CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTIONS

a) Definition of a Function
A function is a mathematical way of describing a relationship between two or more
variables. In other words, it is a mathematical expression involving one or more
variables. Functions are useful in business and commerce where fragments of
information can be connected together by functional relationships. For example, a
function of x can be written as f (x) = 4x + 3; f (x) is read as „f of x‟.
Example
If (a) f (x) = 4x + 3, Find (i) f (0), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (14). (b) f (x) = 2x 2 + 5x + 7 , Find (i) f
(0) , (ii) f (2), (iii) f (15) .
b) Types of Functions
i) Linear Functions
A linear function is one in which the variables are of first degree and is generally of the
form:
f (x) = a + bx or y = a + bx,
where a and b are constants and the power of variable x is always 1.
Where x is independent variable, y/f(x) is dependent variable, a and b are constants
representing intercept and slope respectively. The general form of the equation of a
straight line whenever a, b and c are constants with a and b are not both zero is
ax + by +c = 0
by = -ax – c

y= (b≠0)
This equation is now in the form y = mx + n, so the gradient of the line ax + by + c = 0 is

We are able to use this information to enable us to write down the equation of any
straight line in its general form once we know its gradient and any point on it.

If you know two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) on the line, then one can compute the slope m
from the “rise-over-run” formula

This formula actually contains a theorem from Euclidean geometry, namely it says that
the ratio (y1 − y0 ): (x1 − x0 ) is the same for every pair of points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) that you
could pick on the line.
The equation of a straight line passing through two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1) is
y – y0 = m(x − x0 ) = (x − x0 )
When two lines L1 and L2 with m1 and m2 their respective slopes are perpendicular if
m1×m2 =−1. They are parallel if m1 = m2.

Exercises
1. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2,-3) and has the
Gradient -1/3

2. Write down the equation of the straight line with gradient−3/2 and passing through
the point (4, 1).

3. Find the gradient in the following straight lines:

● 3x + 5y − 9 = 0
● 3x + 8 = 0
● 7y + 2 = 0

4. Given A 4x + 6y − 9 = 0 the equation of a straight line:

● Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (1, 3) and
perpendicular to A.
● Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (-2, 5) and
parallel to A.
● Find the point of intersection of the straight lines found in (a) and (b).

Graph of a linear function

The graph of a linear function (y = a + bx) is a straight line; a is the intercept on the y-
axis (i.e. the value of y when x = 0) and b is the gradient or slope of the line.

The gradient of a line shows the increase in y for a unit increase in x. It may be positive
or negative and is unique to that line (i.e. a line has only one gradient). e.g. for the line y
= 5x + 3, the intercept on the y-axis is 3 and the gradient is 5.
Example 2
Draw the graph of each of the following functions
a) y = 3x + 12
b) y = 46 – 5x

ii) Quadratic Functions

2
The function f(x) = ax + bx + c, where a, b, c are constant and a≠0
2
y = ax + bx + c is a quadratic function. Its graph is a parabola. The turning (point where
we obtain the highest or the lowest value of the parabola) point of the graph of a
quadratic function is called its vertex, and the vertical line through the vertex is called
the axis of symmetry of the parabola.

● Completing square
An algebraic process which proves to be useful in discussions of quadratic functions is
called "completing the square". The process involves writing the expression
2 2
ax + bx + c in the form a(x − h) + k

Examples
(1) Find the values of h and k for which
2 2
x + 4x − 5 = (x − h) + k for all values of x
Solution
2 2 2
x + 4x − 5 = x + 4x + 22 − 22 − 5 = (x + 2) − 9
So, h = −2 and k = −9

(2) Find the value of h and k for which

2 2
2x − 3x + 1 = 2(x − h) + k
Solution
 2
2x − 3x + 1 = )
=)
)
)]
]

Therefore, h = and k =

● The coordinates of the vertex and the equation of the axis

Consider
y = f(x)
, a ≠0
=)
=
)

Where;
∆ = b2 − 4ac, and is called the discriminant of the quadratic function

● Different cases met while sketching the quadratic function

Case 1: a > 0

≥ 0 and so y ≥ with equality when x = −

Then the graph of will open at top and the vertex will have the coordinates . The
equation of the axis of symmetry will be x = −

Case 2: a < 0
≤ 0 and so y ≤ with equality when x = −
Then the graph of will open at the bottom and the vertex will have the coordinates . The
equation of the axis of symmetry will be x = −

Example
Find the coordinates of the vertex of the graph of

and the equation of its axis of symmetry.

