

Chapter 7 3
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

load, from the structure would not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure,
q a ,. The gross soil pressure, q g , just beneath the footing is the summation of
all the effects due to working load from the column, imposed load on the
ground, weight of soil above the footing and self-weight of the footing as
illustrated in Figure 7.1. Therefore, for granular soil, the base area should be
designed such that

qg – γshs < qa

where γ s = Soil density

h s = Depth between ground and founding level

However, be conservative and for simplicity, the soil above the founding level
of shallow foundation is usually ignored and the soil pressure is assumed to
be uniformly distributed as shown in the Figure 7.2, and therefore, for
granular soil, the required base area is then determined as follows. 2

Figure 7.2 - Idealized Loads and Soil Pressure of

a Concentrically-loaded Footing for Design (Section)

Characteristic loads from the column = G k and Q k

Base area of the footing = A f
Self-weight of the footing = W f

2 This method is suitable for granular soil only.

Chapter 7 4
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Working load from the column, F c = G k + Q k

Soil bearing pressure, p s = (F c + W f ) /A f
< qa
or, the minimum required base area
A f > (F c + W f )/q a

7.1.2 Example – Size of Simple Pad Footing

Question
A square footing is designed to support a column placed at the center of it. With the
following information, prepare a preliminary estimate of the size of the footing based on
allowable soil bearing pressure.
Design Parameters
Characteristic loads from the column
Dead load, G k = 1800 kN (s/w of column included)
Imposed Load, Q k = 1550 kN
Footing founding level: at 1.5m below ground level
Soil: Dry dense sand (i.e. granular soil)
Allowable soil bearing pressure, q a = 300 kPa

Solution
Assume the self-weight of footing, W f = 200kN (to be verified later)

Ignoring the soil above the founding level

Total working load at the founding level = 1800 + 1550 + 200
= 3550 kN
Bearing area required = 3550 / 300
= 11.83 m2
Try dimensions of footing = 3500 x 3500 x 650 mm
Af = 3.5 x 3.5
= 12.25 m2 > 11.83 m2 ok
Verify the assumed value of W f = 24.5 x 3.5 x 3.5 x 0.65
= 195 kN < 200kN ok

Chapter 7 5
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.1.3 Design Loads for Structural Design

The structural design of footing concerns with the ultimate structural capacity
of the R C footing. Design ultimate load (i.e. factored load) should be used,
and the design load from the column is: 3

F c = 1.4 G k + 1.6 Q k

For determining the design shear and bending in the footing, the net upward
reaction pressure from the soil is adopted, which is:

pn = Fc / Af

Take note of the following:

(a) Self-weight of the footing, the soil load above the footing and the
surcharge on the ground, which are uniformly distributed and are self-
balanced by their induced uniformly-distributed upward reaction
pressure from the soil, can then be simply excluded from the
calculation of the net upward reaction pressure.

(b) The assumption that the soil pressure is uniformly distributed is in

general valid if the footing is sufficiently rigid and is seating on granular
soil.

7.1.4 Critical Sections for R C Design

While the geotechnical design determines the minimum base area of the
footing, the structural design determines the thickness and reinforcement of
the footing. A footing can be regarded as a slab panel subjected to a
concentrated load from the column. Unlike one-way or two-way slab
discussed in Chapter 5, where bending controls the design, the high shear
stress induced by the concentrated load, i.e. the column, determines the
thickness of the footing. 4 The cantilever moment induced by the upward net

3 In this Chapter, we focus on designing for Dead and Imposed Loads only. A footing may also have to be
designed for wind load, soil pressure, etc. and appropriate partial factors of safety and combination of loads have
to be considered. Details shall be referred to the design code.
4 In addition to shear, the depth of footing should also be adequate in providing compression bond length for the

Chapter 7 6
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

soil pressure on the vertical section across the column face, on the other
hand, determines the reinforcement required.

column starter bars.

Chapter 7 7
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Shear forces at the following three critical sections have to be checked:

(i) Maximum shear on the perimeter of the column face

(ii) Punching shear on the perimeter at 1.5d from the column face
(iii) Shear on the vertical section at 1.0d from the column face

Hence, for a simple square footing, a total of 4 critical sections (1 for bending
and 3 for shear) have to be checked and designed as illustrated in Figure 7.3
and as explained below.

