LEARNING

Unit Structure
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Concept of learning (Meaning, Definition, Characteristics,
Types)
Nature of learning
Process of learning

OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept & nature of learning.
 Explain the steps involved in the process of learning.
 Tell the meaning & importance of learning curve.
 Explain the different types of learning curve.
 Describe the different stages of learning curve.
 Describe the different learning theories

INTRODUCTION

Dear students, what does the word “learning” bring to your

mind? learning to read, to ride a bicycle, to act, to use a computer,
to play synthesizer etc. Each one of us learns something or the
other intentionally or accidentally. Learning situations are most
natural and common in our life. Every moment you learn something
or the other because of the varied experience you have in life. In
the educational process, the central idea is learning.

You are aware of a child learns right from his birth and goes
on learning throughout his lifetime. An infant is quite helpless at
birth, but slowly he learns to adopt himself to the environment
around him.

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 e.g. A child approaches a burning matchstick; the child burns his
hand and withdraws. Another time when he comes to a burning
matchstick, he takes no time to withdraw himself away. He learns to
avoid not only the burning matchstick but also all burning things.
When this happens, we say that the child has learned that if you
touch a flame, you get burnt up. In this way, the change in the
behaviour of an individual occurs through direct or indirect
experiences. This change in behaviour brought about by
experience is called as learning. This is a very simple explanation
of the term learning. Now let us understand the meaning and
definitions of learning.

CONCEPT OF LEARNING

Meaning and Definitions of learning

Learning, in psychology, the process by which a relatively
lasting change in potential behaviour occurs because of practice or
experience. Learning is also a process of acquiring modifications in
existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through
experience, practice, or exercise.

Gates and others “Learning is the modification of behaviour

through experience”

Henry, P smith “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or

strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as a result of
experience”.

Crow and Crow “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge

and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates
in an individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new
situations.”

Skinner “Learning is the process of progressive behaviour

adaptation.”

Munn“To learn is to modify behaviour and experience.”

M. L. Bigge “Learning may be considered as change in insights,

behaviour, perception, motivation or a combination of these.”

The above definitions emphasize four attributes of learning...

 As Process: the first is that learning is permanent change in
behaviour.
 It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation
and use of intoxicant.

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  The learning is not directly observable but manifests in the
activities of the individual.
 Learning depends on practice and experience.

Characteristics of Learning
Yoakum & Simpson have stated the following general
characteristics of learning: Learning is growth, adjustment,
organisation of experience, purposeful, both individual and
social, product of the environment.

According to W.R Mc law learning has the following

characteristics.
1. Learning is a continuous modification of behaviour t h a t
continues throughout life
2. Learning is pervasive. It reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally &
intellectually.
4. Learning is often a change in the organisation of behaviour.
5. Learning is developmental. Time is one of its dimensions.
6. Learning is responsive to incentives. In most cases positive
incentives such as rewards are most effective than negative
incentives such as punishments.
7. Learning is always concerned with goals. These goals can be
expressed in terms of observable behaviour.
8. Interest & learning are positively related. The individual learns
bet those things, which he is interested in learning. Most bys
find learning to play football easier than learning to add
fractions.
9. Learning depends on maturation and motivation.

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified in many ways.

I. Informal, formal and non-formal learning: Depending on the way

of acquiring it learning may be informal, formal or non-formal.
 Informal learning is incidental. It takes place throughout life.
It is not planned.
 Formal learning is intentional and organized. It takes place in
formal educational institution.
 Non-formal is also intentional & organized. It is flexible.

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II. Individual or Group learning: Learning is called either individual
or group learning depending upon the number of individuals
involved in the learning process.

III. Another classification involves the types of activity involved

(a) Motor learning: - when learning involves primarily the use of

muscles it is called as motor learning. e.g.: learning to walk, to
operate a typewriter

(b) Discrimination learning: - Learning which involves the act of

discrimination is called discrimination learning. e.g. infant
discriminates between mother and aunt, milk and water.

(c) Verbal learning: - when learning involves the use of words it

is called as verbal learning.

(d) Concept learning: - when learning involves the formation of

concept it is called as concept learning.

(e) Sensory learning: - when learning is concerned with

perception and sense it is sensory learning.

 Che ck your progress

1. Define learning
2. What do you mean my learning?
3. Explain the concept of learning and state its characteristics.
4. Write the different types of learning.

NATURE OF LEARNING

a. Learning is adaptation or adjustment: Friends, we all

continuously interact with our environment. We often make
adjustment and adapt to our social environment. Through a process
of continuous learning, the individual prepares himself for

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 necessary adjustment or adaptation. That is why learning is also
described as a process of progressive adjustment to ever-changing
conditions.

b. Learning is improvement: Learning is often considered as a

process of improvement with practice or training. We learn many
things that help us improve our performance.

c. Learning is an organizing experience: Learning is not

merely the addition of knowledge. It is the reorganization of
experience.

d. Learning brings behavioral changes: Whatever the direction

of the changes may be, learning brings progressive changes
in the behavior of an individual. That is why he can adjust to
changing situations.

e. Learning is active: Learning does not take place without a

purpose and self-activity. In any teaching-learning process, the
learner's activity counts more than the teacher's.

f. Learning is goal-directed: when the aim and purpose of

learning is clear, an individual learns immediately. It is the purpose
or goal that determines what the learner sees in the learning
situations and how they act. If there is no purpose or goal learning
can hardly be seen.

g. Learning is universal and continuous: All living creatures

learn. Every moment, the individual engages in learning more and
more. Right from the birth of a child till the death, learning
continues.

PROCESS OF LEARNING
Learning is a process. It is carried out through steps. Learning
process involves –

(a) A motive or a drive.

(b) An attractive goal.
(c) A block to the attainment of the goal.

Let us see the steps one by one –

(a) (a) A motive or a drive: Motive is the dynamic force that

energizes behavior and compels an individual to act. We
engage in activities because of our motives or needs. When
our need is strong enough, we are compelled to strive for its
satisfaction. Learning occurs in response to stimulation. If our
current behavior, knowledge, skills, and performance are...

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adequate to satisfy all our needs, we do not feel any necessity to
change our behavior or acquire new knowledge and skills. It is this
requirement that initiates a learner to learn something.

(b) Goal: Every individual has to set a definite goal for

achievement. We should always have a clear goal to achieve
anything. If a definite goal is set then learning becomes purposeful
and interesting.

(c) Obstacle /block /barrier: The obstacle, block, or barrier is

equally important in the process of learning. Obstacles or barriers
keep us from attaining the goal.

Now, you will think how the obstacle can be important in the
process of learning. So let me tell you, if you face no difficulty of
any kind in attaining the goal, you will not bring any change in your
present behavior or stock of knowledge or skills. Thus, the block or
the barrier is an essential step in the learning process.

Let us clarify the above views with an example. Suppose you

want to join your college hockey team. You seek the respect of your
classmates and teachers. You are also motivated to try new
experiences you might enjoy. However, your lack of skill in dodging,
tackling, and handling the ball blocks your path. The obstacles
toward achieving your goal will help you identify your weaknesses
and develop essential skills through enough practice and coaching.

Check Your Progress

1. Explain the nature of learning.

2. Explain the process of learning

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 5
LEARNING THEORIES

Unit Structure :

5.0 Objective
5.1 Learning Theories
5.2 Transfer of Training
5.3 Let us sum up
5.4 Suggested Reading

5.0 OBJECTIVE

After going through this unit, you will be able to :

 Explain the different types of learning curve.
 Describe the different stages of learning curve.
 Describe the different learning theories

5.1 LEARNING THEORIES

Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the

learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute
learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe
how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understands the
inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have
two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with
vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the
examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting
where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do
not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those
variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

The three main categories or philosophical frameworks

under which learning theories fall are behavioural, cognitive, and
constructivism. Behaviourism focuses only on the objectively
observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond
behaviour to explain brain-based learning. In addition,
constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner
actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

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 We will discuss the behavioural theories under two broad
categories: S-R theories.

 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement

o E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error theory
o B.F Skinner- Operant Conditioning

 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

o Pavlov- Classical Conditioning

5.1.1 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement

A) E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning:

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American

psychologist to propose the Trial and Error Theory of learning.
According to Thorndike, all learning occurs because of the
formation of a bond or connection between stimulus and response.
He also states that learning happens through a process of
approximation and correction. A person makes several trials; some
responses do not satisfy the individual, but he continues trying until
he achieves satisfactory responses. Thorndike conducted
numerous experiments on animals to demonstrate the learning
process. His most well-known experiment involves a cat placed in a
puzzle box.

Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had

one door that could be opened by manipulating a latch. A fish was
placed outside the box. Because the cat was hungry, it was
motivated to eat the fish outside. However, the latch on the door
was an obstacle. The cat made random movements inside the box,
demonstrating trial-and-error behavior such as biting the box,
scratching, walking around, pulling, and jumping to escape and
reach the food. During her movements, the latch was accidentally
manipulated, and the cat escaped to get the food. Over successive
trials, the cat took less time, made fewer mistakes, and eventually
learned to manipulate the latch quickly, mastering the art of
opening the door.

Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random

trials that the cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it

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 Analysis of the cat in the box's learning behavior reveals that,
beyond trial and error, the process also involves goal-setting,
motivation, explanation, and reinforcement principles.

 Laws of Learning
Based on the Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave
certain laws of Learning. We shall discuss three fundamental Laws
of Learning in this section. These laws are:

1. Law of Readiness
This law emphasizes that learning occurs only when the learner
is prepared to learn. No amount of effort can make a child learn if
they are not ready to learn. The saying that ‘you can lead a horse to
the pond but you can’t make it drink water unless it feels thirsty’
aligns well with this law. In other words, if the child is ready to learn,
they learn more quickly, effectively, and with greater satisfaction
than if they are not ready. As Thorndike states, the three stages of
this Law of Readiness are:

 For a conduction unit ready to conduct, to conduct is satisfying.

 For a conduction unit ready to conduct, not to conduct is
annoying.
 For a conduction unit not ready to conduct, to conduct is
annoying.

Therefore, the Law of Readiness refers to mental

preparation for action. It is not about forcing the child to learn if he
is not ready. Learning failures happen when the learner is
pressured to learn before they are prepared.

Educational Implications of Law of Readiness:

The law highlights the importance of a teacher considering

the child's motivation. Teachers should take into account the
psycho-biological readiness of students to facilitate effective
learning. The curriculum and learning experiences should align with
the child's mental maturity level. If they do not, comprehension may
suffer, and the child's readiness could decline.

2. Law of Exercise

This law explains the role of practice in learning. According

to this law, learning becomes more effective through practice or
exercise. The saying ‘Practice makes a man perfect’ aligns well
with this law. It is further divided into two parts: the Law of Use and
the Law of Disuse. The Law of Use means that the connection
between a stimulus and response is strengthened by its repetition
or use. In other words, using any response reinforces it, and

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 makes it quicker, easier, and more certain. Regarding the law of
disuse, it is said that when a modifiable connection is not formed
between a stimulus and a response over a period of time, the
strength of that connection decreases. This means that any act not
practiced for some time gradually decays. Anything that is not used,
exercised, or practiced for a certain period tends to be forgotten or
becomes weaker in strength, efficiency, and promptness.

Educational Implications
Exercise plays a crucial role in learning. Teachers must
repeat and provide enough practice in subjects like mathematics,
drawing, music, or vocabulary to help students solidify the material.
Thorndike later revised this law of exercise, and it is now
understood that practice does lead to improvement in learning, but
it alone is not enough.

Always, practice should be followed by some reward or

satisfaction for the learner. The learner must be motivated to learn.

3. Law of Effect

This is the most important of Thorndike’s laws, which states

that when a connection between stimulus and response is followed
by a satisfying state, its strength increases. Conversely, when a
connection is accompanied by an unpleasant state of affairs, its
strength decreases. The saying ‘nothing succeeds like success’
aligns well with this law. In other words, responses that bring
satisfaction or comfort to the learner are reinforced, while
responses that cause annoyance or discomfort are weakened.
Thorndike revised this law in 1930, and in his revision, he explained
that reward strengthens the response, but punishment does not
always weaken it. He then placed more emphasis on the rewarding
aspect than on the punishing aspect of the Law of Effect.

Educational Implications
This law emphasizes the use of reinforcement or feedback in
learning. It means that learning trials should be linked to satisfying
consequences. Teachers can use rewards to reinforce certain
responses and punishment to weaken others. However, using
rewards is generally more desirable than punishment in school
settings. Teachers can motivate students to learn by utilizing
rewards.

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Check Your Progress
1. Define Learning. Describe [Link] Trial & Error theory of
learning.
2. Explain the Laws of learning given by [Link].

B) [Link]- Operant Conditioning

What's Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental
conditioning, is a learning method that happens through rewards
and punishments for actions. In operant conditioning, a link is
formed between a behavior and its result.

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner coined the term operant

conditioning, which is why it is also called Skinnerian conditioning.
As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he
suggested that we should only look at the external, observable
causes of human behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active

behavior that operates upon the environment to generate
consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explains
how we learn the variety of behaviors we display every day.

Skinner is recognized as the father of Operant Conditioning,

but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner
introduced a new term into the Law of Effect—Reinforcement.
Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.,
strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be
extinguished (i.e., weakened).
Skinner studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments
using animals, which he placed in a “Skinner Box” which was
similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

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 The Skinner box involved placing an animal, such as a rat or
pigeon, into a sealed box with a lever that releases food when
pressed. If food was given every time the rat pressed the lever, it
would press it more often because it learned that doing so results in
food. Lever pressing is called operant behavior because it is an
action that produces a consequence. In other words, it acts on the
environment and changes it in some way. The food released from
pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer because it causes the
operant behavior (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be
viewed as a conditioned stimulus because it prompts an effect to
occur.

Note: There is an important difference between a reward and a

reinforcer in operant conditioning.
 A reward is something that has value to the person giving it,
but may not necessarily be valuable to the recipient.
 A reinforcer is something that benefits the person receiving it
and thus leads to an increase in a specific type of behavior.

Skinner identified three types of responses or operants that can

follow behavior.

 Neutral operants: Responses from the environment that neither

increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour being
repeated.

 Reinforcers are any event that strengthens or increases the

behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers.
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that
are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect
positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened
by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.

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2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable
events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these
situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

 Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome
that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. Punishment
weakens behaviour. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment
by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable
event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by
removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is
removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Schedules of Reinforcement:

Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcement is given only part of

the times the animal gives the desired response.

Continuous reinforcement - reinforcement is given every time the

animal gives the desired response.
Ratio reinforcement - a pre-determined proportion of responses
will be reinforced.
Fixed ratio reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular
ratio, such as every fifth time the desired behavior is produced.

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 Variable (random) fixed reinforcement- reinforcement is given for
a predetermined proportion of responses, but randomly instead of
on a fixed schedule.

Interval reinforcement- reinforcement is given after a

predetermined period of time.

Fixed interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular

schedule, such as every five minutes.

