THERMAL ENGINEERING

R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors

Study Reference · Complete Theory · Solved Examples

CONTENTS

24.1 Introduction to Air Compressors 2

24.2 Classification of Air Compressors 2
24.3 Reciprocating Compressors 3
24.3.1 Construction and Working (Single-stage) 3
24.3.2 Thermodynamic Analysis & Work of Compression 5
24.3.3 Volumetric Efficiency 6
24.3.4 Effect of Clearance Volume 7
24.4 Multi-stage Compression & Intercooling 9
24.4.1 Advantages of Multistage Compression 9
24.4.2 Condition for Minimum Work (Perfect Intercooling) 10
24.5 Isothermal Efficiency 11
24.6 Solved Examples 12
24.7 Important Formulae — Quick Reference 18

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 1

 CHAPTER
AIR COMPRESSORS
24

24.1 INTRODUCTION

A compressor is a device used to increase the pressure of a compressible fluid (air or gas). It takes in
low-pressure gas at the inlet and delivers high-pressure gas at the outlet. Compressors find extensive application
in industry, including pneumatic tools, refrigeration systems, supercharging of I.C. engines, gas turbine plant and
chemical processes.

The work input to the compressor comes from an external prime mover (usually an electric motor). Unlike pumps
— which handle incompressible liquids — compressors deal with compressible fluids, so the specific volume
changes significantly during the process.

24.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS

Air and gas compressors are classified into two main types:

1. Reciprocating compressors
2. Rotary compressors

According to whether or not the process of compressing is carried out in one unit or in several similar units in the
one machine, a compressor may be single-stage or multi-stage.

— In case of reciprocating compressors, the air may be compressed on one side of the piston only, or use may
be made of both piston faces. Such compressors are single-acting and double-acting respectively.
— Centrifugal compressors, which are of the rotary type, may be single or double entry, which means that the
compressor is filled with either one or two air intakes according to whether it is of the former or latter type when
compression takes place in one or two units.
— For example, air pumps and exhausters are used to produce vacuum; their job being to remove air from a
particular system to create a low pressure therein.
— Blowers and superchargers are essentially air compressors, but the increase in pressure they produce is
only small (up to 0.7 to 1.05 bar).
— A booster is an air or gas compressor employed to raise the pressure of air/gas which has already been
compressed. It is used where a slightly higher pressure is required, or where a loss of pressure has occurred in
a long delivery line.

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 2

 24.3 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

24.3.1 Construction and Working of a Reciprocating Compressor (Single-stage)

Fig. 24.2 (a) shows a sectional view of a single-stage reciprocating compressor. It consists essentially of a piston
which reciprocates in a cylinder, driven through a connecting rod and crank mounted in a crankcase. There are
inlet and delivery valves mounted in the head of the cylinder. These valves are usually of the pressure differential
type, meaning that they will operate as a result of the difference of pressures across the valve.
Air out
As shown in Fig. 24.2 (b), the piston is moving down the
Delivery valve
cylinder and any residual compressed air left in the
cylinder after the previous compression will expand and Inlet valve

will eventually reach a pressure slightly below intake

Air in
pressure early or in the stroke. This means that the
pressure outside the inlet valve is now higher than on the Piston

inside and hence the inlet valve will lift off its seat. A stop
is provided to limit its lift and to retain it in its valve Cylinder

seating.
Thus a fresh charge of air will be aspirated into the Connecting rod

cylinder for the remainder of the induction stroke, as it is

called. During this stroke the delivery valve will remain Crank

closed, since the compressed air on the outside of this Frame

valve is at a much higher pressure than the induction
stroke.

Fig. 24.2 (a) Sectional view of a single-stage reciprocating

compressor

On the return stroke of the piston, the inlet valve closes as the piston begins to compress the charge. When the
pressure inside reaches the value at which the delivery valve will lift off its seat, the delivery valve opens and the
compressed air is discharged into the delivery pipe. This continues for the remainder of the compression stroke.
The cycle then repeats.