(1) Design the reinforcement for the bending moment on the

vertical section at the column face across the full length
of the footing (i.e. a-b in Figure 7.3)
L

Column width = c
Cantilever span = (L – c) / 2 (L – c) / 2

The net upward force = p n L (L – c) / 2

Therefore, the design moment about a-b is

𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿(𝐿𝐿−𝑐𝑐) (𝐿𝐿−𝑐𝑐)

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 � � 𝑥𝑥 � � 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝐿𝐿(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑐𝑐)²
2 2
M= = =
2 2 8

Then, using L as the breadth of the section with the effective depth, d,
calculate the K value, the level arm, z, and then the area of steel required,
A s , by the formulae of bending in Chapter 2.

(2) Check the maximum shear stress at the column face

Perimeter of column face = 4c

Design shear force = p n (L2 – c2)
v max = p n (L2 – c2) / (4cd)
< min (0.8 √f cu or 7.0)

Chapter 7 8
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

c
`(3) Check the shear across the section of the footing at 1.0d
from the column face (i.e. c-d in Figure 7.3)

d
The area of the footing on (L – c) / 2 - d

the right-hand side of c-d = L ((L – c)/2 – d)

Therefore, the design shear force at c-d:

V = p n L (L/2 – c/2 – d)

Then, check the shear stress against v c :

v = p n L (L/2 – c/2 – d) / Ld
< vc

4) Check punching shear at the perimeter 1.5d from the

e f
column face (i.e. e-f-g-h in Figure 7.3)

Rectangular perimeter at 1.5d from the face of the

h g
concentrated load can be used to check for punch shear
(Cl. [Link] of HKCP-2013). The design shear at the
perimeter of the square e-f-g-h is to be checked.

Side length of e-f-g-h = c + 2 x 1.5d = c + 3d

The area outside e-f-g-h = L2 – (c + 3d)2
The perimeter of e-f-g-h = 4 (c + 3d)

Therefore, the design shear force at e-f-g-h:

V = p n [L2 – (c + 3d)2]

Then, check the shear stress against v c :

v = p n [L2 – (c + 3d)2] / [4(c + 3d)d]

< vc

Chapter 7 9
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The value of v c should be determined by [3.2] (i.e. Table 6.3 of HKCP-

2014) in Chapter 3.

If the shear stress in either (3) or (4) is larger the v c , you may have either
(i) to increase the depth of the footing, (ii) to increase v c by providing
more flexural reinforcement, or (iii) to provide shear reinforcement.

7.1.5 Distribution of Reinforcement

If the dimension of the square footing, L, is larger than 1.5(c + 3d), it is

recommended (Cl.[Link] of HKCP-2013) to have 2/3 of the reinforcement
concentrated within a zone 1.5d on each side of the column face, i.e. a width
of (c + 3d). However, for simplicity in detailing, unless the footing is very large,
a uniform distribution of bars over the footing is usually adopted, and, as such,
the amount of reinforcement required is adjusted as follows:

If L ≤ 1.5(c + 3d), [7.1]

distribute the rebar uniformly; otherwise,

either (i) the steel is non-uniformly distributed with 2/3 of A s placed

within the mid-zone of (c + 3d); or

(ii) increase A s by the ratio L / [1.5(c + 3d)] and uniformly

distribute the steel over the footing.

7.1.6 Example – Simple Pad Footing

Question
A square pad footing supporting a column at its center is shown in DWG-07. The design
parameters for the pad footing are given below. Assuming the soil reaction pressure beneath
the footing is uniformly distributed; design the reinforcement for the footing.

Design Parameters

Side length of the square footing, L = 3000 mm

Overall depth of the footing, h = 600 mm
Column width, c = 500 mm

Chapter 7 10
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Cover to rebar = 50 mm
Grade of concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Grade of rebars,f y = 500 MPa
Preferred size of main bars = 20
Dead load from column, G k = 1200 kN
(column s/w included)
Imposed Load from column, Q k = 450 kN

Solution
Design load from column, F = 1.4 x 1200 + 1.6 x 450
= 2400 kN
Base area, A f = 3.02 = 9.0 m2
Net upward soil pressure, p n = 2400 / 9.0
= 266.7 kPa There are 2 layers of bars, and
the upper bottom layer is used
to determine the value of d.
Effective depth, d = 600 – 50 – 20 – 20/2
= 520 mm
d

(1) Determine Reinforcement for Bending

Breadth of the section, b = 3000 mm
Cantilever span = (3000 – 500) / 2
= 1250 mm
Design moment, M = 266.7 x 3.0 x 1.252 / 2
b=L
= 625 kNm
K= M / (bd2f cu )
= 625 x 106 / (3000 x 5202 x 35)
= 0.022
Lever arm, z = 0.95 x 520
= 494 mm
A s,req = M / (0.87 f y z)
= 625 x 106 / (0.87 x 500 x 494)
= 2908 mm2
Check bar distribution, 1.5(c + 3d) = 1.5 x (500 + 3 x 520)
= 3090 > 3000 mm (uniformly distributed)
(Provide 10T20 / 2-way)
A s,pro = 10 x 314
= 3140 mm2