Variable interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given after

random amounts of time have passed.

In animal studies, Skinner found that continuous

reinforcement in the early stages of training seems to increase the
rate of learning. Later, intermittent reinforcement keeps the
response going longer and slows extinction.

Skinner specifically addressed the applications of

behaviourism and operant conditioning to educational practice. He
believed that the goal of education was to train learners in survival
skills for self and society. The role of the teacher was to reinforce
behaviours that contributed to survival skills, and extinguish
behaviours that did not. Behaviourist views have shaped much of
contemporary education in children and adult learning.

Implication of the theory of operant conditioning:

1. Conditioning study behaviour: Teaching is the arrangement of

contingencies of reinforcement, which expedite learning. For
effective teaching teacher should arranged effective contingencies
of reinforcement. Example: For Self learning of a student teacher
should reinforce student behaviour through variety of incentives
such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back
or by giving higher marks.

2. Conditioning and classroom behaviour: During learning

process child acquire unpleasant experiences also. This
unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and
the classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a teacher.
Suitable behavioural contingencies, atmosphere of recognition,
acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in approaching
teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher
make use of negative reinforcement like showing negligence,
criticising student etc. but if student is serious in study, teacher
make use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and
smile.

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3. Managing Problem Behaviour: Two types of behaviour is seen
in the classroom viz undesired behaviour and problematic
behaviour. Operant conditioning is a behaviour therapy technique
that shape students behaviour. For this teacher should admit
positive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc. for learning.
One should not admit negative contingencies. Example punishment
(student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape
stimulation.

4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through

conditioning fear, anxieties, prejudices, attitudes, perceptual
meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are signals on the road,
siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful injection from a
doctor. Anxiety is a generalized fear response. To break the habits
of fear, a teacher should use desensitization techniques. Initially
teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus.
Gradually the strength of stimulus should be increased.

5. Conditioning group behaviour: Conditioning makes entire

group learn and complete change in behaviour is seen due to
reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behaviour too.
Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make
teachers annoyed in such circumstances students learn to keep
mum in the class. Asking questions, active participation in class
discussion will make the teacher feel happy – interaction will
increase and teaching learning process becomes more effective.

6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is

given in different form, for the progress of knowledge and in the
feedback form. When response is correct, positive reinforcement is
given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month
of January is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome
this Programme instruction is used. In this subject matter is broken
down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning.
Each step is build upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the
process of learning. Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.

7. Shaping Complex Behaviour: Complex behaviour exists in form

of a chain of small behaviour. Control is required for such kind of
behaviour. This extended form of learning is shaping technique.
Smallest Behaviour is controlled at initial stage. On behalf of
different contingencies, next order of chain of behaviours is
controlled. Example: Vocabulary in English. Teaching spelling is
mainly a process of shaping complex form of behaviour.

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 Check Your Progress

1. What is Operant Conditioning? Describe theory operant

conditioning given by [Link] with appropriate illustration.
2. Define reinforcement. What are the various schedules of
reinforcement? Explain with examples.
3. Discuss the theory of operant conditioning and point out its
implication to education

5.1.2 S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement

 Pavlov- Classical Conditioning (1849-1936)

Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which
has been acquired through experience. One of the best-known
examples of classical conditioning can be found with the Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments on dogs.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate
when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this he first showed them
food, the sight of which caused them to salivate.

Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the
food out, until eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by
ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.

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 In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how
a reflex (salivation, a natural bodily response) could become
conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby
creating a conditioned reflex/response.

Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

We can gain a better understanding of classical conditioning

by looking at the various components involved in his experiment;

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 The unconditioned stimulus.(UCS)
 The conditioned stimulus.(CS)
 The unconditioned reflex/response.(UCR)
 The conditioned reflex/response. (CR)

So let’s look at each of these classical conditioning components in

more detail now.

Note: In its strictest definition classical conditioning is described as

a previously neutral stimulus which causes a reflex (stimulus
means something which causes a physical response).

The Unconditioned Stimulus (food): (UCS) An unconditioned

stimulus is anything, which can evoke a response without prior
learning or conditioning.

For example, when a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to
salivate. Therefore the food is an unconditioned stimulus, because
it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and without
the dog having to learn how to salivate.

Unconditioned Stimulus – This causes an automatic reflex

response.

Conditioned Stimulus (bell): (CS) The conditioned stimulus is

created by learning, and therefore does not create a response
without prior conditioning.

For example, when Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to
salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because the dogs learnt to
associate the bell with food. If they had not learnt to associate the
bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was
rung.

Conditioned Stimulus – You need to learn first before it creates a

response. It is an acquired power to change something.

Unconditioned Reflex/Response (salivation): (UCR) An

unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without
you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating when
you eat. Unconditioned Reflex – Reflex that happens automatically
and you did not have to learn how to do it.

Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell): (CR) A

conditioned reflex is a response which you have learnt to associate
with something.

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 For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when
previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs
to salivate.

Conditioned Reflex – A reflex that can be evoked in response to

a conditioned stimulus (a previously neutral stimulus).

 Basic concepts in classical conditioning:

There are several principles that are associated with classical
conditioning, some of these are:

 Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time

when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented.
 Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak
appearance of a previously extinguished response.
 Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in
this same way to experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy
animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat.
 Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate
between various stimuli.
 Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus
can cause the conditioned response sense if it had been
associated with the conditioned stimulus.

Types of classical conditioning

Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning.

During forward conditioning the onset of the conditioned stimulus
(CS) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US). Two
common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace
conditioning.

Delay conditioning: In delay, conditioning the conditioned stimulus

(CS) is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the
unconditioned stimulus (US).

Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the conditioned

stimulus (CS) and US do not overlap. Instead, the conditioned
stimulus (CS) is presented, a period is allowed to elapse during
which no stimuli are presented, and then the unconditioned
stimulus (US) is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the
trace interval. It may also be called the conditioning interval.

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 Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning,
the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are
presented and terminated at the same time.

Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a

conditional stimulus (CS) immediately follows an unconditional
stimulus (US). Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the
conditional stimulus (CS) precedes the unconditional stimulus (US),
the conditional response (CR) tends to be inhibitory. This is
because the conditional stimulus (CS) serves as a signal that the
unconditional stimulus (US) has ended, rather than a reliable
method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional
stimulus (US).

Temporal conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is

presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is
dependent upon correct timing of the interval between
unconditioned stimulus (US) presentations. The background, or
context, can serve as the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this
example.

Unpaired conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and

unconditioned stimulus (US) are not presented together. Usually
they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a
variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to
study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

CS-alone extinction: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented

in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US). This procedure
is usually done after the conditional response (CR) has been
acquired through “forward conditioning” training. Eventually, the
conditional response (CR) frequency is reduced to pre-training
levels. Essentially, the stimulus is presented until habituation
occurs.

Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations

1. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and
master a task effectively before embarking on another one. This
means that a student needs to be able to respond to a particular
stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a
new one.

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 2. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn.
They should be versatile with various strategies that can
enhance effective participation of the students in the teaching-
learning activities.
3. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through
classical conditioning. A negative or positive response comes
through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing
the necessary school material for primary school pupils will
develop good feelings about school and learning in them, while,
punishment will discourage them from attending the school.

Check Your Progress

1) Define Classical Conditioning Theory

2) What is the meaning of Extinction Stage in Classical
Conditioning?
3) Explain the meaning of Salivation in Pavlov’s Theory of
Classical Conditioning
4. What is the meaning of Unconditioned Response in Pavlov’s
Theory?

Conclusion
It is believed that the learners and more importantly the
teachers have greatly benefited from all the theories. The teachers
should be familiar with this theory and apply it to teaching-learning
activities where applicable.

5.2 TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Introduction

The ability of the individual to apply the previous experience

on the new related experience is what we call transfer of learning.
Except students are able to transfer prior skills and knowledge on
new ones, the continuity of learning will be difficult. This unit will

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explain how old learning can be transferred to a new one. You will
know what the classroom teacher needs to do in order to facilitate
transfer of experiences among his/her students.

The essence of learning is that a previously learnt fact

should be linked with a present experience. This is because human
being must be dynamic and that the prior experience will make
them to develop the new skills and knowledge. The influence the
past experience has on the succeeding experience is called
transfer of learning.

Cormier and Hagman, (1987) define transfer of learning as

the application of skills and knowledge learned in one context being
applied in another context.

Oladele (1998) defines transfer of learning as the effect of

prior learning on the present. Learning is meaningful when the past
learning smoothens the progress of something else. For example, if
a learned experienced refuses to aid the new learning, the goal of
training has seized to be accomplished. In the school, the teacher
teaches some subjects in order that the experience gained in those
subjects could be transferred into another.

Charham (1987) affirms that human and animal learning is

normally affected by the past experience, and that the various
subjects are included in the school curriculum because of their
utility and wide application to real life situations For instance, the
teacher who has taught his/her students some skills in Mathematics
would believe that such skills be transferred to related subjects like
Physics or Accounting. If the students fail to apply these skills in
their subsequent learning, it means that the students have not been
successful in transferring the learning.

The above example gives us clues into the different types of

transfer of learning that we have. These are explained below:

(a) Positive Transfer: This is a situation whereby a previously

learnt fact or information aids in the understanding of a new task.
Aside from aiding the learners in their subsequent learning, it also
helps the learners to learn better and effectively the new task.

(b) Negative Transfer: This is a type of learning in which prior

experience imparts negatively on the new one. In this case, the
understanding of past skills inhibits the mastering of new ones. For
example, if a student wrongly connects information, it can
lead to negative transfer.

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 (c) Zero Transfer: This type of learning reveals no link between the
previously learnt task and the recent one. The evidence of zero
transfer is hardly seen, it reveals no clear positive or negative
effect.

Theories of Transfer of Learning

a. Theory of Mental Faculties: This theory was propounded by the

Greek Philosophers, notable among them was Aristotle. The basic
tenet of the theory is that human mind is sub-divided into different
powers of faculties like memory, judgment, reasoning or thinking. It
is therefore believed that each of these faculties is reinforced and
developed by cast and continuous memorization of poetry/poem
and similar works. This theory believes that exercises and regular
practice will strengthen the mental faculties. The theory therefore
dismisses the concept of transfer of learning, to it a well trained and
disciplined mind is the ingredient needed for understanding of new
information.

b. Theory of Identical Elements: The theory which was developed

by the duo of Thorndike and Woodworth (American Psychologists)
indicates that it is possible for an individual to transfer the prior
skills and knowledge to recent ones because both experiences are
identical (share things in common). This theory suggests that a
successful or effective learning will happen if there are connections
or interrelatedness between the old and the new experiences. For
example, it is expected that a student who has learnt about
anatomical parts of human being in a Biology lesson, should be
able to do well when he/she is asked to name anatomical parts of a
goat during Agriculture lesson.

c. Theory of Generalization: This theory was advocated by a

Psychologist named Charles Judd. The assumption of the theory is
that general principles aid transfer of learning better than
segregated facts. This theory believes in Gestalt, an assertion
which views learning from a whole or complete form rather than in
isolated form. For example, the theory of generalization indicates
that a learnt experience should be useful in other day-to -day
related activities.

Classroom Implications of Transfer of Learning

1. The teacher should know that transfer of learning will not take
place when both the old and new are unrelated. Hence, the teacher
should endeavor to teach his/her subject-matter in a more
meaningful and detailed way rather than by rote.

2. The teacher should provide the opportunity for his/her students

to practice a subject-matter being discussed along with him/her.

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 When the learners are allowed to take active part in teaching
learning activities, they will be able to repeat the task at another
time.

3. For a transfer of learning to take place, the teacher should

always emphasize the relationship that exists between one subject-
matter and another.

4. The teacher should endeavor to develop positive attitudes

towards a learning task so that the students can be motivated to
like the task rather avoiding it.

5. It is believed that what students see, touch, feel or manipulate

will be better remembered than the one they are not familiar with.
Hence, for a meaningful transfer of learning to take place, the
teacher should incorporate exercises that task the various senses
of learners in the learning process.

Check Your Progress

1) List six ways of enhancing transfer of learning

2) Why do you consider Transfer of Learning a very important
aspect in teaching?
3) Write short notes on:
i. Positive Transfer
ii. Negative Transfer
iii. Zero Transfer

Conclusion

The relevance of transfer of learning has been stressed in

this unit. It will help the teachers on the action programmes that can
facilitate learning transfer.

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 5.3 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we learnt about

 The meaning and concept of learning. The motive behind this is

to ensure the learners have foundation knowledge of
educational psychology and learning before actually advancing
in other concepts.
 This unit help us to understand characteristics, process of
learning and Learning curve.
 The theories of Learning, the meaning of Instrumental/Operant
Conditioning of B.F. Skinner. It mentioned the two major types
of responses, the relevance of reinforcement as well as
punishment to students’ learning. Also, the implications of the
theory to educational settings were discussed.
 Thorndike’s theory emphasizes that the fundamental of learning
is the association between sense impressions and impulses to
action (stimuli and responses). The theory stresses readiness,
exercises and effect as the conditions for learning.
 Classical conditioning theory was formulated by Ivan Pavlov and
the basic tenet of the theory is that behaviour of an organism
can be manipulated using some environmental factors. The key
relevance of theory to the learning is: it emphasizes practice of
one task before moving on to another and encourages the use
of motivation for effective learning.
 In this unit, we learnt about meaning of transfer of learning,
theories of transfer of learning and classroom implications of
transfer of learning
Unit End Exercises :

1. What is the relevance of Psychology to the learning process?

2. What is a learning curve? Describe a typical learning curve.
3. State any two causes of plateau.
4. Explain the educational importance of a learning curve. State
the important characteristics of a learning curve.
5. Itemize and discuss main features of Operant Conditioning
Theory.
6. What are the contributions of Skinner’s Theory to educational
process?
7. Describe Thorndike’s law of readiness, exercises and
[Link] the importance of these laws

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8. What do you understand by Classical Conditioning Theory?
9. What are the implications of Classical Conditioning on the
students’ learning?
10. Write short notes on the following:
a. Conditioned Stimulus
b. Conditioned Response
c. Unconditioned Response
11. What is transfer of learning
12. Discuss the three theories of transfer of learning
13. What are the implications of transfer of learning on pedagogical
activities?

5.4 SUGGESTED READING

 Chauhan. S. S. (2001) “Advanced Educational Psychology”

Vikas publicity House [Link].

 Mangal S. K. (2000) “An Introduction to Psychology. Prakash

Brothers, Ludhiana

 Mathur, S. S. (1996) Educational Psychology. Vinod Pustak

Mandir, Agra.

 Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology.

Yaba: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

 Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education.

Awka: Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.

 Sharma, R.N. (1996) “Educational Psychology” Surjeet

Publications, Delhi.