Fig. 24.2 (b) & (c) — Induction and Compression/Delivery Strokes

Inlet valve OPEN Inlet valve CLOSED

Delivery valve CLOSED Delivery valve OPEN

Piston moving DOWN (Suction Stroke) Piston moving UP (Compression/Delivery)

Fig. 24.2 (b) Induction stroke

Fig. 24.2 (c) Compression and delivery stroke

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 3

 24.3.2 Thermodynamic Analysis and Work of Compression

The indicator diagram (P-V diagram) of the ideal reciprocating compressor without clearance volume is shown in
Fig. 24.3. The following processes constitute the cycle:

Process 1→2 : Polytropic (or isentropic / isothermal) compression of air from state 1 (suction conditions P1, V1) to
state 2 (delivery conditions P2, V2).
Process 2→3 : Delivery of compressed air at constant pressure P2.
Process 3→4 : Re-expansion of residual (clearance) air.
Process 4→1' : Suction of fresh air at constant pressure P1.

Compression Delivery Re-expansion Suction

2→3 Delivery
3 2
P₂

P 1→2 Polytropic compression

3→4 Re-expansion

P₁ 4
1' 4→1' Suction 1

V_c
V₂ V₁
O V

Fig. 24.3 Indicator diagram of ideal reciprocating compressor (with clearance).

Work Done in Compression

The work done in compressing the gas from state 1 to state 2 depends on the law of compression.

Work of Compression — General Formulae

(i) Isothermal compression (pV = C, i.e. n = 1) :

W = P■ V■ ln(P■/P■) [per unit mass, kJ]

= mRT■ ln(P■/P■)

(ii) Polytropic compression (pV■ = C) :

W = [n/(n−1)] P■ V■ [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

= [n/(n−1)] mRT■ [(T■/T■) − 1]

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 4

 (iii) Isentropic (adiabatic) compression (pVγ = C, i.e. n = γ) :

W = [γ/(γ−1)] P■ V■ [(P■/P■)^((γ−1)/γ) − 1]

Where: P■, P■ = suction and delivery pressures (Pa or kPa)

V■ = volume at suction (m³)

T■, T■ = suction and delivery temperatures (K)

m = mass of air (kg)

R = gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kg·K

n = index of compression

γ = ratio of specific heats = c■/c■ = 1.4 for air

Temperature after compression:

T■/T■ = (P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) (for polytropic)

T■/T■ = (P■/P■)^((γ−1)/γ) (for isentropic)

24.3.3 Volumetric Efficiency

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the volume of free air (air at atmospheric
conditions) actually induced per stroke to the swept volume of the cylinder.

η_vol = (Volume of free air induced per stroke) / (Swept volume)

= V_A / V_S

where: V_S = V■ − V■ = swept volume

V_A = actual volume of free air induced

V■ = clearance volume

Accounting for the clearance volume and re-expansion, the volumetric efficiency becomes:

Volumetric Efficiency with Clearance

η_vol = 1 + c − c·(P■/P■)^(1/n)

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 where: c = clearance ratio = V■ / V_S (typically 0.02 to 0.10)

n = index of re-expansion (usually taken = n of compression)

P■/P■ = pressure ratio

Notes on Volumetric Efficiency:

• Volumetric efficiency DECREASES as the pressure ratio (P■/P■) increases.

• Volumetric efficiency DECREASES as the clearance ratio c increases.

• For ideal compressor with zero clearance, η_vol = 100%.

• The index of re-expansion n is taken equal to the index of compression.

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 24.3.4 Effect of Clearance Volume

In practice, the piston cannot reach the cylinder head at the top of its stroke; a small space called the clearance
volume Vc is always present. The compressed gas trapped in this clearance volume must re-expand before any
fresh charge can enter the cylinder on the suction stroke.

The effect of clearance volume is not to alter the work done per unit mass of gas delivered — the work of
re-expansion equals the extra work of compression — but to reduce the mass of gas delivered per stroke (i.e., to
reduce the volumetric efficiency).

Effective (net) swept volume accounting for clearance:

V■' = V_S × η_vol

Mass of air delivered per cycle:

m = P■ V■' / (R T■) [kg]

24.4 MULTI-STAGE COMPRESSION AND INTERCOOLING

When the required pressure ratio is high, compressing the gas in a single stage becomes inefficient and
mechanically problematic. In multi-stage compression, compression is carried out in two or more cylinders in
series, with cooling of the gas between stages (called intercooling).