Solution
Completing the square
)
= )]
)]

The vertex is , and the axis is x =

● Sketching graphs of Quadratic functions

The graph of a quadratic function can be sketched by drawing the axis of symmetry,
plotting the vertex and y-intercept, and then using the symmetry property. If the x-
intercepts can also be found by factorizing the quadratic, the task is made even easier.
Example 1
Sketch the graph of the quadratic function
2
y = x + 2x – 3
Solution
Steps:
1. Check the sign of a. We see that a > 0, hence the parabola turns up.
2. Find the vertex
V=
3. Find x-intercept: Let y = 0, the x-intercept is at x = −3 and x = 1, i.e two points (−3, 0)
and (1, 0).
4. Find y-intercept: Let x = 0, after substituting in y, we get y = −3. The intersection is at
the point (0, −3).
5. Sketch the graph.
The graph is represented by the figure below

Example 2
Sketch the graph of the quadratic function
2
y = 3 − 2x − 2x

● The general solution to a quadratic equation

Consider the equation
2
ax + bx + c = 0, a = 0
then
2
ax + bx = −c
 when

This is called the general solution of the quadratic equation

2
ax + bx + c = 0

2
The roots of the polynomial ax + bx + c
2
The roots of the quadratic polynomial ax + bx + c = 0 are:

2 2
∆ = b − 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation ax + bx + c = 0

Case 1: ∆ > 0
2
ax + bx + c = 0 has two distinct real solutions

Case 2: ∆ = 0
2
ax + bx + c = 0 has only real solution given by x = −

Case 3: ∆ < 0
2
ax + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions

2
Geometrically, the graph of y = ax + bx + c (a ≠ 0) meets the x-axis:
1. at two distinct points if ∆ > 0
2. at exactly one point if ∆ = 0
3. at no point at all if ∆ < 0
Note:
2
• If (a > 0 and ∆ < 0), then the graph of y = ax + bx + c lies entirely above the x-axis. In
2
this case the quadratic ax + bx + c is said to be positive definite.
 2
• If (a < 0 and ∆ < 0), then the graph of y = ax + bx + c lies entirely below the x-axis. In
this case the quadratic ax2 + bx + c is said to be negative definite.
2
• If (a & c have different sign) then ax + bx + c has at least one real root.

Example 1
Show that the quadratic
2
y = 2x − x + 1
is positive definite and find the minimum value of y.
Solution
∆ = (−1)2 − 4(2) (1) = 1 − 8 = −7 < 0
2
Since a = 2 > 0, then 2x − x + 1 is positive definite. To find the minimum value of y, we
use the completing the square method:
)
=)
)
)]
]

Minimum value of y is
iii) Exponential Functions
The shape of the graph of an exponential function depends largely on the value of the
base.
Example
Plot the graph of the following for - 2≤ x ≤2
● x
y=2
● y=
● x
y =e
● y=
iv) Logarithmic Functions
Logarithmic function is another non-linear function and is of the form y = axb If the
logarithms of both sides are taken, we have logy = loga + blogx y is said to be a
logarithmic function of x where x is the time periods The graph of logarithmic function
cannot be easily drawn except if the values of a, b and x are known.
Example
If y = 2x2, plot the relevant logarithmic graph within the range 1 ≤ x ≥ 5

v) Inverse Functions
−1
If you have a function f, then you can try to define a new function f , the so-called
−1
inverse function of f, by the following prescription: For any given x we say that y = f (x)
−1
if y is the solution to the equation f(y) = x. So to find y = f (x) you solve the equation x =
f(y). If this is to define a function then the prescription must be unambiguous and the
equation f(y) = x has to have a solution and cannot have more than one solution.
These are steps followed while computing the inverse of a function f(x):
• change f(x) in y
• interchange x and y, i.e. x becomes y and y becomes x.
• solve for y
−1
• change y by f (x)