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6

FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

Unit Structure
6.0 Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Maturation as factor in Learning
6.3 Attention and Perception as factor in Learning
6.4 Motivation as factor in Learning
6.5 Fatigue as factor in Learning
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Suggested Readings

6.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to …

 Explain the factors affecting learning
 Explain how maturation affect learning
 Explain the concept and importance of attention and
perception
 Explain the concept, principle, theories of motivation and
technique of motivation students.
 Discuss Fatigue as factor in Learning

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Learning, as we know, can be considered as the process by

which skills, attitudes, knowledge and concepts are acquired,
understood, applied and extended. All human beings, engage in the
process of learning, either consciously, sub-consciously or
subliminally whether grownups or children. It is through learning
that their competence and ability to function in their environment
get enhanced. It is important to understand that while we learn
some ideas and concepts through instruction or teaching, we also
learn through our feelings and experiences. Feelings and
experiences are a tangible part of our lives and these greatly
influence what we learn, how we learn and why we learn.

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Learning has been considered partly a cognitive process and

partly a social and affective one. It qualifies as a cognitive process
because it involves the functions of attention, perception,
reasoning, analysis, drawing of conclusions, making interpretations
and giving meaning to the observed phenomena. All of these are
mental processes, which relate to the intellectual functions of the
individual. Learning is a social and affective process, as the societal
and cultural context in which we function and the feelings and
experiences which we have, greatly influence our ideas, concepts,
images and understanding of the world. These constitute inner
subjective interpretations and represent our own unique,
personalized constructions of the specific universe of functioning.

Our knowledge, ideas, concepts, attitudes, beliefs and the

skills, which we acquire, are a consequence of these combined
processes. The process of learning involves cognition, feeling,
experience and a context. Individuals vary greatly with regard to
their ability, capacity and interest in learning. You must have
noticed such variations among your friends and students. In any
family, children of the same parents differ with respect to what they
can learn and how well they can learn.

For example, a particular child may be very good at

acquiring practical skills such as repairing electrical gadgets,
shopping for the household etc., while his brother or sister may in
contrast be very poor on these, and good at academic tasks,
instead. Even for yourself, you may be perplexed why you can do
some tasks well, but not others given the same competence level.

For example, learning the tunes of songs and even their

lyrics is often found to be easier than learning a formula or a poem.
Do you ever wonder why this is so? You may have observed that
for some people, learning driving, swimming, or cooking is achieved
easily, while for some others it is a nightmare. Why this happens,
what could be the underlying reasons, why individuals differ with
respect to how, and what they learn, are the key questions
addressed in the present unit. To find some answers to these
questions, we will try to identify and understand the various factors
affecting learning.

6.2 MATURATION AS FACTOR IN LEARNING

Maturation is an important factor that affects our learning is

defined as “growth that proceeds regularly within a wide range of
environmental conditions.” Maturation is growth that takes place
regularly in an individual without special condition of stimulation
such as training and practice. Learning is possible only when a
certain stage of maturation is also reached. Exercise and training

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becomes fruitful only when a certain stage of maturation is attained.

Maturation determines the readiness of the child for learning.
Learning will be ineffective if the child has not attained the required
level of maturity. There are individual differences in maturation.
This means the rate of maturation varies with individuals. There are
individual differences in the capacity to learn at the same age level.
This is because of the difference of maturation level. Specific skills
are learnt by children easily who mature earlier than others.

The 3R’s i e reading, writing and reckoning can be learnt

only after the maturation of muscular and brain capacities. Rate of
learning ability is closely related to the maturation of the cerebral
cortex. Deterioration of cortical tissues in old age brings about
declination in the learning ability. So it can be said that learning is
not independent of maturation, but must be based upon a sufficient
stage of growth.

Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation

is reached. However much we practice a six month old child with
walking exercises, the infant cannot walk. The muscles have not
matured enough for the infant to learn to walk. This particular
learning is possible only when the nerves & the muscles have
attained a particular stage of maturity & development.

Practice is most productive when properly articulated with

maturational level. It is very essential for the teachers to know the
maturational level of the pupils.

 Check Your Progress

1. Define maturation.

2. Fill up the blanks.

(a) Learning is possible only when a certain stage of is
reached.
(b) Maturation determines the of the child for learning.
(c) Practice is most productive when properly articulated with

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6.3 ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION AS FACTOR IN

LEARNING
Another factor, which affects learning, is attention. Attention
is always present in conscious life and is common to all types of
mental activity. It is the characteristics of all conscious life. Every
activity of yours is based on interest and attention. You can
succeed in achieving your goals only when your attention is
directed towards learning.

Attention is defined as the act of selective consciousness-Ross

Dumville defined Attention as the concentration of consciousness
upon one subject rather than another.

Characteristics of Attention
 Attention is focusing consciousness on one object. One object is
the focus of attention. All other objects are in the margin of
attention. (Right now, what is the focus of your attention? what
objects are in the margin of your attention?)
 Attention is selective. We choose to attend to one object in
preference to others.
 Attention is constantly shifting from focus to margin
 Attention is a state of preparedness where the muscles and
sense organs ready themselves for attending
 Attention cannot be divided between two mental tasks.

Types of Attention

 voluntary attention:
a person actively searches out information that has personal
relevance
 selective attention:
a person selectively focuses attention on relevant information
 involuntary attention:
a person is exposed to something surprising, novel, threatening, or
unexpected
- e.g.: surprise, movement ,unusual sounds ,size of stimulus,
contrast effects and colour

Several factors affect attention. These are factors inherent in the object of
attention
1. Movement: An animated picture elicits more attention than a
still picture

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2. Size of an object: Large letters attract more attention than tiny

font.
3. Contrast: Dark letters stand out against a light background.
4. Colour: Colours, especially bright ones, gain more attention
than drab colours
5. Novelty: A new gimmick in advertising is an instant hit
6. Change in stimuli: If the clock suddenly stops its ticking, it is
likely to attract attention. If a teacher pauses in the midst of the
lecture, the students are likely to pay more attention to the next
few words
7. Intensity: A glaring light, sharp sound, fluorescent markers
serve as attention grabbers.
8. Repetition: Words of a song that are repeated or words in a
lecture that are repeated attract attention.

Significance of Attention
It is basic need for all types of learning. Every moment of
yours is attracted by many stimuli of the environment. Your mind is
not able to concentrate on all the stimuli at the same time. It is
because of attention that you are able to concentrate on important
aspect of a single object.
Consider a classroom, where there are lot of things like,
desk, bench, chalk, black board, duster, fan and charts. When a
teacher shows you a particular chart, you pay attention to that. It
shifts the focus of learner to the chart this helps them to learn more
about it.
Therefore, it can be said that attention helps you to clear the vivid
objects.
 It arouses interest in learners to learn a particular thing.
 It increases efficiency of the learner
 It motivates learners to learn more
 It make the learners ready to learn
 It brings a state of alternates in learners for doing task
 It helps the learner to perceive events or ideas.

Thus, attention is a necessary condition for any task in the

classroom. It is the hub of entire learning process. It is essential for
learning as well as understanding well. Attention is an essential
factor for teachers as well as students. If you are attentive in
classroom, you are fully prepared to receive any stimulus. It
enables you to learn properly within a period. It helps you to
achieve the target within short period and with reasonable amount
of effort.

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 Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by attention? State the characteristic of

attention.
2. State two significance of attention

PERCEPTION

Perception is the process through which a person is exposed

to information, attends to the information, and comprehends the
information.

Exposure: a person receives information through his/her senses

Attention: a person allocates processing capacity to a stimulus
Comprehension: a person interprets the information to obtain
meaning from it

Meaning: Perception is the mental process by which you get

knowledge of external world. You receive innumerable impression
through the sense organs. You select some of these and organise
them into unit, which convey some meaning. The transformation of
sensation into organised pattern is called as perception.

Perception = sensation + Meaning

For E.g. Eyes react to light and give us the knowledge of

brightness, nose reacts to smell and give us the knowledge of
pleasant or unpleasant smell, ear react to the sound of barking and
gives us the knowledge of presence of a dog.

Perception is an active state of mind in which it reacts on

sensation and interprets it. The basis of perception is sensation.

Importance of Perception in Learning

Learning depends on an individual’s precepts. If you are able
to perceive a thing correctly then right learning will take place.
Learning will proceed in a proper direction due to correct precepts.
Both sensation and perception play an important role in you
learning. Sensations are the first impression so it has to be
absolutely clear. Sensations give rise to perception and on that

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basis you get a proper understanding of an object, idea or an

experience. Learning depends upon accurate and efficient
perception and perception depends upon the sensation, which
depends on the normal functioning of the sense organs. Thus
perception is important for proper learning and understanding.

Check Your Progress

1. Explain, what do you mean by perception?
2. Discuss the importance of perception in classroom teaching and
learning process.

6.4. MOTIVATION AS FACTOR IN LEARNING

The knowledge of how to stimulate the students to

participate meaningfully in classroom will go a long way in assisting
the teachers. This unit therefore provides the learners the
opportunity to understand different theories of motivation and how
to apply these theories to their day-to-day classroom
teaching/learning activities.

Motivation is defined as an inspiration that propels someone

into an action. It is an internal state or condition that activates and
gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions (Lahey, 1995).
In the opinion of Oladele (1998), motivation is a process by which
the learner’s internal energies are directed toward various goal
objects in his/her environment. These energies or arousals push an
individual in achieving his goals. An individual may be highly
motivated to perform well in a task and completely unmotivated in
another. This means that when people are motivated, they will work
tirelessly to achieve their aspirations.

Maslow (1970) believed that motivation leads to growth and

development, and that need satisfaction is the most important sole
factor underlying motivation. Maslow furthered explained that man
is perpetually in needs and that the resources to satisfy those
needs are limited. In view of this, man places his/her wants on the
scale of preference, that he/she selects the most pressing need.
After this need has been satisfied, it becomes less important,
paving way for the next on the rank.

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The needs of man may either be primary or secondary.

Primary needs are the physiological wants of man. It may be the
need for water, rest, sexual intercourse, hunger and thirst.
Secondary needs are the desire for autonomy, affection, or the
need for safety and security. For example, the desire of a labourer
to take a glass of water after thirst is a primary need. At the same
time, craving of the students to stay in a serene classroom
environment is a secondary need.

Types of Motivation
There are two types of motivation or arousals. They can
either be internally or externally driven. The desire for food or sex
arises from within us (intrinsic), while the yearning to obtain
recognition or approval is influenced by the conditions in our
environment (extrinsic). In view of the above explanation,
motivation is divided into intrinsic and extrinsic.

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Is an internal force or motive within the

individual which propels him/her into emitting certain behaviour. It is
an innate or genetically predetermined disposition to behave in a
particular way when he/she faces a particular situation. This type of
motivation can make an individual to have the feelings of self-
confidence and competence (Deci and Ryan, 1985). A student who
is intrinsically motivated may carry out a task because of the
enjoyment he/she derives from such a task. In another way, a dog
that sees a bone and runs for it, did that because of the satisfaction
it derives from eating bone. This type of behaviour does not require
any prior learning. Sighting the bone changes the behaviour of the
dog and propels it to act.

2. Extrinsic Motivation: Is the external or environmental factor,

which sets the individual’s behaviour into motion. The
incentive/reinforcer drives an individual’s behaviour towards a goal.
A student that is extrinsically motivated will execute an action in
order to obtain some reward or avoid some sanctions. For example,
a student who read hard for the examination did so because of the
desire to obtain better grade. The case also goes for a runner who
wants to win a prize, he/she will need constant practice than a
person who wants to run for the fun of it. Extrinsic rewards should
be used with caution because they have the potential for
decreasing exiting intrinsic motivation.

For example extrinsic incentive may spur a student to

actively participate in the task for which the student has no interest,
but may undermine intrinsic and continuing motivation in him/her
(Deci et al, 1985). Therefore, students’ motivation automatically has
to do with the students’ desire to participate in the learning process.
It also concerns the reasons or goals that underlie their involvement
or non-involvement in academic activities.

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Theories of Motivation
Different psychologists have developed several theories on
motivation. Notable among them are discuss as follows

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation

Abraham Maslow was a foremost Psychologist. He
developed a theory (Human Needs) in which he identified seven
vital human needs according to level of urgency or exigency. These
needs according to the Maslow are:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the biological or survival needs

of man. They are the most basic needs that control the other
needs. Until these needs are fulfilled or satisfied, man will not be
able to go to the next level. Examples of these needs are the desire
to eat food when hungry, drink water when thirsty or the need for
rest, sex, air or to excrete unwanted materials from the body
systems. After these survivals needs have been adequately taken
care, they become less important and one moves to the next which
is the desire for security and safety.

2. Safety and Security Needs: Human beings require safety and

protection from danger or external aggressors. After one has
successfully dealt with physiological needs, it is desirable to cater
for psychological needs. At this point, Man will be thinking of where
to live and efforts will be made to keep him/herself from impending
dangers, threats or hazards. The hallmark of these needs is the
quest by an individual to seek for conducive or peaceful abode. For
example, the desire of war victims to migrate from their original
country to become refugees in another country is the need for
safety and security. Also, a chicken that quickly hibernates under its
mother on sighting an eagle did so because of its desire for safety.

3. Love and Belongingness Needs: This involves the aspiration

of man to establish a cordial relationship with others. It is the need
of man to love and be loved. At this level of need, people will like to
extend their hands of fellowship or comradeship to their friends,
mates, co-workers or neighbours. They equally will expect that
such gestures be reciprocated by others. Onyehalu (1988) believes
that this need is manifested in our affiliations and friendships.

4. Achievement Needs: Achievement needs are divided into two.

These are the need to achieve success and the need to avoid
failure or setback. The need to attain success or freedom drives
man to go extra miles. This need motivates an individual to emit a
behaviour that will make him/her command respect from others.

5. Self-Esteem Needs: These are the things we desire in order that

our ego will be boosted. After the individual has been accorded
respect or recognition by others, the next thing for him/her is to start

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seeking for the things that will make him/her enjoy considerable
influence from others. The ability of someone to fulfil this condition
makes him/her feel superior and self-confident. Inability to fulfil this
need, makes a person feel dejected or inferior.

6. Aesthetic Needs: These needs include the desire of people to

pursue or admire beautiful things; their desire for beautiful and
expensive cars, houses, materials, gorgeous and expensive
dresses and beautiful surroundings with well trimmed and
maintained flowers.

7. Self-Actualization Needs: When a person has successfully

achieved or gained the most basic needs or wants, then such an
individual will want to get a rare opportunity. It is the time when a
person will like to distinguish him/herself, by seeking for power or
extra-ordinary achievement. At this point person is said to have
reached the peak of his potentials.

Henry Murray’s Theory of Motivation

Murray like Maslow also propounded the theory of motivation. He
divided his theory into two, viscerogenic and psychogenic needs.

1. Viscerogenic Needs: These are referred to as biological or

physiological needs. They are the primary needs and these include
the desire for water, sex, sleep, food, air and excretion of waste
products. They are the higher order needs.

2. Psychogenic Needs: These needs correspond with other needs

in Maslow’s theory. They are secondary needs. Examples of these
are the longing for safety and security, love and comradeship, self-
esteem, beautiful things or serene environment, rare or dominant
positions etc.