Air in■P1 P2,T2 P2,T1 P3,T3

LP Inter- HP After- Air
Cylinder cooler Cylinder cooler Receiver

Fig. 24.4 Two-stage compression with intercooler and aftercooler.

24.4.1 Advantages of Multi-stage Compression

1. The work of compression per stage is reduced due to cooling between stages.
2. The air temperature is kept within safe limits, preventing oil carbonisation.
3. The pressure ratio per stage is lower, leading to better volumetric efficiency.
4. The size of each cylinder can be optimised for the conditions at that stage.
5. Leakage past piston rings is reduced since the pressure difference is smaller.
6. The mechanical balance of the compressor is improved.
7. Overall power consumption is significantly reduced.

24.4.2 Condition for Minimum Work — Perfect Intercooling

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 7

 For a two-stage compressor with perfect intercooling (the gas is cooled back to the original inlet temperature T1
between stages), the work done in each stage is equal when the intermediate pressure Px is the geometric
mean of inlet and outlet pressures.

Condition for Minimum Work — Multi-stage

For minimum total work with perfect intercooling (two-stage):

P_x = √(P■ × P■) ← Intermediate (interstage) pressure

or equivalently: P_x / P■ = P■ / P_x

i.e., the pressure ratio per stage is equal in both stages.

For an N-stage compressor, minimum work condition:

Each stage pressure ratio r = (P_N / P■)^(1/N)

where P_N = final delivery pressure

P■ = initial suction pressure

N = number of stages

Total minimum work (N-stage, perfect intercooling):

W_min = N × [n/(n−1)] × m R T■ × [(P_N/P■)^((n−1)/(nN)) − 1]

24.5 ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY

The isothermal efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the isothermal work (minimum possible
work for a given pressure ratio) to the actual work input.

η_iso = (Isothermal work) / (Actual indicated work)

= [P■ V■ ln(P■/P■)] / [n/(n−1) × P■ V■ × ((P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1)]

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 8

 Actual shaft (brake) power accounts for mechanical friction:

η_overall = (Isothermal power) / (Shaft power input)

Typical values: η_iso = 60–80%, η_mechanical = 85–95%

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 24.6 SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example
24.1 Single-stage compressor — polytropic compression

A single-stage reciprocating air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 20°C and delivers it at 6 bar. The index of
compression is n = 1.3. The swept volume is 0.002 m3 and clearance volume is 5% of swept volume. Find: (i)
Temperature of delivered air, (ii) Work done per cycle, (iii) Volumetric efficiency.

Given:

P■ = 1 bar = 100 kPa ; T■ = 20°C = 293 K ; P■ = 6 bar = 600 kPa ; n = 1.3 ; V_S = 0.002 m³ ; c = 5% = 0.05

Step 1 — Temperature at delivery (T■):

T■ / T■ = (P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) = (6/1)^(0.3/1.3) = 6^0.2308

T■ = 293 × 6^0.2308 = 293 × 1.5698 = 459.9 K (186.9°C)

Step 2 — Work done per cycle (polytropic):

W = [n/(n−1)] × P■ V■ × [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

V■ = V_S + V_c = 0.002 + 0.05 × 0.002 = 0.0021 m³

W = (1.3/0.3) × 100 × 10³ × 0.0021 × (1.5698 − 1)

= 4.333 × 210 × 0.5698 = 518.8 J = 0.519 kJ

Step 3 — Volumetric efficiency:

η_vol = 1 + c − c(P■/P■)^(1/n)

= 1 + 0.05 − 0.05 × 6^(1/1.3)

= 1.05 − 0.05 × 6^0.7692

= 1.05 − 0.05 × 4.4699

= 1.05 − 0.2235 = 0.8265 = 82.65%

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 Example
24.2 Power required for single-stage compression

A single-acting, single-stage air compressor has a bore of 200 mm and stroke of 250 mm. It runs at 300 rpm. The
inlet conditions are P■ = 1.013 bar, T■ = 15°C and the delivery pressure is P■ = 7 bar. The index of
compression is n = 1.3 and the mechanical efficiency is 80%. Find the indicated power and brake (shaft)
power.

