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MPC-006 Statistics in Psychology
Introduction
The term ‘statistics’ is described as a branch of science which deals with the collection of data, their
classification, analysis and interpretations of statistical data.
The science of statistics may be broadly studied under two headings:
i) Descriptive Statistics, and (ii) Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics, which deals with descriptions of obtained data. The
descriptive statistics include classification, tabulation, diagrammatic and graphical presentation of
data, measures of central tendency and variability. Such single estimate of the series of data which
summarizes the distribution are known as parameters of the distribution. These parameters define
the distribution completely.
Basically descriptive statistics involves two operations:
(i) Organization of data, and (ii) Summarization of data
I. Organization of Data:
There are four major statistical techniques for organizing the data. These are:
i) Classification
ii) Tabulation
iii) Graphical Presentation, and
iv) Diagrammatical Presentation
1. Classification
The arrangement of data in groups according to similarities is known as classification. A
classification is a summary of the frequency of individual scores or ranges of scores for a variable.
Once data are collected, it should be arranged in a format from which they would be able to draw
some conclusions. Thus by classifying data, the investigators move a step ahead in regard to making
a decision.
Frequency distribution shows the number of cases following within a given class interval or range
of scores. A frequency distribution is a table that shows each score as obtained by a group of
individuals and how frequently each score occurred.
Frequency Distribution can be with Ungrouped Data and Grouped Data
i) An ungrouped frequency distribution may be constructed by listing all score values either from
highest to lowest or lowest to highest and placing a tally mark (/) besides each scores every
times it occurs. The frequency of occurrence of each score is denoted by ‘f’.
ii) Grouped frequency distribution: If there is a wide range of score value in the data, then it is
difficult to get a clear picture of such series of data. In this case grouped frequency distribution
should be constructed to have a clear picture of the data. A group frequency distribution is a
table that organizes data into classes.
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2. Tabulation
A tabular presentation of data becomes more intelligible and fit for further statistical analysis. A
table is a systematic arrangement of classified data in row and columns with appropriate headings
and sub-headings.
3. Graphical Presentation of Data
In graphical presentation of frequency distribution, frequencies are plotted on a pictorial platform
formed of horizontal and vertical lines known as graph. A graph is created on two mutually
perpendicular lines called the X and Y–axes on which appropriate scales are indicated.
The commonly used graphs are Histogram, Frequency polygon, Frequency curve,
Cumulative frequency curve.
Some of the important types of graphical patterns used in statistics.
i) Histogram: It is one of the most popular methods for presenting continuous frequency
distribution in a form of graph. In this type of distribution the upper limit of a class is the lower
limit of the following class. The histogram consists of series of rectangles, with its width equal
to the class interval of the variable on horizontal axis and the corresponding frequency on the
vertical axis as its heights.
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ii) Frequency polygon: To plot a frequency polygon you have to mark each frequency against its
concerned class above the midpoint of the class interval on the height of its y-axis. After putting all
frequency marks a draw a line joining the points. This is the polygon.
iii) Frequency curve: A frequency curve is a smooth free hand curve drawn
through frequency polygon. The objective of smoothing of the frequency polygon
is to eliminate as far as possible the random or erratic fluctuations that are
present in the data.
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Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive
The graph of a cumulative frequency distribution is known as cumulative frequency curve or ogive.
Since there are two types of cumulative frequency distribution e.g., “ less than” and “ more than”
cumulative frequencies. We can have two types of ogives.
i) ‘Less than’ Ogive: In ‘less than’ ogive , the less than cumulative frequencies are plotted against
the upper class boundaries of the respective classes. It is an increasing curve having slopes upwards
from left to right.
ii) ‘More than’ Ogive : In more than ogive , the more than cumulative frequencies are plotted
against the lower class boundaries of the respective classes. It is decreasing curve and slopes
downwards from left to right.
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4. Diagrammatic Presentation of Data
A diagram is a visual form for the presentation of statistical data. They present the data in simple ,
readily comprehensible form. Diagrammatic presentation is used only for presentation of the data in
visual form, whereas graphic presentation of the data can be used for further analysis. There are
different forms of diagram e.g., Bar diagram, Sub-divided bar diagram, Multiple bar diagram, Pie
diagram and Pictogram.
i) Bar diagram: Bar diagram is most useful for categorical data. A bar is defined as a thick line.