Classroom Implications of Theory of Motivation

 It is important for the teacher to know the basic needs of his/her
students and cater for these according to level of their
important. For example, the teacher needs to think first of
students’ food, rest or health before thinking of teaching them.
 When the teacher praises his/her students for doing well in their
study or assignment, they will be spurred to sustain that effort.
 A classroom, which is well decorated or adorned with beautiful
charts, and learning materials will be students’ friendly. The
students’ minds will always be attracted to the activities in a
beautifully adorned classroom.
 In the classroom, students like being recognized or respected.
When their views are recognized or respected, they will have
their confidence boosted and developed.

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 From the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should endeavour

to make his/her students know possible outcome of the lesson.
It is when the students know what they are likely to achieve from
the lesson that their attention will be arrested and sustained.
 Feedback is necessary if the interest of the students must be
sustained in the classroom. So the teacher should always strive
to let them know how they are performing in the teaching-
learning activities.
 The teacher should also provide/plan for extra-curricular
activities for his/her students. When the teacher does this, the
students will have opportunity of establishing a genuine
interaction among them. Besides, they will be able to display
their hidden talents.
 When dealing with the students in the classroom, the teacher
should take into consideration, the developmental changes and
differences in the students before deciding on the particular
motivation pattern to be employed.
Check Your Progress
1) What problems are associated with the use of extrinsic reward?
2) How does learning objectives affect student motivation?
3) How can you promote intrinsic motivation in student?
4) Write short notes on the following:
i. Physiological Needs
ii. Viscerogenic Needs
iv. Aesthetic Needs

6.5 FATIGUE AS FACTOR OF LEARNING

It is quite essential to do away with fatigue in the process
of learning as fatigue becomes an obstacle in the task to be
performed or at least reduces its rate of progress. The truth of the
matter is that the proportion in which the students becomes
fatigued, his achievement curve shows a downward trend.
Achievement decreases with the increase in fatigue. Hence,
educational psychology makes a detailed study of the cause of
fatigue and of the methods of alleviating it.

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What is Fatigue?
Fatigue is the state of reduced interest and desire, and this
constitutes psychological explanation. It is the state or condition in
which the nerves do not react and mind becomes lax and inert.
Evidently, fatigue is neither purely physical nor exclusively mental.
It is a psychological state of exhaustion. Reduce efficiency or
capacity of body as well as mind is implicit in this phenomenon.

Kinds of Fatigue
Fatigue is of many kinds just as capacity. However, it is generally
believed to be of four kinds.

1. Mental Fatigue: Mental work, or any kind of strain on the

mind reduces the capacity of th e mind for work and causes
mental fatigue. Thus in mental fatigue, the mind tries or the
capacity to its minute fibres for work is diminished.
2. Physical Fatigue: This type of fatigue results in the reduction
in the capacity of the muscles of the body and a feeling of
fatigue. In this way physical fatigue is brought about by
physical exertion. Even though the body feels tired due to
mental exertion which should normally result in mental
fatigue, yet on account of close relation of the two, it also
produces physical fatigue. Thus mental fatigue is unavoidable
and it lead to physical fatigue.
3. Nervous Fatigue: The subconscious mind of man is
extremely active and since in the process of its work it
consumes energy, in due course of time it naturally produces
a feeling of fatigue and depression. Nervous fatigue can also
result in the subconscious is extremely tired due to mental
conflict.
4. Boredom: Boredom and fatigue are not identical. Fatigue is
the result of the use of energy but boredom is the feeling of
tiredness due to an incomplete or improper expulsion of
energy. If you go to a friend and he is busy in some work you
become bored. Similarly, you get bored if a person persist in
talking about the same thing day after. Boredom result in
restlessness, a state induced by our inability to find proper
use for our capacity for work.

Ways of Removing Fatigue

1. Sleep: Getting proper 8 hrs of sleep is necessary.
2. Relaxation: sitting or lying in a relaxed position, doing
activities which are favourites also eliminate fatigue.
3. Balance of work and rest
4. Change in the nature of work
5. Recreation
6. Change in Emotions

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Reducing Fatigue in School and classroom

The following points can be kept in the view to fight fatigue
in the classroom situation.

1. Satisfactory physical condition: the school and the classroom

should be attractive and clean. The furniture must be quite
comfortable.

2. Medical Check Up: Sick children are soon tired. Sometimes

some children are healthy apparently but they may be suffering
from some chronic ailments. They cannot carry on sustained
activity for a long time. Weak eye-sight exhaust the individual
very soon.

3. Mid-day Meals: Hungry stomachs invite fatigue during activity.

Therefore, children should be provide with mid-day meals or
other light refreshments in the school time.

4. Supply of fresh air: The rooms must be well ventilated for

fresh air and light. Oxygen is a necessary thing to fight fatigue.
There should be enough outdoor activities also.

5. Motivation: the lesson must be made quite interesting.

Therefore, various teaching techniques should be implemented
during teaching-learning process.

6. Co-curricular activities: Extracurricular activities prove very

refreshing, interesting and instructive to the children. Therefore,
there should be ample provisions of such activities in the school.
Check Your Progress
1. What do you mean by Fatigue? Explain the kinds of fatigue
2. Explain the ways of removing the fatigue school and
classroom situation.

6.6 LETS SUM UP

This unit has prepared the teachers to focus on the factors that
affect the learning process.
 We discussed how maturation contribute to the learning

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 The various strategies teachers can employ to keep the

attention and give clear perception of the students in the
teaching-learning activities.
 We discussed the Definitions, Types and Theories of motivation
which has given an understanding how to motivate the student
in classroom.
 Fatigue is an important factor that influences the learning
process; we focused on removes the aspects which create
fatigue in order to have effective learning.

Unit End Exercises :

1) Explain how maturation affects the teaching learning process in

classroom.
2) Discuss the significance of attention and perception to learning.
3) Define motivation. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation
4) Distinguish between Maslow and Murray theories of motivation
5) What is the relevance of motivation to students learning?
6) Discuss the kind of fatigue, how as a teacher we can remove the
fatigue of students in classroom situation.

6.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers.

Ilesa: College of Education.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational
Psychology Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-
Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper
and Row.
Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology.
Yaba:Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education.
Awka:Meks-Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Sharma [Link], Sharma R.K (2006) Advance Educational
Psychology, Atlantic Publisher, India.

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7

MENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO LEARNING

Unit structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Thinking
7.2.1 Concept of Thinking
7.2.2 Tools of Thinking
7.2.3 Types of Thinking

7.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will able to

 To develop an understanding of the mental processes related to
learning.
 To develop an understanding of the nature and concept of
thinking.
 To acquaint the learners with the different types of thinking.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Psychology deals with the study of the mental processes

which includes how people think, perceive, remember and learn.
Thus, it is concerned with internal processes such as thinking,
memory, imagination, reasoning etc. Thought or capacity to think
was at one time held to be not only the most distinctive
characteristic of human nature but also the one which most clearly
distinguished the human being from other creatures.

The great philosopher Descartes had said, “I think, so I

exist”, implying that thought is the very essence of human
existence. Thinking, therefore, represents the most complex
psychological processes. Most of the things in the world produced
by man are products of his thinking and reasoning abilities. Even to
understand, appreciate or use the things developed by man, one
has to employ the powers of thinking and reasoning. Thus, powers
of thinking and reasoning may be considered to be essential tools
for the welfare and meaningful existence of the individual as well as
the society.

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Learning not only involves thinking processes but also

retaining or storing the acquired material and also retrieving and
remembering the related material. It is a known fact that we neither
retain nor remember everything that has been learnt or
experienced. This phenomenon of losing is evidenced by our
inability to remember what we have learnt and is known as
forgetting.

Thus, in this unit we will try to learn something about

thinking, reasoning, memory and forgetting, which is an integral
part of human behavior.

7.2 THINKING

7.2.1 Concept of Thinking:

Thinking is a complex process which involves manipulation of

information as we form concepts. It also engages in problem
solving, reasoning and making decisions. Thinking is a higher
cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is part of
cognitive psychology. Thinking is a pattern of behaviour in which
we make use of internal representations (symbols, signs etc.) of
things and events for the solution of some specific, purposeful
problem.

Definitions:

Ross: Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect.

Kolesnik: Thinking is the reorganization of concepts.
Woodworth: Thinking is mental exploration for finding out the
solution of a problem.

Characteristics:

 It is one of the most important aspects of ones cognitive

behavior.
 It depends on both – perception and memory.
 Thinking is a mental process which starts with a problem and
concludes with its solution.
 It involves trail and error; analysis and synthesis; foresight and
hindsight.
 It is a symbolic behavior.
 It is a cognitive activity.
 It is always directed to achieve some purpose.
 It is different from day-dreaming and imagination.
 It is a problem-solving behavior.
 There is mental exploration instead of motor exploration..

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(e.g.: if a person gets locked in a room and loses his keys and he
starts searching for them in different places then this becomes
motor exploration; but if he tries to think of different ways of how
he can get out of the room then this becomes mental
exploration- THINKING.)

 Thinking is a symbolic activity. (e.g.: engineers use mental

images and symbols to design the plan for buildings)

Check your Progress

1. What do you understand by thinking?

2. Enumerate the characteristics of thinking.

7.2.2 Tools of Thinking:

1. Percepts, 2. Images / Object, 3. Concepts, 4. Symbols and

Signs, 5. Language.

1. Percepts: A mental impression of something perceived by the

senses, viewed as the basic component in the formation of
concepts is called percepts. Percepts are recognition and
interpretation of sensory stimuli based chiefly on memory. Thus,
the percept is a perceived form of external stimuli. The percept
also binds sensations from all of the senses in a whole.

2. Images / Objects: Often images are used as an instrument of

thinking. These images may be images of personal experiences
of objects, persons or scenes actually seen, heard or felt. These
mental pictures symbolize actual objects, experiences and
activities.

3. Concepts: A concept is a ‘general idea’ that stands for a

general class and represents the common characteristic of all
objects or events of this general class. The concept formation
saves our efforts in thinking. E.g. ‘Man is mortal’; you do not

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perceive a particular man but mankind in general i.e. including

women. Thus the generalized ‘man’ is a concept.

4. Symbols & signs: These represent & stand for a substitute for
actual subjects, experiences and activities. e.g. Traffic lights,
railway signals, school bells, songs, slogans etc stand for
symbolic expression. Thus symbols and signs stimulate &
economize thinking. They tell us at once what to do or how to
act.

5. Language: It serves not only as a link for intercommunication

but also acts as a tool for thinking. It consists of words therefore
uses symbols; sometimes we use gestures in our language.
When one is listening, reading or writing, one is stimulated to
think. Language is a most effective & developed tool for the
process of thinking.

Check your Progress

1. Enlist the tools of thinking.

2. Explain the tools of thinking with appropriate examples.

7.2.3 Types of Thinking

a) Convergent Thinking
b) Divergent Thinking
c) Critical Thinking
d) Reflective Thinking
e) Lateral Thinking

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a) Convergent Thinking

Convergent thinking proceeds on the assumption that there

is one single best solution to any problem, and also that the
solution can be arrived at on the basis of the existing knowledge.
Thus, convergent thinking involves the direction of all thought
process in one single direction. "Convergent" thinking is in which
the person is good at bringing material from a variety of sources to
bear on a problem, in such a way as to produce the "correct"
answer. Because of the need for consistency and reliability, this is
really the only form of thinking which standardized intelligence tests
(and even national exams) can test.

b) Divergent Thinking

"Divergent" thinking may start from existing knowledge, but it

proceeds in different directions and are not limited or bound by
existing knowledge. At times divergent thinker may question and

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doubt the adequacy of the existing knowledge. This type of thinking

may start from a common point and move outward into a variety of
perspectives. When fostering divergent thinking, teachers use the
content as a vehicle to prompt diverse or unique thinking among
students rather than a common view. Divergent thinking is also
creative thinking. It generates something new or different. It
involves having a different idea that works as well or better than
previous ideas. Thus, divergent thinkers have an open mind. He is
not controlled by the belief that there is “one best solution” to any
problem or “the correct answer” to any question.

Basically divergent thinking is a mode in which a person or

group makes themselves open to new ideas. Generally speaking,
they are working with, what we might call, an open ended problem,
a problem for which there is, there may be, many creative possible
solutions, so the divergent thinking process is one in which we are
open to all those ideas and we generate lots of new ideas. The
difference between the two can be seen in the following table:

Convergent Thinking Divergent Thinking

Non creative people have Creative people have divergent
convergent thinking. thinking.
Produces single correct answer. Produces variety of responses.
It is stimulus bound. It is stimulus free.
The problem is solved by known The problem is solved by
or common method. different innovative methods.
It is rigid, stereotyped & It is novel, exploratory &
mechanically operated. venturesome.
It is measured by intelligence It is measured by creativity tests
test which includes in which novelty, flexibility &
remembering, recognition & originality are given more
manipulation of some concrete weightage.
material.
It is known as Reasoning or It is known as Creative Thinking,
Rational Thinking. Imaginative or Original Thinking.

c) Critical thinking
Critical thinking assesses the worth and validity of something
existent. It involves precise, persistent, objective analysis. When
teachers try to get several learners to think convergent, they try to
help them develop common understanding.

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Norris, Stephen P: “Critical thinking is deciding rationally what to

or what not to believe."

According to Moore and Parker, Critical Thinking is "the

careful, deliberate determination of whether we should accept,
reject, or suspend judgment about a claim, and the degree of
confidence with which we accept or reject it.

"Broadly speaking, critical thinking is concerned with reason,

intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed to
emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and closed-mindedness.”

Attributes of a critical thinker:

 asks pertinent questions
 assesses statements and arguments
 is able to admit a lack of understanding or information
 has a sense of curiosity
 is interested in finding new solutions
 is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas
 is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and
weigh them against facts
 listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback
 sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-
assessment
 suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and
considered
 looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
 is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found
 looks for proof
 examines problems closely
 Is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant.

d) Reflective thinking

Dewey's definition of reflective thinking:

"Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or
supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support
it and the further conclusion to which it tends"

Reflective thinking is normally a slow process. It takes

considerable time to work on inferring and combining by reflecting
upon what we have learnt:

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This is a higher form of thinking.

 It aims at solving complex problems.
 It requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and the
finding of new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an
obstacle instead of a simple association of experiences or
ideas.
 There is insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking.
 It takes all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into
account in order to arrive at a solution of the problem in hand.
 It links the information we possess into tighter network, thus
helps to remember the matter better.
 It criticizes what one has learned and tries to expose
weaknesses and shortcomings.
 Enhancing decision making requires that we learn from our
successes and failures and catalog mentally for future retrieval
what has occurred and why.

e) Lateral thinking

Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono, a Maltese

psychologist, physician and writer. It first appeared in the title of his
book The Use of Lateral Thinking, published in 1967. De Bono
defines lateral thinking as methods of thinking concerned with
changing concepts and perception. Lateral thinking is about
reasoning that is not immediately obvious and about ideas that may
not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic.