Given:

D = 0.20 m ; L = 0.25 m ; N = 300 rpm ; P■ = 1.013 bar ; T■ = 288 K ; P■ = 7 bar ; n = 1.3 ; η_mech = 0.80

Step 1 — Swept volume per second:

V_S = (π/4) D² × L × N/60 = (π/4) × 0.04 × 0.25 × 5 = 0.003927 m³/s

Step 2 — Indicated power:

IP = [n/(n−1)] × P■ V■ × [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

= (1.3/0.3) × (1.013 × 10■) × 0.003927 × [(7/1.013)^(0.3/1.3) − 1]

= 4.333 × 398 × [(6.909)^0.2308 − 1]

= 1724.5 × [1.5648 − 1] = 1724.5 × 0.5648

= 973.9 W ≈ 0.974 kW

Step 3 — Brake (shaft) power:

BP = IP / η_mech = 0.974 / 0.80 = 1.217 kW

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 Example
24.3 Two-stage compressor — minimum work & intermediate pressure

Air is compressed in a two-stage reciprocating compressor from 1 bar, 17°C to 40 bar. Perfect intercooling is
provided between stages. The index of compression is n = 1.3 for both stages and the mass flow rate is 0.5
kg/min. Find: (i) the intermediate pressure for minimum work, (ii) the work done per minute, (iii) the temperature
at the end of each stage.

Given:

P■ = 1 bar ; T■ = 290 K ; P■ = 40 bar ; Perfect intercooling ⇒ T after intercooler = T■ = 290 K ; n = 1.3 ; m■ =

0.5 kg/min

Step 1 — Intermediate pressure P■:

For minimum work: P■ = √(P■ × P■) = √(1 × 40) = √40

P■ = 6.325 bar

Step 2 — Temperature at end of LP stage (T■):

T■ = T■ × (P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) = 290 × (6.325)^(0.3/1.3)

T■ = 290 × (6.325)^0.2308 = 290 × 1.5673 = 454.5 K (181.5°C)

Step 3 — Temperature at end of HP stage (T■):

After perfect intercooling, gas re-enters HP stage at T■ = 290 K

T■ = 290 × (P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) = 290 × (40/6.325)^0.2308

T■ = 290 × (6.325)^0.2308 = 454.5 K (181.5°C)

(Both stages have equal temperature rise — confirming correct P■.)

Step 4 — Work done per minute:

Total work = 2 × [n/(n−1)] × m■ R T■ × [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

= 2 × (1.3/0.3) × 0.5 × 0.287 × 290 × (6.325^0.2308 − 1)

= 2 × 4.333 × 0.5 × 0.287 × 290 × 0.5673

= 2 × 4.333 × 41.67 × 0.5673

= 205.0 kJ/min

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 12

 Example
24.4 Volumetric efficiency and mass flow rate

A single-stage single-acting reciprocating compressor has a clearance volume of 4% of the swept volume. The
suction conditions are 1 bar, 300 K and the delivery pressure is 8 bar. The index of compression and
re-expansion is n = 1.35. The piston displacement is 0.003 m3/cycle. Determine: (i) Volumetric efficiency, (ii)
Mass of air delivered per cycle, (iii) Work done per cycle.

Given:

c = 0.04 ; P■ = 100 kPa ; T■ = 300 K ; P■ = 800 kPa ; n = 1.35 ; V_S = 0.003 m³

Step 1 — Volumetric efficiency:

η_vol = 1 + c − c(P■/P■)^(1/n)

= 1 + 0.04 − 0.04 × (8)^(1/1.35)

= 1.04 − 0.04 × (8)^0.7407

= 1.04 − 0.04 × 5.2780

= 1.04 − 0.2111 = 0.8289 = 82.89%

Step 2 — Effective volume (free air) induced per cycle:

V■' = V_S × η_vol = 0.003 × 0.8289 = 0.002487 m³

Step 3 — Mass of air delivered per cycle:

m = P■ V■' / (R T■) = (100 × 10³ × 0.002487) / (287 × 300)

m = 248.7 / 86100 = 2.889 × 10■³ kg = 2.889 g

Step 4 — Work done per cycle:

W = [n/(n−1)] m R T■ [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

= (1.35/0.35) × 2.889×10■³ × 287 × 300 × [(8)^(0.35/1.35) − 1]