Examples
Consider the function f with f(x) = 2x + 3. Then the equation f(y) = x works out to be
interchange x and y
2y + 3 = x
solve for y and this has the solution
y=
So replacing y by f−1(x) is defined for all x, and it is given by
−1
f (x) =
.
2
Next we consider the function g(x) = x with domain all positive real numbers. To see for
−1
which x the inverse g (x) is defined we try to solve the equation g(y) = x, i.e. we try to
solve
2 2
y = x. If x < 0 then this equation has no solutions since y ≥ 0 for all y. But if x ≥ 0 then
2
y = x does have a solution, namely y =√x.
So we see that g−1(x) is defined for all nonnegative real numbers x, and that it is given
by
g−1(x) =√x.

vi) Composition of two functions

It is possible to combine two functions by adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing
two given functions. There is another way to combine two functions to create a new
function. It is called composition of two functions. It is a process through which we will
substitute an entire function into another function.
When we want to find the composition of two functions we use the notation (fog)(x).
Another way to write this is f (g(x)). This is probably the more practical notation
although the first notation is what appears most often in books. But to really understand
what the composition of functions is, f (g(x)) will work better.

Example
2
Given f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x + 1, find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x)

c) Equations
An equation is a mathematical expression of two equal quantities. It consists of
variables which are referred to as unknowns and numbers which are called constants.
For example,
(a) x + 5 = 2
(b) 2x + 15 = x + 8
2 (c) x + 6x + 9 = 0

i) Linear Equations
Linear Equations with one unknown
A linear equation in one variable is the simplest type of an equation and it contains one
unknown, which is of the first degree. Examples (a) and (b) above are linear equations.
Example
Solve the following equations
● 2x + 3 = 5
● 8a + 5 = 3a + 30
 ● (y + 7) = 2(y – 1)
●
Linear Equations with one unknown (Linear Simultaneous Equations)
If the solutions to the equations containing two unknowns can be found at the same
time, the equations are referred to as simultaneous equations. In order for any set of
simultaneous equations to have solutions, the number of equations and unknowns
must be the same. Any letter could be used to represent the unknowns but the letters x
and y are commonly used.
Example
2x + 3y = 13
3x + 2y = 32
Solutions of Simultaneous Equations
The following three methods of solving simultaneous equations are discussed below:
• Substitution method
• Elimination method
• Graphical method
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations by substitution, elimination and graphical
methods
● 2x + 3y = 13
3x + 2y = 32

● 5x – 4y = - 6
6x + 2y = 20

ii) Quadratic Equations

Equations in one variable and of the second degree are called quadratic equations. It
2
is generally of the form ax + bx + c = 0, where a (≠0), b and c are constants
Solutions of Quadratic Equations
The following three methods of solving quadratic equations are discussed below:
• Factorisation method
• Formula method
• Completing squares method
• Graphical method
Examples
Solve the following quadratic equations
2
● x + 6x + 8 = 0 by factorisation and completing squares method
2
● 2x + 13x – 16 = 0 by formula method
2
● x + 3x – 7 = 0 by graphical method

d) Inequalities
When two quantities or expressions are not equal, then one has to be greater or less
than the other. They are known as inequalities. The symbols used to express
inequalities are < means “less than” ≤ means “less than or equal to” > means “greater
than” ≥ means “equal to or greater than”
Indicate the region where each of the following inequalities is satisfied:
i) 2x + 5 < x + 8
ii) 4x + 7 ≥ 2x + 15
iii) 3x+ 10 ≤5x – 2
iv) x + 2y ≤ 6
v) 3x + 2y ≥ 12
vi) 2x + 3y ≤ 9; 5x + 2y ≤ 10
Solving inequalities
(a) Inequalities depending on the product of two linear factors
The product a*b of two factors is positive iff:
1. a > 0 and b > 0
2. a < 0 and b < 0