De Bono identifies four critical factors associated with lateral

thinking: (1) recognize dominant ideas that polarize perception of a
problem, (2) searching for different ways of looking at things, (3)
relaxation of rigid control of thinking, and (4) use of chance to
encourage other ideas.

Lateral thinking involves discarding the obvious, leaving

behind traditional modes of thought, and throwing away
preconceptions.

 Explanation: A person would use lateral thinking when they

want to move from one known idea to creating new ideas.
 Lateral thinking can be used to help in solving problems but can
also be used for much more.
 With lateral thinking problems can be solved and questions can
be answered, as lateral thinkers are able to use their creative

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skills to change perceptions and come up with new concepts

and ideas.
 The lateral thinking technique of ‘challenge’ is designed to
prevent the mind sliding smoothly down the existing patterns.
 Lateral Thinking is the ability to add a slight "twist" to the pattern
of logical thinking to produce an unexpected answer!
 Essentially, lateral thinking is a way of attacking problems from
other angles, as opposed to the more traditional linear and
logical ways. De bono uses the example of chess, where logic
normally suffices, if the pieces are a given. Lateral thinking
acknowledges that in real life we mostly just assume the pieces
are given, when really we need to change those pieces or look
beyond them for the most useful solutions.

Lateral Thinking helps individual to develop skills to:

Increase productive idea output.
Design the future.
Find fresh new solutions to intractable problems.
Escape the constraints of routine thinking.
Appreciate the diversity of thinking among team members.
Plan and lead innovation meetings that deliver powerful results.
Find new areas of opportunity.

Unit End Exercises :

1. Which are the different types of thinking?

2. Differentiate between convergent and divergent thinking.
3. What do you understand by critical thinking?



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MEMORY

Unit Structure :

8.0 Objective
8.1 Memory
8.2 Forgetting
8.3 Imagination
8.4 Reasoning
8.5 Let us sum up
8.6 Glossary
8.7 Suggested reading

8.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will able to:

 To gain an insight into the mental processes involving memory,

forgetting, imagination and reasoning.

8.1 MEMORY

It is said education is a life long process and we are learning

all the time. But simply learning without being able to repeat that in
another situation or occasion is of no use. Thus we must be able to
make use of past experiences. We must be able to reproduce it.
This power of reproduction is known as memory, or the ability to
retain and recall the past events to present consciousness. This
implies that memory is the reproduction of past experience even
without the presence of the stimulus.
Guilford: “Memory is the retention or storage of information in any
form”.
Woodworth & Marquis: “Memory consists in learning what was
previously learned”.

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Ryburn: “The power that we have to store our experience and to

bring them back into the field of consciousness some time after the
experience have occurred is termed as memory”.
F’iedsetal: “Memory is the ability to retain & reproduce impressions
once perceived”

Memory is the special ability of our mind to store when we

learn something to recollect &reproduce it after some time. Memory
is the complex process involving learning, retention, recall &
recognition. The experiences which we undergo, leaves traces in
our minds in the form of ‘Schemas’. The length of our retention
depends on the strength & quality of the traces.

Types of Memory:

1. Immediate Memory: This is also known as short term memory.

This memory is when the individual has to reproduce
immediately after he has learnt something, thus the time span is
very less for the matter to be registered in the consciousness.
Hence the learnt matter is forgotten rapidly. e.g. we may first
look at the seat number of our ticket & once we sit down we
forget about it. In this type of memory, the retention time is very
brief. Immediate memory is needed which helps us to learn a
thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remember it for a
short duration and forget it rapidly after use.

2. Short-term memory: This type of memory is also called as

temporary memory. It is not short lived as the immediate
memory. The information temporarily stored in short-term
memory may last as long as thirty seconds even if the material
is not being rehearsed. However, some people are able to retain
much more information in short- term memories by a process
called chunking, which groups information by coding it, e.g. the
number 143254376 can be remembered by listing under three
heads: 143, 254, 376 for better remembering.

3. Long term memory: This is also known as Permanent Memory.

Here the individual learns and retains the information for a very
long period of time. There is an interval of time between learning
& recall or reproduction. Thus permanent memory is involved
e.g. knowing our account number of the bank or the phone
number.

So we see that memory is a process involving learning &

reproduction. The amount of material that can be immediately
reproduced after one repetition is called span of memory. The
phenomenon of memory may be studied under four different aspects:
[Link] four R’s.

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1. Registration or Learning
2. Retention
3. Recall
4. Recognition

1. REGISTRATION OR LEARNING: Before remembering it must

be registered or learnt. Learning requires time. It has
economical use of time in learning. The most efficient methods
of learning or memorizing that would yield the best results from
the point of view of remembering effectively for a long time are
as follows:

A. Rote Memorization: This is learning without understanding. Yet

meaningful material is easily learnt than non sense material. It’s
easy to learn poetry than prose; prose is easy to learn than
disconnected words. Disconnected words are easy to learn than
nonsense words. Thus logical sequence is important, along with
the systematic arrangement of ideas. However, mechanical
learning must be avoided as it is less effective.

B. Spaced V/S Mass Learning: In spaced learning, the learner

has been allowed some rest in memorization. The subject is not
required to memorize the assignment in one continuous time
period. Intervals are provided. The principle of ‘work & rest’ is
followed. In mass learning, the subject has to memorize the
assigned material at one sitting without any interval or rest, until
it is mastered. Shorter study periods are better for young pupils
& slow learners. Spaced learning benefits pupils of lower
classes, when motivation level is low or material is complex &
difficult to understand. It is better to introduce periods of rest
while studying. This helps in removing the monotony of long
periods of study. Attention also does not flag and fatigue is
avoided. Mass learning is effective when the pupils are very
intelligent or are highly motivated. Although, both the methods
of learning are found to be useful and effective in one situation
or the other. In fact, success in the use of a particular method
depends more on the abilities of the individual and the nature
and range of the material to be memorized than on the method
itself.

C. Whole verses Part method of learning: Let’s take the

example of a poem, when the poem is read again & again from
start to finish; this is whole method of learning. This method can
be adopted when the material is not very lengthy & when the
material is logically arranged. Less time is used compared to
part method. Here again the poem for example is broken down
to parts or stanzas & then learnt, thus slow learners & average
students are benefitted . The learner is motivated each time he
masters the parts, thus the whole content is slowly mastered.

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Even when the material is large & is not well organized, this
method can be used.

D. Recitation: The best method of learning where by the student

reads the lesson few times & then reviews the lesson without
the book i.e. he recites the material learnt to him. Studies have
shown that self recitation is better & time saving than just
reading & rereading because permanent retention is achieved.
Learner is able to detect his weakness & rectify them thus he
knows his progress as well.

E. Mnemonic Devices: Grouping always helps to memorize

easily, thus we learn poetry easily compared to prose, but many
material come without such natural grouping. Thus artificial
associations are made to associate the ideas or the material.
Thus memory which is improved by use of artificial associates is
called Mnemonics. Thus things are learnt verbatim without
understanding it .e.g. VIBGYOR whose letters represent the
colours of the rainbow.

2. RETENTION: The process of learning involves the stage of

retention thus learning becomes permanent. ‘Retention is the
inactive state of learnt activity’. The learning activity leaves a
mark on the brain structure. This mark is called a ‘Memory
Trace’ which is imprinted on the Cerebral Cortex. This
preservation of the memory trace in the brain is retaining of the
learning activity. This can be compared to the traces or marks in
the sand e.g. our footprints made on the sand. The deeper the
trace, the longer the retention, the weak traces slowly fades
away.

Memory can be improved, but the depth of the trace or retention

is difficult to improve by practice the reason being the traces
that are made, depend on the genetic inheritance.

Retention however can be measured in three ways

a) Recall b) Recognition & c) Relearning.

a) Recall Method: A direct method of testing retention, where the

capacity to recall & reproduce is tested. We can recall matter,
only if we have retained it. e.g. in a writing a test: the pupil’s
retention & recall is tested. But sometimes we are not able to
recall, even when we know the matter. So we cannot measure
the retention. Therefore this is the poorest retention score of all
that is learnt.

b) Recognition Method: This method is widely used now. A

response given from which the pupil has to pick out the correct
answer or recognize the correct answer. This ability of

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recognizing the correct answer helps measure the power of

retention. This has a higher score of testing retention than recall
method & also puts less strain on the child e.g. multiple choice
questions, or questions based on a picture or map.

c) Relearning Method: Lets give an example ABC is learning a

long poem & it takes him 20 minutes & 4 trials to memorize it.
After a few days ABC again learns the poem & now in 10
minutes & two trials he learns it fully. Thus we can assume that
retention has taken place because the time & the number of
trials have reduced. Thus this method is the best compared to
recognition & recall methods.

3. RECALL- The third aspect of memory is recall. We learn

because we need to recall them at some point of time or other.
So we can say that recall is the mental revival of past
experiences. The least index of retention because we are
unable to remember even though we know it. Recall depends
on the mental condition & the memory trace formed.

4. RECOGNITION – Recall & recognition are closely related.

Recall provides the material in memory, while recognition is the
process of accepting or rejecting. Recognition is better than
recall as an index of retention. Recognition starts with the object
given whereas recalls find the object from the mind. Thus, when
we meet a person, recognize that person’s face, but may not be
able to recall his name. Recognition is more a passive behavior
than an active process like recall.

Recall Recognition
1) Recall is the revival of the 1) Recognition is the
past the experiences. perception & identification of
an object
2) The process begins in the 2) The process begins from
mind. the object
3) It involves active mental 3) It involves passive mental
process process
4) Least index of measuring 4) High index of measuring
retention. retention.
e.g. short answer type questions e.g. Multiple choice questions,
involves recall sees the picture & recognize
the answer.

Check your progress.

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1. Explain the components of memory.

2. What are the different types of memories?
3. Enumerate with examples, the different ways in the process of
memorizing.
4. What are the different ways of measuring recall?
5. Differentiate between recall and recognition.

8.2 FORGETTING

In our daily life we have experienced the time we want to

recall the name of a friend and we realize that we have forgotten it.
Forgetting occurs only when some learning has taken place. If
there is no learning then there is no forgetting. Thus forgetting &
remembering are two sides of the same coin.

So when we are unable to remember it’s called forgetting.

Munn: “Forgetting is the loss permanent or temporary of the ability

to recall or recognize something learnt earlier”
Drever: “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an
experience, when attempting to do so or perform an action
previously done.
Bhatia: “Forgetting is the failure of an individual to review in
consciousness an idea or a group of ideas without the help of
original stimulus.”
Thus forgetting is being unable to find the correct
information. (from the mind) at the given situation. Forgetting is
temporary at times when later we can remember the names &
actions whereas forgetting is said to be permanent when in no
situation we are able to recall the information.

Lets see why we are unable to recall information & Why do

we forget?

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Factors influencing Forgetting:-

1. Decay through disuse or Theory of Decay:

Forgetting is a process of fading of the learnt matter with
passage of time. According to this view, the vivid impressions
created in the cerebral cortex fade away as time passes. Such
fading or decay could be the result of the normal metabolic
processes of the brain. As time passes, these processes might
cause the traces of material once learned to disintegrate
gradually and eventually to disappear altogether.

2. Interference of Association or Theory of interference:

Here we see that forgetting is not caused just by fading away of
traces, but by influence of the intervening activities.

a. Retroactive interferences: Here new learning works

backward & interferes with old learning.
b. Proactive Inhibition or Interference: Here what we have
learnt previously interferes with the new learning.
Forgetting in our daily life is more due to proactive
interference; our ability to recall what we have learnt is
reduced by experiences previously learnt.

3. Theory of Repression or motivated forgetting

The two earlier theories are physiological process of affecting
mental trace or interference in learning. But here the person is
not given importance. For some people, forgetting is a
psychological process, where by will the unpleasant or
conflicting experiences are repressed & pushed into the
unconscious & forgotten. Thus repression is done because it
may cause anxiety to remember the experiences e.g.
remembering loved ones whom we will never see again, we
want to forget those people who hurt us.

4. Emotions: Rise in emotions like fear or anger or love lead to

forget the learned experiences e.g. a student afraid of a teacher
may forget what has been learnt.

5. Change of stimulus conditions: we may have learnt in a

specific environment, but we forget in the changed environment
e.g. we can say the speech well at home but in front of the
audience, we are unable to speak.

6. Poor Health: this prevents us from remembering learnt

material.

7. Defective mental state, fatigue, lack of interest or willingness

all lead to forgetting

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Factors which helps to minimizing Forgetting or Factors which

help to improve Memory

1. Rate of Learning: It’s a fallacy that rapid learning is associated

with rapid forgetting ‘easy come easy do’. But the reverse is
actually true, in rapid learning forgetting is slow & when learning
is slow forgetting is rapid. Thus a slow learner, would eventually
lose interest in the subject thus forget the material rather quickly
than a quick learner.

2. Over learning: forgetting is said to be taking place as soon as

we stop learning. So we must recall immediately after we have
learnt & it must continue after intervals. Learning must be
carried beyond the point where recall is just barely possible.
Overlearning , beyond the point of complete mastery,
strengthens the impressions in the brain.
3. Periodic review: this is very similar to self recitation thus as
soon as we learn we start the review of the data. Reviews at
frequent intervals prevent the decay of the learnt data or
information.

4. Kind of Material: easy, simple, meaningful and logically related

materials are easy to retain & forgotten less rapidly. Thus
general concepts, scientific interpretations are better retained.
Meaningless materials are forgotten quickly. Thus associations
make material meaningful & quick to remember.

5. Intention to Learn: firm determination or strong will to learn is

required to achieve success. Same material given to sets of
students wherein one is willing & other is not unwilling, in such
cases we see that retention was greater in those students who
had a determination to learn.

6. Proper Methods of Learning: economical method must be

chosen depending on the material to be learnt, so we chose
spaced versus mass or whole versus part learning.

7. Self recitation: After reading a lesson a few times, the student

must try to review the whole thing without the help of a book.
This method may also be termed as attempted recall and it
makes a more economical use of one’s study time. It also helps
towards permanent retention.

How can we improve the way we learn?:

1. A will to learn: Learning is better achieved when there is a

drive to learn. Thus without intention learning is not achieved
much.

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2. Use Multiple sensory learning: Things are better remembered

when presented through more than one sense e.g. heard &
written on the blackboard help better retention than only hearing
something
3. Rehearse and Recite: Rehearsal & recitation are useful in
memorizing thus self evaluation is possible and learning can be
modified accordingly.
4. Space your learning: Spacing what we learn or distributed
learning helps better retention learning as things learnt in small
parts is retained longer.
5. Follow the principle of association: Associating what we are
learning with what we already know helps in remembering . e.g.
A for apple, Z for zebra etc.
6. Use Correlation: Topics must not be taught or learnt in water
tight compartments thus correlate with experiences & related
subjects to make learning interesting.
7. Grouping & rhythm e.g. multiplication tables and poems are
easy to learn because of grouping & rhythm. Use of Mnemonics
also aids learning.
8. Whole to Part to Whole: Before intensive study, go through the
whole matter, understand it, break it to parts & then study it
whole following the whole to part to whole method.
9. Take breaks: Periods of change, rest & sleep helps remove
fatigue & monotony thus fresh mind stores meaningful
experiences for longer time.
10. Over learn: Over learning helps retention. Review and revise
very often.
11. Avoid interference of subject similarity: Interference causes
forgetting so similar situations, subjects, etc .must be spaced
out. Complete the work, do sufficient drill work & then begin the
next learning situation.
12. Good Environment: Better learning environment makes
learning interesting & vivid by using teaching aids , adopting
new methods and techniques.
Check your progress.