= 3.857 × 0.2488 × [(8)^0.2593 − 1]

= 3.857 × 0.2488 × [1.5872 − 1]

= 3.857 × 0.2488 × 0.5872 = 3.857 × 0.1461

= 0.5636 kJ = 563.6 J

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 13

 Example
24.5 Isothermal efficiency and power

A single-stage, double-acting compressor delivers 10 m3/min of free air at 1 bar, 15°C. The suction pressure and
temperature are 0.95 bar and 25°C respectively. The delivery pressure is 7 bar. The index of compression is n =
1.3 and mechanical efficiency is 85%. Calculate: (i) indicated power, (ii) isothermal power, (iii) isothermal
efficiency, (iv) shaft (brake) power.

Given:

Free air delivery (FAD) = 10 m³/min at 1 bar, 288 K ; P■ = 0.95 bar ; T■ = 298 K ; P■ = 7 bar ; n = 1.3 ; η_mech
= 0.85

Step 1 — Convert FAD to actual suction volume flow rate:

P_atm V_FAD / T_atm = P■ V■■ / T■

V■■ = (1.0 × 10 / 60) × (298/288) / 0.95 = 0.1819 m³/s

Step 2 — Indicated (polytropic) power:

IP = [n/(n−1)] × P■ V■■ × [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) − 1]

= (1.3/0.3) × (0.95×10■) × 0.1819 × [(7/0.95)^0.2308 − 1]

= 4.333 × 17280 × [(7.368)^0.2308 − 1]

= 4.333 × 17280 × [1.5778 − 1] = 4.333 × 17280 × 0.5778

= 43,327 W ≈ 43.3 kW

Step 3 — Isothermal power:

IP_iso = P■ V■■ × ln(P■/P■)

= 0.95×10■ × 0.1819 × ln(7.368)

= 17280 × 1.9972 = 34,512 W ≈ 34.5 kW

Step 4 — Isothermal efficiency:

η_iso = IP_iso / IP = 34.5 / 43.3 = 0.7967 = 79.67%

Step 5 — Brake (shaft) power:

BP = IP / η_mech = 43.3 / 0.85 = 50.9 kW

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 14

 24.7 IMPORTANT FORMULAE — QUICK REFERENCE

# Quantity Formula Notes

1 Work — Isothermal W = P■V■ ln(P■/P■) = mRT■ ln(P■/P■) n = 1 (ideal minimum)

W = n/(n−1) × P■V■ × [(P■/P■)^((n−1)/n)

2 Work — Polytropic n = 1.2–1.4 typical
− 1]

W = γ/(γ−1) × P■V■ × [(P■/P■)^((γ−1)/γ) −

3 Work — Isentropic γ = 1.4 for air
1]

Delivery
4 T■ = T■ (P■/P■)^((n−1)/n) Polytropic
temperature

Volumetric
5 η_vol = 1 + c − c(P■/P■)^(1/n) c = V_c/V_S
efficiency

Isothermal
6 η_iso = W_iso / W_actual 60–80% typical
efficiency

Intermediate
7 pressure (2-stage, P_x = √(P■ P■) Perfect intercooling
min work)

N-stage pressure
8 r = (P_N/P■)^(1/N) Each stage equal
ratio

Min work — W = N·n/(n−1)·mRT■·

9 Perfect intercooling
N-stage [(P_N/P■)^((n−1)/(nN))−1]

1
Mass flow rate m■ = P■ V■■ / (R T■) kg/s
0

1
Swept volume V_S = (π/4)D²L per stroke
1

1
Clearance ratio c = V_c / V_S Typically 2–10%
2

Physical Constants

Standard Constants for Air:

R (gas constant) = 0.287 kJ/kg·K = 287 J/kg·K

c■ (specific heat at const. pressure) = 1.005 kJ/kg·K

c■ (specific heat at const. volume) = 0.718 kJ/kg·K

γ = c■/c■ = 1.4

Thermal Engineering | R. K. Rajput | Module 4 — Air Compressors Page 15

 Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kPa

Standard temperature = 15°C = 288 K

This document is a study reference based on Thermal Engineering by R. K. Rajput. All theory, formulae and solved examples follow the
textbook closely. Figures are schematic reconstructions for study use.

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