Chapter 7 11
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

100A s / bh = 100 x 3140 / (3000 x 600)

= 0.174
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

(2) Check Maximum Shear at the Perimeter of the Column Face

Perimeter of the column = 4 x 500
= 2000 mm
Design Shear = 266.7 x (3.02 – 0.52)
= 2333 kN
Maximum shear stress, v max = 2333 x103 / (2000 x 520)
= 2.24 MPa
≤ min(0.8√35 or 7) = 4.73 MPa ok

(3) Check Shear at Section 1.0d from Column Face

100A s / bd = 100 x 3140 / (3000 x 520)
= 0.201

Compare to 0.67 (400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 520)1/4

instead of 1.0 because = 0.937 ( > 0.67)
link is seldom provided vc = 0.79 x 0.2011/3 x 0.937 / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
in footing.
= 0.347 x 1.12
= 0.39 MPa
Design shear = 266.7 x 3.0 x (1.25 – 0.52)
= 584 kN
Shear stress = 584 x 103 / (3000 x 520)
= 0.37 < 0.39 MPa ok

(4) Check Punching Shear

Width of the critical perimeter = 500 + 2 x 1.5 x 520 = 2060 mm
Critical perimeter = 4 x 2060
= 8240 mm
Area outside the critical perimeter = 3.02 - 2.0602 = 4.756 m2
Design punching shear = 266.7 x 4.756
= 1268 kN
Punching shear stress = 1268 x 103 / (8240 x 520)
= 0.30 < 0.39 MPa ok

?
Q.1 & 2

Chapter 7 12
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.2 Simple Pile Cap

Pile cap, as its name implies, seats on top of the piles, acting as the transition
between the superstructure and pile foundation. It not only provides a bridge
between two different forms of construction, but also acts as a transfer
structure to transmit the loads between two different structural systems. The
elevation shown in Figure 7.4 illustrates the load transfer mechanism of a pile
cap transmitting the load of a single column onto two piles below it.

Pile cap, unlike beam and slab as discussed in Chapters 4 & 5, is subjected
to high concentrated loads, or point loads, and the span-to-depth ratio is very
small, most often less than 3, and therefore, it behaves like a deep beam,
where the assumption of linear distribution of strain is no more valid, and its
structural design is dominated by shear.

The surcharge, soil weight and self-weight of the pile cap are in general very
small and negligible when compared with the design loads from the column,
and therefore, for simplicity, they are ignored in the following discussion.

7.2.1 Truss Analogy Method

Two methods of design are commonly used in pile cap design: bending theory
or truss analogy. In this chapter, we adopt truss analogy, in which the pile cap
is modelled as a triangular truss with the bottom reinforcement acting as the
bottom chord to resist tension, and the solid concrete acting as diagonal
members to resist compression as illustrated in Figure 7.4.

Chapter 7 13
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Fc Fc

Column
Pile cap

C C
d

T
Fc/2 Fc/2
Pile

Pile
L

Elevation Truss Analogy

Figure 7.4 – Simple Pile Cap and the Truss Analogy

The tensile force in the reinforcement can then be determined by truss

analysis. The following table provides formulae of the tensile forces for
concentrically-loaded pile caps supported on 2, 3 or 4 piles.

Tensile Force of the

No. of
Configuration Bottom
Piles
Reinforcement

2 T = F c L / (4d)
L

3 T = F c L / (9d)

L
4 T = F c L / (8d)
L

Table 7.1 – Tensile Force for the Reinforcement in Simple Pile Cap

Chapter 7 14
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.2.2 R C Design

Once the flexural tension, T, is obtained from truss analogy, the amount of
reinforcement can then be determined by:

A s = T / (0.87f y )

Where the spacing of piles (center-to-center) exceeds 3ϕ (i.e. 3 times the pile
diameter), only those reinforcement within 1.5ϕ from the center of a pile
should be considered to constitute a tension member of the truss.

The tension reinforcement should be provided with full tension anchorage

length beyond the center of the pile and bend up the end faces of the cap.

7.2.3 Design for Shear

Similar to footing, shear has to be checked at three critical sections.