1. What is forgetting? What are the causes of forgetting.

2. What are the different ways to minimize forgetting?
3. What are the various ways in which a student can improve
the ways in which he learns?

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8.3 IMAGINATION
Imagination is a spontaneous process which occurs when an
individual is doing nothing in particular, is not responding to any
clearly identifiable stimulus and is relatively passive. It is actually
the experience of earlier sensory experiences in the absence of the
relevant stimulus. Therefore, imagination is based on one’s past
experiences. It is through sensation and perception that the
knowledge of the world is acquired.

Imagination can also be defined as mental manipulation.

These mental manipulations involve recall of past experience in the
form of mental images and in arranging them in a pattern to form a
new combination. Here the pattern can be made by adding or
deleting the images.
A series of images are called Imagery. Imagery could be
obtained from any of the five senses. Imagery is the exact replica of
the object e.g. when we are asked to have an auditory image of the
school bell, one will not imagine the structure of anything apart
from the school bell.

Mc Dougall: “Imagination is the thinking of remote objects.”

Woodworth: “Imagination is mental manipulation. When the
individual recalls facts previously observed in reality and proceeds
to arrange these facts into a new pattern, he is said to show
imagination.”
Thus, imagination represents a very simple and passive type
of thinking process. Normally, imagination occurs when one is
relatively free and is not particularly directing their attention to any
specific problem or issue. It is, in a way, a sort of idle activity.

Types of Imagination

A) Reproductive B) Productive or Constructive

Creative Imitative

Pragmatic Aesthetic Fantastic

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Imagination mainly occurs in two ways. The imagination that

may be the exact copy of the original or may be the original
rearranged to create something new altogether thus we get-

A. Reproductive Imagination: The reproductive imagination is a

mere repetition of the past experiences. This kind of imagination
is considered to be of the lowest form. e.g. When we memories
or rote memory it is actual reproduction without any addition or
cutout.

B. Productive or Constructive Imagination: When the

imagination is altered & restructured & new images are formed
is called productive imagination e.g. writing a poem, painting,
anything which shows newness or novelty of ideas.

This is sub divided into Creative Imagination, Imitative Imagination

1. Creative Imagination is when something new is created. There
is originality in the creation. It is the very superior kind of
imagination. E.g. scientist, artists, novelists, poets, playwrights.

Creative Imagination is again sub divided to

a) Aesthetic imagination- when it is directed to the production

and appreciation of beauty. No outside control is accepted.
The artist has his own code of laws of working. E.g. an artist
or a dancer or a musician.

b) Pragmatic imagination- when the imagination fulfills a

practical aspect. E.g. architects designing a building.
External control is present.

c) Fantastic type of imagination- many people build castles

in the air, in this case, the imagination has no control, there
are no conditions applying here.
2. Imitative Imagination is when creative imagination is used or
the original idea is adapted. E.g. when a play is based on the
novel or the script becomes film. Thus even readers of science,
history, travel books, novel and poetry all exercise imitative
imagination.

Check your progress:

1. What is imagination? What are the different types of imagination?

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8.4 REASONING

Meaning
Reasoning plays a significant role in one’s adjustment to
one’s environment. It controls not only one’s cognitive activities but
may also influence the total behavior and personality by the proper
or improper development of one’s reasoning ability. It is essentially
a cognitive ability and is like thinking in many aspects.

Characteristics of reasoning:

1. It has definite goal or purpose.

2. It is implicit act and involves problem solving behavior.
3. It involves the use of one’s previous knowledge and
experiences.
4. In reasoning, there is mental exploration rather than motor
exploration as it involves mental exploration of the reason or
cause of an event or happening.
5. It is highly symbolic function. The ability to interpret various
symbols, development of concepts and language aids
reasoning.

Thus, it can be concluded that reasoning is productive and

advanced stage in complex process of thinking. It is more serious
and complex mental process.

Garrett: Reasoning is step – wise thinking with a purpose or goal in

mind.

Gates: Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful,

controlled and selective thinking.

Munn: Reasoning is combining past experiences in order to solve a

problem which cannot be solved by mere reproduction of earlier
solutions.

An analysis of the above definitions reveal that reasoning

depicts a higher type of thinking which is a very careful, systematic
and organized function. It may follow some logical systematic steps
like:
1. Identification of goal or purpose to which the reasoning is to be
directed.
2. Mental exploration or search for the various possibilities, cause
– and – effect relationships or solutions for realizing the set goal
or purposes based on the previous learning or experiences and
present observations or attempts.

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3. Selection of the most appropriate possibility or solution by

careful mental analysis of all the available alternatives.
4. Testing the validity of the selected possibility or solution, purely
through mental exercise and thus finally accepting or rejecting it
for the actual solution of the problem.

Thus, reasoning may be termed as highly specialized

thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the cause –
and – effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by
adopting some well – organized systematic steps based on
previous experiences combined with present observation.

Check your Progress:

1. Define Reasoning. What are its characteristics?

8.5 LET US SUM UP

 Thinking is a pattern of behaviour in which we make use of

internal representations (symbols, signs etc.) of things and
events for the solution of some specific, purposeful problem.
 We think with the help of Percepts, Images / Object, Concepts,
Symbols / Signs, and Language.
 Thinking can be Convergent (one best answer from many
sources), Divergent (different ideas from a source), Critical
(assessing the worth and validity of something), Reflective
(insightful cognitive thinking), or Lateral (thinking out of the box).
 Memory is the ability to retain & reproduce impressions once
perceived
 Types of Memory are Immediate (few seconds), Short term
(upto thirty seconds if not chunked or coded) and Permanent
(for a fairly long time).
 Retention can be measured through the Recall method, the
Recognition method and the Relearning method.

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 Registration or learning is done through rote memorization,

spacing out the learning material, using whole or part learning,
recitation and using mnemonics.
 Forgetting is the inability to find the correct information (from our
memory) at the given situation. It can be temporary or
permanent.
 Imagination is a passive, idle time activity based on past
experiences. Imagination can be Reproductive or Productive.
Productive Imagination can be further be Creative (Pragmatic/
Aesthetic/ Fantastic) or Imitative.
 Reasoning is step – wise thinking with a purpose or goal in
mind.

8.6 GLOSSARY

Thinking: the mental exploration for finding out the solution of a

problem.
Memory: the retention or storage of information in any form.
Forgetting: the inability to find the correct information (from our
memory) at the given situation.
Imagination: an idle, passive activity based on previous
experience in which one thinks of remote objects.
Reasoning: a highly purposeful, controlled, selective and step by
step thinking

8.7 SUGGESTED READING:

1) [Link] (2004) , Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas

Publishing House PVT .LTD., New Delhi- 110014
2) S.K. Mangal (2008), Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited. New Delhi.
3) Lahey Benjamin B.(2000),Psychology- An Introduction, sixth
edition,. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. New
Delhi.
4) Dandekar, W.N.( 1996), Fundamentals of Experimental
Psychology; Anmol Prakashan, 683, Budhwar Peth, Pune-411002.



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9

PERSONALITY

Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Personality
9.2.1 Definitions of Personality
9.2.2 Characteristics of Personality
9.2.3 Traditional theories of personality type theory
9.2.4 Trait theory
9.3 Self Concept
9.4 Mental Health
9.4.1 Characteristics of mental health
9.4.2 Importance of Mental health
9.5 Maladjustment
9.5.1 Causes of Maladjustment
9.5.2 Preventive measures of maladjustment

9.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will able to

 understand the meaning and nature of personality
 Distinguish between type & theories of personality.
 Understand the concept of ‘self concept’
 Understand the meaning of mental health
 Describe characteristics of mental health.
 Understand importance of mental health
 Understand concept of maladjustment
 List out causes of maladjustment
 List out preventive measures of maladjustment

9.1 INTRODUCTION:

In child centered education child has been given utmost

important. Child’s personality plays major role in teaching learning

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process. Personality is often misused in describing outer

appearance of the person. Personality is more than that. It covers
inner as well as outer look. Attitude aptitude reflects in the type of
personality. Importance of mental health, role of school and
teachers in improving personality / adjustment is discussed in this
block.

9.2 PERSONALITY

Personality is the whole individual considered as a whole. It

may be defined as “the most characteristic integration of an
individual structure, modes of interest, attitudes, behaviour and
capacities.
MUIRHEAD

Personality is a term that has been used very widely but

each time to mean some different aspects of a person. Every
society and in it every school, takes a profound interest in the
development of the personality of children. Etymologically, the word
‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’. At first
this word was used for the mask worn by the actors to change their
appearance but later on, it began to be used for the actors
themselves. Since then, the term ‘personality’ has been used to
depict outward appearance or external behavior etc.

9.2.1 : Definitions of the personality:

* [Link] – ‘Personality may be defined as the most
characteristic – integration of an individuals structure, modes of
behavior, interest, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes’.

* [Link] – ‘The total psychological and social reaction of an

individual, the synthesis of his subjective, emotional and mental life.

* Valentine – ‘Personality is the sum total of innate and acquired

dispositions’.

9.2.2 : Characteristics of personality:

Personality has got certain important characteristics, they are:

1. Personality is always dynamic
2. Personality determines our thinking, reasoning and actions.
3. personality is both physical and psychological (outer and
inner).
4. Personality develops through social interaction.
5. Every personality has some uniqueness.
6. Personality has organized and integrated system.
7. Personality refers to the process of adjustment to our
environment.

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In short:
P- Perception capacity
E- Emotional maturity
R- Responsiveness to situations
S- Self-expression or sociability
O- Organized
N- Not permanent
(Flexible) A- Appearance
L- Leadership feeling
I- Integrated
T- Tendencies, impulses, dispositions, innate & acquired
Y- young, vital and unique
No two individuals are alike and that is what makes life
interesting and exciting. The emphasis is on growth and
development that on genetic endowment.

9.2.3 : Traditional Theories of Personality

Type Theory

Galen’s Classification

Humours or Fluids Temperament Personality

Blood Sanguine Active, Hopeful
Yellow Bile Choleric Irritable, Easily
provoked
Phlegm Phlegmatic Dull, sluggish
(Lethargic)
Black Bile Malancholic Depressed and

Ernest Kretshmer, a German Psychiatrist classified human beings

on the basis of physical constitution.

Type Bodily Features Personality

Asthenic Slender, Weak Moody & withdrawn
Pyknic Shor, Round and Fat Jovial & Outgoing
Atheletic Strong, Sturdy and Well adjusted
Well proportioned

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[Link] Scheldon’s Classification

Body Type Temperamental Types

Endomorphy Viscerotonia
(Round, Fat & Soft) (Love of physical comfort,
Sociable affectionate)
Mesomorphy Somatotonia
(Heavy muscular build) (Energetic, Ambitious &
Assertive)
Ectomorphy Cerebrotonia
(Long, Slender & Poor muscular (Restrained, thoughtful and
development) withdrawn)

Spranger’s Classification

Types Interests
The Theoretical Intellectual, pursuit, Discovery of
Truth
The Economic Pragmatic, Marketing
transactions
The Aesthetic Lover of Beauty and Art
The Social Human relationship and altruism
The Political Power and Influence
The religious Ultimate meaning as Unity in life
in terms of higher power

9.2.4 : Later Theories of Personality Trait

Theory

[Link] defines personality trait as “A trait is a

neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli
functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide equivalent forms of
adaptive and expressive behaviour” (1961)

[Link] attempted a classification beginning with 171

traits and subsequently narrowing with 171 traits and subsequently
narrowing them down to 35 and finally to only 12

These are as follows:

1. Cyclothymia – Such a person is Frank emotional and given to a
very frank expression of his views.

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2. General mental capacity – An average level of intelligence.

3. Dominance – self confident, assertive and quarrelsome
4. Sergency – Humour, intelligence
5. Positive character – A person of this native gives
special attention to the view of others.
6. Emotionally stable – they don’t suffer from instability
7. Adventurous cyclothymia – Adventurous, inclined to mix
easily with others.
8. Mature – Independent, mature and complete in themselves.
9. Socialised cultured – Give special attention to thoughts about the
age in which they live.
10. Trustful – Trustful and grateful to others
11. Unconventional – Revolt against the times in which they live.
12. Sophisticated – Rational, reasonable, peaceable and inclined
towards solitude.

Check you progress

1. What are characteristics o personality?

2. Distinguish between type and trait theories of personality.

9.3 SELF CONCEPT:

Definition – Psychologically, the whole set of attitudes opinions
and cognitions that a person has of himself.
Self concept is a multidimensional construct that refers to an
individuals perception of ‘self’ in relation to any number of
characteristics.

Such as academics (and non academics), gender roles and

sexuality, racial identity and many others. The idea of self concept
is utilized in many disciplines including psychology, philosophy,
sociology, nursing, biology and anthropology, there is no
consensus as to how to define “Self concept using terms of
specificity.

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At present the development of self concept among the

students is worrying. Most students have low self concept and they
are so passive achievements in school.

According to Gadeyne, E, Ghesquiere, P, & Onghene P.

(2004) to develop the students positive self concept, parents need
to provide a harmonious household climate, full of happiness and
have adequate necessities. While teachers in schools also need to
provide a conducive learning environment and be sensitive to the
psychological needs of the students.

According to Azizi etal (2005). Any man has a picture or

perception of himself. This includes looks and appearance, physical
health, ability, weakness and his behaviour. Thus self concept is
how one evaluates or judges himself that is either in a positive or
negative way. Self concept can be classified into two major types
that are positive self concept and negative self concept. The
positive self concept is about a circumstance or situation in which
an individual is confident and sure of him, have good interests, be
objective and not too sensitive. A negative self concept is when an
individual has too subjective nature.

Check your progress

1. How will you describe self concept?

9.4 MENTAL HEALTH

One of the most important aims of education is to help the

individual in making adjustment with the changing environment. It is
the mental health which helps the person to adjust in the
environment.
Mental health stands for the health of the mind an Carter V.
Good in the dictionary of Education (1959 P. 263) has termed it as.
“The wholesomeness of the mind.”

It is a state or condition on which an individual feels a sense

of well being. This condition also provides an individual the capacity
to be resilient to the stresses her / meets and to respond to these
challenges without having to compromise his well being. This also
makes him productive and fruitful for himself and his community.

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WHO defines mental health as – A state of complete physical,

mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity (2001).

Definition – A state of emotional and psychological well being in

which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional
capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of
every day life.