Example:
Solve for (x − 1) (x + 2) > 0
This inequality holds if
x − 1 > 0 and x + 2 > 0 or x − 1 < 0 and x + 2 < 0
x > 1 and x > −2 or x < 1 and x < −2
 x > 1 or x < −2
S = R \ [−2, 1] = R \ {−2 ≤ x ≤ 1}
Another method is useful in more complicated problems:
(x − 1)(x + 2) > 0
Find the critical values (values of f at which either factor is zero) for inequality (1):
x = 1 and x = −2
The sign diagram of (x − 1) (x + 2) is thus:
x -∞ -2 1 +∞
f(x) + + 0 - - - 0 + + + + + +
Since one or other of the two factors must change sign at each of the critical values, the
product (x − 1)(x + 2) must also change sign at each of the critical values. Therefore, the
signs displayed on the above diagram are determined once any one of them is known.
The solution is
] −∞, −2 [! ] 3, +∞ [

Example 2:
Solve the inequality (x + 3) (x − 2) > 0
Solution
The critical values are x = −3 and x = 2
The required sign diagram is

x -∞ -3 2 +∞
f(x) + + 0 - - - 0 + + + + + +
The answer is
x < −3 or x > 2, i.e x ∀] −∞, −3 [! ] 2, +∞[

Example 3:
Solve the inequality (1 − x) (2x + 1) > 0
Solution
The critical values are x = 1 and x = −1/2
The required sign diagram is

x -∞ -1/2 1 +∞
 f(x) - - 0 + + + 0 - - - - - -

The answer is
−1/2 < x < 1, i.e x ∀] – ½, 1[
Example 4:
2
Solve the inequality 2x − x − 3 < 0
Example 5:
Solve the inequality x(x + 4) > x − 1
Example 6:
Solve the inequality
Example 7:
Solve the inequality

Example 8:
Solve the inequality

e) Application of functions to Business and Economics Problems

● Cost functions
The total cost of a commodity, project, business etc consists of two parts, viz:
(a) the fixed cost (cost of machinery, infrastructure etc), it can also be referred to
as the capital cost; and (b) the variable cost (cost of material, labour, utility etc)

The fixed cost is always constant. It represents the “set up cost” while the variable cost
depends on the number of units of items produced or purchased.
i.e. total cost = fixed cost + variable cost.
For example
In a normal situation, the transport cost to a market is constant, and is independent of
whatever commodities are purchased in the market. This is the fixed cost. The variable
cost is the cost of commodities purchased and it depends on the price and number of
units of the commodities. If x represents the number of units of commodity purchased
or items produced, C(x) called the cost function, can be expressed as follows (a) C(x) =
a + bx
This is a linear function, a represents the fixed cost, x the variable cost and b is the price
per unit of x.

2
(b) C(x) = ax + bx + c
This is a quadratic function, a, b and c are constants; and c, which is independent of x,
is the fixed cost.
● Revenue function
The revenue function, R(x) represents the income generated from the sales of x units of
item. R(x) totally depends on x and is always of the form:
R(x) = px where p is the sales price of an item.
There is nothing like fixed revenue.
● Profit function
The profit function of any project or business is the difference between the revenue
function and the cost function. i.e. P(x) = R(x) –C(x)
If R(x) > C(x), then P(x) > 0, i.e. positive (gain)
If R(x) < C(x), then P(x) < 0, i.e. negative (loss)
If R(x) = C(x), then P(x) = 0, i.e. no profit, no loss. This is the break-even case.