(1) Maximum shear at the perimeter of the column face

Perimeter of column face = 4c

v max = F c / (4cd)
< min (0.8 √f cu or 7.0)

(2) Shear across the vertical section at a v from the face of the column

The critical section for the shear should be taken at 0.2ϕ inside the pile
face as indicated in Figure 7.5.

a v = (L – c – ϕ) / 2 + 0.2 ϕ

Chapter 7 15
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

0.2ϕ

av

Critical section for shear check

Figure 7.5 – Critical Section for Shear Check in Pile Cap (Plan)
(Adapted from Figure 6.19 of HKCP-2013)

For cap with 3 or more piles, the shear stress, v, should be less than v c
or the enhanced shear strength, v c (1.5d / a v ), if a v is less than 1.5d. That
is:

Shear enhancement
v < v c max (1.5d / a v or 1.0)
for beam is 2d/av
while for slab is
Where the spacing of piles (center-to-center) 1.5d/av.
exceeds 3ϕ (i.e. 3 times the pile diameter), the
enhancement may be applied only to the strip of 3ϕ, centered on each
pile.

(3) Punching shear

If the spacing of piles (center-to-center) exceeds 3ϕ (i.e. 3 times the pile

diameter), punching shear at the rectangular perimeter at 1.5d from the
column face should be checked.

The thickness of the pile cap is usually dimensioned such that no shear
reinforcement is required, and nominal horizontal links of T12-250 are then
usually provided.

Chapter 7 16
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

7.2.4 Example – Simple Pile Cap

Question
A group of four piles supports a column by using a square RC pile cap as shown in DWG-
08. Check the shears and design the reinforcement for the pile cap with the design
parameters provided below.

Design Parameters

Diameter of pile, ϕ = 450 mm

c/c distance pile, L = 1350 mm
Overall length of the cap = 2100 mm
Overall depth of the cap, h = 700 mm
Column width, c = 425 mm
Cover to rebar = 75 mm
Grade of concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Grade of rebars,f y = 500 MPa
Preferred size of main bars = 20 (two directions)
Dead load from column, G k = 1100 kN (column s/w included)
Imposed Load from column, Q k = 600 kN

Solution
Design load from column, F = 1.4 x 1100 + 1.6 x 600
= 2500 kN
Effective depth, d = 700 – 75 – 20 – 20/2
= 595 mm The effective depth
to the upper layer of
the bottom bars is
(1) Design Bottom Tension Reinforcement adopted.
Design tension per bottom chord, T = F c L / (8d)
= 2500 x 1350 / (8 x 595)
= 709 kN
A s,req = 709 x 103 / (0.87 x 500)
= 1630 mm2 per chord
Check pile spacing, L/ϕ = 1350 / 450 = 3 ≤ 3
(rebars uniformly distributed over the section)
A s, req (over the whole section) = 1630 x 2
= 3260 mm2
(Provide 11T20)
A s,pro = 11 x 314

Chapter 7 17
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

= 3456 mm2
100A s / bh = 100 x 3456 / (2100 x 700)
= 0.235
> 0.13 and < 4.0 (Steel ratio ok)

(2) Check Maximum Shear at the Perimeter of the Column Face

Perimeter of the column = 4 x 425
= 1700 mm
Design Shear = 2500
Maximum shear stress, v max = 2500 x 103 / (1700 x 595)
= 2.47 MPa
≤ min(0.8√35 or 7) = 4.7 MPa ok

(3) Check Shear at Section a v from Column Face

100A s / bd = 100 x 3456 / (2100 x 595)
= 0.28
(400 / d)1/4 = (400 / 595)1/4
= 0.905 (> 0.67)
vc = 0.79 x 0.281/3 x 0.905 / 1.25 x (35 / 25)1/3
= 0.374 x 1.12
= 0.417 MPa

av = (1350 – 450 - 425) / 2 + 0.2x450

= 327.5 mm
Enhanced v c = 0.417 x 1.5 x 595 / 327.5
= 1.136 ( < 4.7 MPa)
Design Shear, V = 2500 / 2
= 1250 kN
Shear stress. v = 1250 x 103 / (2100 x 595)
= 1.0 < 1.136 MPa ok

(4) Check Punching Shear

As the pile spacing is not more than 3 times the pile diameter, no further checking
of punching shear is required

Q.3
?
Chapter 7 18
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 7 19
CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Chapter 7 20
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Self-Assessment Questions│

Q.1 A column is supported by a square footing with the following design parameters:

Design Parameters

Side length of the square footing, L = 3000 mm

Overall depth of the footing = h
Dimensions of the column, c = 500 mm
Cover to rebar = 50 mm
Grade of concrete, f cu = 35 MPa
Preferred size of main bars = 20
Dead load from column, G k = 1200 kN
(s/w of column and footing included)
Imposed Load from column, Q k = 600 kN

(a) What is the maximum allowable shear stress?