9.4.1 : Characteristics of mental health:

1. Nothing called perfect mental health – No person is with perfect
mental health rather it is optimum mental health.

2. Mental health is a dynamic concept: Mental health denotes a

state of balance or equilibrium of our mind, this balance is not
static, it is quite dynamic.

3. Mental health can’t be achieved without physical health-for

achieving an optimal level of mental health one has to first acquire
adequate physical health.

4. Mental health and efficiency are not the same thing – One may
be quite efficient and successful at his work or profession but he
could be most unhappy, full of anxiety etc.

5. Mental health and social ability are not the same thing- A
mentally healthy person is sociable it is not necessary for a
sociable or socially adaptable person to be healthy minded.

6. Mental health differs from ethical standards – Morality does not

guarantee mental health.

Check you progress:

1. what are the characteristics of mental health

9.4.2 : Importance of Mental Health-

Mental health has much wider scope than physical health as

it aims for the development of wholesome balanced and integrated
personality.

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Mental health is very important because of following things:

1. Helps in the development of desirable personality – Mental

health helps in the development of a wholesome, well-balanced
and integrated personality.

2. Helps in proper emotional development – The individual who

enjoy good mental health are supposed to demonstrate proper
emotional maturity in their behaviours. On the other side, those
who are tense, disintegrated and mentally unhealthy
demonstrate sudden emotional outburst.

3. Helps in proper social development- Ones mental health

helps one in becoming sociable and establishing proper social
relationships in the society.

4. Helps in proper moral development – The individuals who

enjoy sound mental health are usually found to behave as a
man of integrity and character by following the ethical standards
of the society.

5. Helps in proper aesthetic development – Proper mental

health helps the individual in the development of appropriate
aesthetic sense, artistic taste and refined temperament.

6. Helps in seeking proper adjustment – A mentally healthy

individual is an adjusted person. He is able to adjust his needs
as per the demands of the situation and well being of the
society.

7. Helps in seeking goals of life – Optimum mental health

always helps the individuals to divert his energies in full capacity
for the realization of the goals.

8. Helps in progress of the society – Mental health helps the

individual to develop as well balanced useful citizens who are
conscious not only of their rights but also of their
responsibilities.

9. Helps in prevention of mental illness – A sound mental health

and balanced personality has enough resistance to fight against
the odds of life and bear the accidental stresses and strains of
life in comparison to those with impaired mental health.

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Check you progress

1. Elvcidate importance of mental health

9.5 MALADJUSTMENT:
Adjustment is the process by which a living organism
maintains a balance between its needs and the circumstances that
influence the satisfaction of these needs. An individuals adjustment
is adequate, wholesome or healthy to the extent that he has
established harmonious relationship between himself and the
conditions, situations and persons who comprise his physical and
social environment.

Maladjustment refers to disharmony between the person and

his environment. Contrary to adjustment, maladjustment represents
a condition or state in which one feels that one’s needs are not
fulfilled and he has been a failure in establishing harmony with his
self and the environment.

9.5.1 : Causes of maladjustments:

The causes of one’s maladjustment to his self and the
environment may be both of personal as well as environmental

Following are the causes of maladjustment:

1. Unhealthy home environment – It is because of separated

family, divorced family, step mother or step father, drunkard or
addicted parents, single parenting and low moral and social
standard of family.

2. Heredity causes – One may feel inferior because of inherit

defective mental set up, physiological structure, colour of the
skin (dark) which leads to maladjustment.

3. Poverty – when poor children meet rich children in the school,

they sometimes develop jealousy, worry and inferiority complex
which lead to emotional disturbance.

4. Environment causes – The forces of environment begin to play

their role right from the conception of the child in the womb of

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the mother in the form of defective nourishment available to him.

Uncongenial physical environment, adverse physical
environment. Leads to maladjustment.

5. Faulty method of teaching – Faulty method of teaching do not

motivate students. Lesson become dull and drudgery. Student
begin to hate every process of education. It creates emotional
tension which lead to mental illness.

6. Strict Discipline – Some traditional schools impose strict

discipline, such schools are just like jails and the teachers
jailors. Those students are always suffering form fear and worry.

7. Lack of equipments (facility)- In some schools, there is lack of

furniture and proper equipments. Over crowded classes and
poor facilities leads to frustration and mental tension.

8. Lack of guidance and counseling – Mastery over content and

subject matter only without caring for the interest of students.
No guidance is provided for various areas at different levels.
Students became confused, frustrated and become
maladjusted.

9. Lack of recreational facilities – children who donot get

facilities after class room in the forms of play, library, debates,
discussion, puzzles etc. may hinder adjustment.

10. Massmedia – children are exposed to mass media, explosion of

knowledge, adult issues now a days. It the child witness films
which depict low sexuality and violence. It may lead to
maladjustment.

11. Social laws and bindings – The social laws and legal binding
are the most common source of frustrations in one’s life.
Similarly restrictions imposed by parents, teachers, ethical and
other groups are a common sources of maladjustment.

12. Bad company / neighbourhood – Neighbourhood is an

important conditioner of child’s behaviour. Many of our
youngsters develop delinquencies because such patterns of
behaviour are available in their neighbourhood patterns like
lying, stealing, obscene talk, promjscuous sex interest.

9.5.2 : Preventice measures of Maladjustment

Following are the measures which prevent maladjustment;

1. Proper encouragement – Parents and teachers should speak

daily with the child about his daily activities. So the child can
begin to learn the principles of socialization.

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2. Proper appreciation – Parents and teachers should directly

praise the child for good things he has done.

3. Delegating responsibility – Parents and teachers should

assign some responsibility to the child. This responsibility
should evolve tasks which child perceives as real and important.

4. Provision of entertainment – Provide entertainment facilities

like parks, sports clubs, amusement places, theaters, museum
to children. We should encourage the child to engage in play
with his peers.

5. Testing – Refer the child for special education testing in some

instances maladjusted children and eligible for special education
services.

6. Pattern of relaxation – The teacher should set a pattern of

calmness, yoga, meditation, stress management courses plays
very important roles in preventing maladjustment.

7. Informing progress – Teacher should inform the child of the

progress he is making.

8. Timely help – Teacher should help the child when he needs it

and not only when he asks for it. If the teacher is wise enough to
know when the child requires help, he may be able to help him
avoid many traumatic failure experiences.

9. Moral Education – School should provide value education

through various methods. Self confidence, co-operation, caring
and sharing are the values can be inculcated through co-
curricular programmes.

10. Guidance and counseling – If teacher works as guide and

counselor for parents and children, many of the negative
situations can be turned into positive one which is benefited to
students.

Check your progress:

1. Describe concept of maladjustment
2. List out causes of maladjustment
3. list out preventive measures of maladjustment.

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References
1. Bhatnagar Suresh & Saxena Anamika, “Advanced Educational
psychology.” [Link] Book Depot, Meerut (2008)
2. Dandapani S., A textbook of Advanced Educational
Psychology.’ Anmol publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi (2001)
3. Walia J.S. Foundation of Educational Psychology. ‘Paul
publishers, Punjab (2002)
4. Kundu. C.L. & Tutoo D.N., Educational Psychology, Sterling
publishers private limited, New Delhi (1991)
5. Dandekar, W.M. & Makhija Sanyoglata, ‘Psychological
Foundations of Education’. Macmillan India lts (2006)
6. Mangal S.K. ‘Essentials of Educational Psychology, Prentice.
Hall of India, New Delhi (2007)
7. www. [Link]/how-6537312

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10

INTELLIGENCE

Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept of Intelligence
10.3 Nature of Intelligence
10.4 Functions of Intelligence
10.5 Measurements of intelligence
10.6 Uses of Intelligence tests
10.7 Let us sum-up

10.0 OBJECTIVE

After completing this unit you should be able to:

 Define the concept of intelligence.
 Describe the functions of intelligence.
 State the uses of intelligence tests.
 Test the intelligence by using intelligence tests.

10.1 INTRODUCTION

You know that every individual is a unique being. Along with

the features and characteristics shared with over people, i.e. the
universal ones, each individual had many particular characteristics.
The individual is born as a man, but only gradually with the help of
adults and through his own activity, becomes an individual. As for
the adult’s influence, the decisive role in this process is played by
education which is purposeful, planned, professional and
institutionalized. However, the development of the individual is
influenced both by internal and external influences. In the process
of education and development of personality, the pupil is not only
the object of education but also the subject of his own
development. These subjective tendencies are intelligence,
attitude, aptitude, creativity and interest which are particularly the
concern of psychology.

This unit deals with the inner ability of the individual like
intelligence which makes one different from other. As we have

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discussed no two organisms are exactly a like. From birth onward,

differences become increasingly apparent, especially in human
beings, partly as expressions of here dietary factor and partly
through the impact of the environment. Such differences have been
recognized since ancient times and they occur in all human abilities
including intellectual functions.

You must have observed that two individuals who study the
same amount of time for an examination achieve different scores.
You also know that some succeed in medical school while others
have difficulty even finishing high school. Then question may arise
in your mind why this thing happens? Your response to these
questions might be that high intelligence leads to success.

Intelligence is one of the most widely used yet mot widely

debated concepts in scientific and everyday life. Intelligence means
different things to different people. Rob showed many intelligent
behaviours when working through computer programmes or
recalling sports statistics, but he was unable to express his ideas
and knowledge of English literature clearly on examination. Many
psychologists believe that intelligence does not refer to one special
ability but to a group of abilities. All the definitions offered by
psychologists share certain concepts. Let us discuss about the
concept of intelligence in detail.

10.2 CONCEPT ON INTELLIGENCE

The word intelligence forms part of own ordinary stock of

words which we use everyday. In the field of psychology too, the
word intelligence finds a fairly comprehensive use. In fact, there are
as many definitions of intelligences as there are writers on the
subject. On account of the different ways in which intelligence is
interpreted, it has become less acceptable and more exposed to
criticism by psychologists. Nevertheless, it is traditionally
acknowledged by the parents and teachers that intelligence is the
most important single variable which affects success in school and
in life. In general terms, intelligence means the manner with which
an individual deals with facts and situations. First, intelligence is
defined interns of observable objective behaviour. Second, most
definitions refer both to an individual’s capacity to learn and to
knowledge that has already been acquired. Many definitions also
suggest that the ability to adapt to the environment is a sign of
intelligence.

A variety of definitions on intelligence have been suggested

by the psychologists which can be classified into at least four
distinct groups as follows.

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INTELLIGENCE

Ability to Adjust

According to this group, intelligence is general mental

adaptability to new problems and new situations of life. Some
definitions come under this group are as follows.

Binet (1905): “Intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his

behaviour towards a goal”.

William James (1907): “It is the ability to adjust oneself successfully

to a relatively new situation’.

J. Piagel (1926): “Intelligence is an adaptations to physical and

social environment”.

F. N. Freeman (1937); “Intelligence is represented in behaviour by

the capacity of the individual to adjust himself to new situations to
solve new problems to learn.”

Ability to Learn

This group of definitions of Intelligence stresses the ability to

learn. The more intelligent the person, the more readily and
extensively he is able to learn and enlarge his field of activity and
experience is the key words of these definitions.
Buckingham (1921) “Intelligence is the learning ability.”
Superman (1927) “Intelligence may be though of interns of two
abilities i.e. “g” or general and ‘s’ or specific.”
Thurstone (1946) “Defines intelligence interns of five primary
abilities i.e. ‘S’ or space factor, ‘N’ or number factor ‘V’ or Verbal
Comprehension factor, ‘W’ or word fluency factor and ‘M’ or
memory factor.”

Ability to do abstract reasoning

This group of definitions maintains that intelligence is the

ability to carry on abstruct thinking. This implies the effective use of
ideas and efficiency in dealing with symbols, specially numerical
and verbal symbols.
L. M. Termon (1921): “An individual is intelligent in proportion as he
is able to carry on abstract thinking.”
P. E. Vernon (1927): “Intelligence is an allround thinking capacity or
mental deficiency.”
E. L. Thornlike (1931): “we may define intelligence in general as the
power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact.”

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Henry Garrel (1946): “Intelligence is the abilities demanded in the

solution of problems which require the comprehension and use of
symbols i.e. words, numbers diagrams, equations, formula.”

Operational definition

These categories of definitions are not and perhaps can not

be mutually exclusive.

They intersect and overlap at many points.

P. E. Vernon (1927) “Intelligence is what intelligence test
measures.”

G. D. Stoddard (1943) “Intelligence is the ability to undertake

activities.”

Boring (1948) “Intelligence is what intelligence tests”.

D. W. Wechster (1950) “Intelligence is the aggregate or the

global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.”

Evaluating on the basis of the above definition, we can call a

person intelligent in proportion to his being able to use his mental
energy in handing his actual life problems and leading a happy and
well contented life.

Check Your Progress:

Note : Write down answer in the space given below:

I. Write two definitions to prove that intelligence is an ability to
learn.
II. Write the definition of intelligence according to Binet.
III. In defining intelligence Thurstone and Spearnan both used
the letter ‘S’. What is the meaning of ‘S’ according to them?

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10.3 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

I am sure that you got idea about what intelligence is. Now
we will discuss the nature of intelligence. You may have the
experience of discussing about the nature of your friends, parents,
teachers etc., but today you will get the joy of discussing the nature
of intelligence which changes the nature of persons.

The nature of intelligence was first though of by a brilliant

English Scientist Sir Francis Galton. His general conclusion that
intelligence is a hereditary trait is reflected by the title of his book
“Hereditary Genius.”

As you see that the definition of intelligence is defined

differently, so the nature of intelligent is also described by different
persons in different ways. For example the school teacher may
describe a student as bright, if the learns his lesson easily. The
manager of a Super Bazar may regard a Salesman as intelligent
and smart if he can satisfy customers and dispose them of quickly.
The workshops manager may regard an apprentice as intelligence
if the he is skillful in using his hands and his tools. In the above
cases, the word ‘intelligent’ has been used in the sense of “efficient
behaviour.”

The nature of intelligence also differs according to the nature

of work if can do. For example handing ideas and symbols such as
words, formulas, numbers and diagrams abstract intelligence is
required. A person with abstract intelligence is able to discover
relations among symbols and to solve problems. Professionals like
doctors, lawyers, literary men as well as business men and
statesmen are supposed to possess a high degree of abstract
intelligent.

In the same way the ability to deal with machines, equipment

and mechanical appliances requires mechanical intelligence. The
mechanics, the engineer and the trained industrial worker are
supposed to be mechanically intelligence.

Efficiency in getting on well in personal and social affairs

requires social intelligence. Salesmen, Diplomats and Ministers are
supposed to be socially intelligent. The socially intelligent person
makes friends easily and is fateful in dealing with human beings. In
selecting people for different occupations it is useful to know the
types of intelligence an applicant possesses.

There are, however, gross variations in the three different

types of intelligence not only from person to person but also within
the same person. A boy may not be able to learn mathematics but
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may be ingenious in using mechanical tools. A girl may find

chemistry and physics uninteresting but may have the talent to
master a foreign language. We do not usually find a student who is
very good in one subject and poor in all other subjects. It is rare to
find a person who can do only one task very well. On the other
hand, it may be found that even average people perform to be
positively related, we have discussed on the concept & nature of
intelligence. On that basis we can generalize the important nature &
characteristics of intelligence as follows.