Bar diagram is drawn from the frequency distribution table representing the variable on the
horizontal axis and the frequency on the vertical axis. The height of each bar will be
corresponding to the frequency or value of the variable.
ii) Pie diagram: It is also known as angular diagram. A pie chart or diagram is a circle divided into
component sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables in the distribution. Each
sector will be proportional to the frequency of the variable in the group. A circle represents
360O. So 360O angle is divided in proportion to percentages. The degrees represented by the
various component parts of given magnitude can be obtained by using this formula.
II. Summarization of Data
The frequency distribution of obtained data may differ in two ways, first in measures of central
tendency and second, in the extent to which scores are spread over the central value.
1. Measures of Central Tendency
It is the middle point of a distribution. Generally, in any distribution values of the variables tend to
cluster around a central value of the distribution. This tendency of the distribution is known as
central tendency and measures devised to consider this tendency is know as measures of central
tendency.
In Statistics there are three most commonly used measures of central tendency. These are:
1) Arithmetic Mean 2) Median, and 3) Mode
1) Arithmetic Mean: The arithmetic mean is most popular and widely used measure of central
tendency. Whenever we refer to the average of data, it means we are talking about its arithmetic
mean. This is obtained by dividing the sum of the values of the variable by the number of
values. It is also a useful measure for further statistics and comparisons among different data
sets.
2) Median: Median is the middle most value in a data distribution. It divides the distribution into
two equal parts so that exactly one half of the observations is below and one half is above that
point. n average. It is not affected by extreme values in the distribution.
3) Mode: Mode is the value in a distribution that has the highest frequency.
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2. Measures of Dispersion
By knowing only the mean, median or mode, it is not possible to have a complete picture of a set of
data. Average does not tell us about how the score or measurements are arranged in relation to the
center. It is possible that two sets of data with equal mean or median may differ in terms of their
variability. Therefore, it is essential to know how far these observations are scattered from each
other or from the mean. Measures of these variations are known as the ‘measures of dispersion’. The
most commonly used measures of dispersion are range, average deviation, quartile deviation,
variance and standard deviation.
i) Range: Range is one of the simplest measures of dispersion. It is designated by ‘R’. The range is
defined as the difference between the largest score and the smallest score in the distribution.
ii) Mean Deviation: It refers to the arithmetic mean of the differences between each score and the
mean. This deviation is usually measured from mean or median. Mean is more commonly used
for this measurement.
iii) Standard Deviation: Standard deviation is the most stable index of variability. In standard
deviation, instead of the actual values of the deviations we consider the squares of deviations
and the outcome is known as variance. Further, the square root of this variance is known as
standard deviation and designated as SD. Thus, standard deviation is the square root of the
mean of the squared deviations of the individual observations from the mean.
3. Skewness and Kurtosis
There are two other important characteristics of frequency distribution that provide useful
information about its nature. They are known as skewness and kurtosis.
Skewness is the degree of asymmetry of the distribution. Skewness refers to the extent to
which a distribution of data points is concentrated at one end or the other. Skewness and
variability are usually related, the more the skewness the greater the variability.
Skewness can be further categorized as Positively Skewed and Negatively Skewed distribution.
The term ‘kurtosis’ refers to the ‘peakedness’ or flatness of a frequency distribution curve
when compared with normal distribution curve. The kurtosis of a distribution is the curvedness or
peakedness of the graph.
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If a distribution is more peaked than normal it is said to be leptokurtic. This kind of peakedness
implies a thin distribution.
On the other hand, if a distribution is more flat than the normal distribution it is known as
Platykurtic distribution.
A normal curve is known as mesokurtic.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive Statistics
The Advantages of Descriptive statistics are given below:
• It is essential for arranging and displaying data.
• It forms the basis of rigorous data analysis.
• It is easier to work with, interpret, and discuss than raw data.
• It helps in examining the tendencies, variability, and normality of a data set.
• It can be rendered both graphically and numerically.
• It forms the basis for more advanced statistical methods.
The disadvantages of descriptive statistics can be listed as given below:
• It can be misused, misinterpreted, and incomplete.
• It can be of limited use when samples and populations are small.
• It offers little information about causes and effects.
• It can be dangerous if not analyzed completely.
• There is a risk of distorting the original data or losing important detail.
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