(b) Determine the design shear force at the perimeter of column.
(c) Express the maximum shear stress at the column face in term of the effective depth, d.
(d) According to (a) and (c), determine the minimum thickness, h, of the footing.

Q.2 For the example in 7.1.6, if the size of the footing is increased to 4000 x 4000 with other
parameters remain unchanged, check the shear and re-design the reinforcement of the footing
by answering the following questions.

(a) What is the net upward soil reaction pressure?

(b) What is the design bending moment and the steel area required?
(c) If 14T20 are provided, comment on the distribution of steel and what is the value of v c ?
(d) What is the maximum shear stress at the perimeter of column face?
(e) What is the value of shear stress at the section at 1.0 d from column face?
(f) What is the value of punching shear stress?
(g) Comment on the observations in the above calculations.

Chapter 7 21
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Q.3 For the pile cap in example in 7.2.4, if the design loads are changed to G k = 1200kN, Q k =
750kN and the diameter of the pile is changed to 460mm, check the shear and re-design the
reinforcement of the pile cap by answering the following questions. The c/c distance between
piles, dimensions of the cap and other design parameters remain unchanged.

(a) What is the steel area required for the bottom reinforcement over the whole section?
(b) What is the value of the maximum shear stress, v max ?
(c) If 13T20 is provided for the bottom reinforcement, what is the value of v c ?
(d) What is the value of a v and the enhanced v c at a v from the column face?
(e) Is it necessary to check punching shear? Why?

Answers:
Q1a: 4.73MPa; Q1b: 2567kN; Q1c: 1283/d; Q1d: 352mm
Q2a: 150kPa; Q2b: 919kNm, 4275mm2;
Q2c: non-uniform distribution of bar, v c = 0.39MPa;
Q2d: 2.27MPa; Q2e: 0.35MPa; Q2f: 0.41MPa
Q2g: The section fails by punching shear. Possible solutions are, if allowable: (i) increase the amount of reinforcement, (ii) increase
the thickness of the footing or (iii) reduce the size of the footing. Interesting to note that increase in the size of the footing, though
can reduce the pressure exerted on the soil, the amount of steel and/or thickness of the footing has to be increased
correspondingly.
Q3a: 3750 mm2; Q3b: 2.85MPa; Q3c: 0.44MPa;
Q3d: 324.5mm, 1.21MPa; Q3e: No, as L/ϕ≤3.

Chapter 7 22
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

│Tutorial Questions│
(Present the calculations with detailed working steps in a logical, neat and tidy manner.)

AQ1 A square pad footing supporting a column at its center is shown in DWG-07.
The design parameters for the pad footing are given below. Assuming the
soil reaction pressure beneath the footing is uniformly distributed; check the
shear and design the reinforcement for the footing.

Design Parameters

Side length of the square footing, L = 3500 mm

Overall depth of the footing, h = 700 mm

Dimensions of the column, c = 500 mm

Cover to rebar = 50 mm
Grade of concrete, f cu = 40 MPa

Grade of rebars,f y = 500 MPa

Preferred size of main bars = 20

Dead load from column, G k = 1300 kN (column s/w included)

Imposed Load from column, Q k = 900 kN

(A s req : 4090 mm²; column per.: 2.58 N/mm², column face: 0.378 N/mm²;
Punching shear: 0.3 N/mm², v c : 0.389 N/mm²)

Chapter 7 23
 CON4146X STRUCTURAL DESIGN

AQ2 A group of four piles supports a column by using a square R C pile cap as
shown in DWG-08. The design parameters for the pad footing are given
below. Check the shear and design the reinforcement for the pile cap.

Design Parameters

Diameter of pile, ϕ = 600 mm

c/c distance pile, L = 1700 mm

Overall length of the cap = 2600 mm

Overall depth of the cap, h = 750 mm

Column width, c = 450 mm

Cover to rebar = 75 mm
Grade of concrete, f cu = 35 MPa

Grade of rebars,f y = 500 MPa

Preferred size of main bars = 32 (two directions)

Dead load from column, G k = 1500 kN (column s/w included)

Imposed Load from column, Q k = 900 kN

(A s req : 5516 mm²; column per.: 3.14 N/mm², column face: 1.086 N/mm²;
Punching shear: 0.61 N/mm², enhanced v c : 1.089 N/mm²)

Chapter 7 24