Intelligence is inherited

The amount of intelligence that a person possesses in

inherited and fixed. The amount though fixed does not reveal itself
at the start of life with the growth of the child, the amount inherited
by a child also grows. The general belief is that the growth of
intelligence stops and it reaches it’s limit at the age of sixteen. But
you know and it is also true that a man of forty knows more than he
was a boy of sixteen. But this does not mean that the amount of
intelligence possessed by him has increased. This may be due to
his experience. As regards his intelligence, his positions remains
the same.

Intelligence is influenced by environment factors

Love, affection, concern & generosity judiciously bestowed

on growing children, have very desirable effects. Poor environment
retard development of intelligence.

Intelligence helps in adjustment & inventions

An intelligent person has the ability to adjust himself to the

changing circumstances with ease, efficiency and speed. He has
the capacity to assimilate ideas very quickly and clearly. He can
cope? With new situations very successfully. All the inventions of
the word can be attributed to persons of very high intelligence.

Intelligence has no sex differences

Various studies have been conducted by psychologists &

researcher a to find out whether women are more intelligent that
men and vice versa. The result of these researches hangs in one
way or the other. In some of the cases no significant difference has
been found. Research studies also so that the average scores of
the sense are strongly similar. Therefore it is proper to think that
difference in sex does not contribute towards difference in
intelligence.

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Intelligence has no racial or cultural differences

Now, students we will see whether a particular race, caste or

cultural group is superior to other in intelligence. This hypothesis
are also examined by so many research workers, the results of
earlier studies proved that intelligence is not the birth right of
particular race of group. The bright and the ‘dull’ can be found in
any race, caste or cultural group. In this regard Franze Boas states.
“If we were to select the most intelligent, imaginative, energetic and
emotionally stable third of mankind, all races would be represented.
“you can also take any study & prove if.”

Intelligence can be recognized in three broad areas

Students, you know that all the individuals are not same in
their physical appearance. Here you will also able to know that all
people are not having same type and same amount of intelligence
in solving all problems. According to Thurstone intelligent behaviour
can be recognized in three broad areas.

Abstract Intelligence Abstract intelligence is the ability

to understand and manage ideas
and symbols. Such as words,
numbers etc. In the case of
students this is very close to
scholastic aptitude.

Mechanical Intelligence Mechanical intelligence is the

ability to clean, understand and
manage things and mechanisms,
such as a knife, a gun, a moving
machine and automobile etc.

Social Intelligence social intelligence is the ability to

understand and mange men and
women, boys and girls, to act
wisely in human relations.

Functions of Intelligence:

Intelligence directs one’s behaviour towards a goal.

It helps one to adjust to a new situations.
It helps an individual to adopt to physical and social
environment.
It helps to learn new things and to solve new problems.
It directs the individual to think rationally and act purposefully.

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Check Your Progress II

Note: Fill in the blanks.

I. The nature of intelligence was first though by a brilliant
…………… Scientist Sir ……………….
II. Intelligent is a hereditary trait is reflected by the title of the
book ……………………
III. The German psychologist ……………… introduced the
concept of I. Q,

10.5 MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

You know that to measure something we need a unit a

measure. For example to measure the length we use a scale,
weighing machine for measuring weight etc. To know how much of
anything exists, we have to measure it. So in your mind question
may arise to know how much intelligence you have? Do you know
how to measure it? Can you measure it through kilogram,
kilometer, litre, scale or other measure like this? No, to measure the
amount of intelligence, there is no such one specific measuring
scale. Because intelligence is not an object, it is not observable, but
it is a relative mental ability. Though it can not be measured directly
though any single unit of measure, still if can be measured. Let us
discuss how intelligence can also be measured. Al of you may be
very curious to know if.

It is important to note that intelligence is inferred from a

variety of elements i.e. behaviour and speed of doing things
correctly etc. In ancient India intelligence was measured through
conversation, physical features, gestures, gait, speech, changes in
the eye and facial expression. But today, many intelligence tests
are widely which primarily measures abstract intelligence as
exemplified by competence in dealing with symbols in a meaningful
way. A number of tests measuring social intelligence as well as
mechanical intelligence have also been developed. An intelligence
test is an objective and a standard measure.

General (or abstract) Intelligence test

The general intelligence test was first designed by

psychologists for use in schools. These were intended to serve
primarily as tools in determining a child’s ability to carry on schools
work, to use symbols and numbers quickly and accurately and to
read with comprehension. It is for this reason that tests designed to
measure abstract abilities came to be known as general intelligence
tests. Another purpose of designing such tests was to measure the
abilities that distinguishes the bright child from the dull. Since this

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distinction is significant for schools and vocational success and also

for social adjustment, the intelligence test is an important tool in
psychology.

Types of Intelligence Test

The general intelligence tests have been classified into three

groups. Individual, group and performance tests.

Types of Intelligence Test

Individual Group Performance

Verbal Non - Verbal

Individual Test:

The individual intelligence test is administered to only one

individual at a time. A trained psychologist is expected to administer
the test for a definite period of time and interpret the result. These
tests cover age group from 2 years to 18 years. These are (i0 The
Binet simon tests, (ii) Revised tests by Terman, (iii) Mental
scholastic tests of Burt and (d) Weschler test.

Group Test:
The group intelligence tests are meant for assessing the
intelligence of a large number of individuals in one sitting. There are
two kinds of group intelligence tests verbal and nonverabal.

Verbal:
The verbal group test requires an individuals to read out
certain problems and write out solutions of these problems.

Non-Verbal:
The non-verbal group tests presents similar problems as the
verbal test but in a different way. The problems are presented in the
form of pictures, diagrams, puzzles and mazes. If does not require
the individual to read or write, but only to be able to make a mark
with a pencil.

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Performance Test
Performance tests are designed to test problem solving
ability using certain objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of
words. These tests are specially useful with young children,
illiterates, persons with speech defects and persons who do not
have proficiency in language. Some of the famous tests are (i)
Koh’s Block design test (ii) The cube construction tests and (iii) The
Pass Along tests.

Group tests had their birth in America when the intelligence

of the recruits who joined the army in the first world war was to be
calculated. These are (i) The Army Alpha and Beta test (ii)
Terman’s group tests, (iii) Out self administrative tests.

Intelligence tests consists of different types of questions to

test the intelligence of individual. These questions are based on the
following factors.

Vocabulary
The extent of an individual’s vocabulary is one of the most
reliable indices of his intelligence. It can be tested through
arranging words in difficult order or giving synonym or antonym of a
word.

Verbal analogies:
In this section question are asked like Branch is to a tree as
brook is to river.

Sentence completion :
India has..................states is one of the example of this type
of questions.

Arithmetic reasoning:
Simple arithmetical sum increasing in difficulty is included in
the test.
Number series:
A series of number is given and asked what will be the next?
For example 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21..........?

Comprehension:
It consists of questions designed to measure general
understanding. It includes questions such as why are coins made of
metal?

Digit Span:
For testing on memory, digits are spoken and the subject is
asked to respect them in the same or reverse order. For example if

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the examiner says 8, 4, 3 the subject is to say 3, 4, 8.

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Similarities:
The subject is asked to describe the way in which certain
objects are similar. In way cotton and silk are a like?

General Information:
If consists of questions from everyday life. Kinds of
questions asked. How many inches are there in a foot?

Picture arrangement:
Each item consists of a collection of cartoon like drawings
which make a story when arranged in proper order.

Picture completion:
This test consists of a series of pictures which are presented
to the subject one at a time. An important part is missing from each
picture and must be identified by the subject.

Block design:
The subject must arrange a collection of colored cubes in
such a way that they reproduce certain printed design.

Object assembly test.

Three jigsaw type puzzles are presented to the subject one
at a time and in order of increasing difficulty.

Digit symbol test:

The subject is required to match each one of series of

printed digits with an appropriate symbol, using a prescribed code.

These are different verbal and non-verbal factors on which

questions are framed to test the intelligence of the individual. But
this process of determining the intelligence is a complicated
process. It involves a comparison and establishment of a
relationship between chronological age (C. A.) and mental age (M.
A.). This relationship is expressed by the term I. Q. (Intelligent
Quotient) Now we will discuss the concept of age, chronological
age & intelligent quotient.

Mental Age:

In categorizing children of different abilities Binet developed

a scale of units he called mental age. A Child’s intelligence was
determined by the mental age level which he could attain on the
test. A ten years old child who was able to all the tests meant for
ten years old children was said to be normal or average. If he could
do the test meant for a higher age level his mental age was said to
be more than his chronological age and he was described as a
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bright child. If he was unable to do the tests meant for his own age
level, the child’s “mental age” was said to be lower than his
chronological age and he was described as slow or retarded.
Mental age is a simple and useful concept. You can easily interpret
it, when deal with children differing in metal ability.

Chronological Age: (C. A.)

Chronological age is noting but the actual calendar age of

the child. The real age of the child in mental into consideration for
test is called chronological age.

Intelligent quotient:

The intelligent quotient represents the degree of brightness

possessed by an individual. It expresses intelligent as the ratio of
the metal age of the chronological age. When the mental age is
divided by the chronological age and the quotient is multiplied by
100 the result is I. Q. So the formula of finding out I. Q is.
M. A.
I. Q. =  100
C. A.

The fraction is multiplied by 100 in order to remove the

decimal point and to give the I. Q. a value of 100 when mental age
is equal with chronological age. This if the M. A. is above the C. A.
I. Q. will be above 100. If the M. A. is less than the C. A. the
resulting I. Q. will be less than 100. thus the scale has the same
meaning from one age to another. I. Q, may also be regarded as an
index of brightness. The following table shows the relationship
between I.Q. and the degree of brightness given by Dr. Merrily
based on the studies by Terman Merely Revision.

I. Q. Range Classification Percentage of

populations
140 and above Very superior 1.5
129 -139 Superior 11
110 – 119 High - Average 18
90 – 109 Average 47
80 – 89 Low Average 14
70 – 79 Borderline defective 6
Below 70 Mentally defective 2.5

The lowest classification mentally defective sometimes subdivided

into three classes as:
Moron I.Q. – 50 – 70
Imbecility I. Q. – 20 – 50
Idiot I. Q. – Below
20
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Thus you can use the intelligence tests already developed or

you can also prepare an intelligence tests of measure the
intelligence of an individual.

Check Your Progress – 3

1. What type of Intelligence test can be used to test the intelligent of
illiterate and language handicap children? Give two examples.
2. Write the formula of find gone I. Q,
3. Why 100 is multiplied in the formula of I. Q.?

You know how to test the intelligence of others, but what you
will do after knowing the intelligence level others? If there is no use
of knowing the intelligence of others, there is no need of measuring
if. Therefore, now we will see in what way intelligence tests help us
and in which areas we can use this knowledge.
Intelligence tests have been put to many uses in now a days.
It has been observed that intelligence has much to do with success
airfare in making adjustment to life situations and infect, in every
department of human activity. Some of the important areas in which
intelligence tests may be used are:

Educational uses:
In educational situations intelligence tests helps in:

Selection of Courses:
Selection of courses for pupils can be made on the basis of
intelligence tests. Some subjects required higher order of
intelligence and other require low order of intelligence. A nationwide
study conducted in the United states gave the following median I.
Q. of the high school boys in different courses.

Courses Median I. Q.
Technical 114
Scientific 108
Academic 106
Commercial 104
Trade 102

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Selection of pupils to Schools:

In good school there is always a rush of admission. All the
applicants though eligible for admission can not be admitted. In this
case, intelligence tests help a lot to meet out this difficulty.

Classification of pupils:
Children can be classification into various categories on the
basis of intelligence tests. We have children who are of superior
intelligence, average, intelligence, dull and feeble minded. Children
having the same I. Q. may be grouped together and constitute a
class. This helps in avoiding educational wastage and developing
progress among children according to their ability.

Detections of various types of pupils:

In order to classify the pupil into homogeneous group, we
have to detect them. This can be done with the help of intelligence
tests.

Award of Scholarships:
On the basis of intelligence and achievement tests
scholarship may be awarded to suitable candidates.

Promotion of pupils:
Intelligence tests are also used to promote pupils. In case of
gifted child, we give double promotion.

Prediction of success :
Student’s success can be predicted on the basis of
intelligence tests.

Assessment of Teacher’s work:

The achievement of students when compared to their
intelligence indicates the teacher’s work.

Evaluation of Methods and Instructional Material:

Intelligence tests also help in evaluating the importance of
different methods & reading materials relating to different subject &
text books.

Educational Guidance:
Educational guidance like selection of courses, streams etc,
can be given to students on the basis of the results of intelligence
tests.

Vocational uses:
Intelligence tests may be of great use in Vocational
guidance. Vocational guidance can be given on the basis of the
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result of intelligence tests.

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Uses in Army and Civil Services:

Intelligence tests are extensively used in the Army since the
first world war. Army Alpha and Army Beta tests have used on
lakhs of persons.

Uses in Industry:
Intelligence tests very useful in Industry in the selection of
individuals for particular positions in the industry, in locating
workers who require training and to study working conditions. They
are also used together with other methods of selection like
interview and application forms containing data of previous
experience and qualifications.

Uses in Research:
Intelligence tests are very useful for research in selecting the
area of research etc.

Uses in the study of National and racial differences:

Intelligence tests have their utility in making survey of recial

groups. It helps to know the intelligence level of various races and
nationalities. Intelligence test scores show that I. Q. scores of
Germans, Japanese and Americans are more than those of African
and Mexicans.

There are some of the important tasks of Intelligence tests.

But while using the tests. Great care and many precautions are to
be observed. Tests should be administered by well trained persons.
Results should be interpreted with care. Test scores should not be
taken to be absolutely reliable as tests are by no means prefect.
They should have their limits of usefulness. We require to know
much more about the individual than revealed by intelligence tests
to make any decision about him.

Check Your Progress - 4

1. Write any three uses of intelligence tests relating to education.
2. Write other two areas besides education, where intelligence
tests are also used.

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10.7 LET US SUM UP

You would recall that we have touched upon the following
learning items in this unit. Intelligence is a mental trait which
expresses it self in various forms. It is an inborn natural power. It
helps a man in learning things and to solve complicated and
comprehend problems and situations. Intelligence can be
measured by different types of intelligence tests like individual,
group, verbal, nonverbal and performance tests of intelligence.

Intelligence is measured through a complicated process

which involves a compression and establishment of a relationship
between chronological age and mental age. It is expresses by the
term I. Q. Intelligence quotients.

Intelligence tests are used in solving educational problems

with the help of intelligence tests, occupational, social and personal
guidance can be easily furnished. These tests are, however,
required to be use with great care and caution and only by expert in
the field.

Unit end Exercises: 1.

i. “Intelligence is the learning ability” – Buckingham
“Intelligence may be thought to interns of two abilities i.e. ‘g’
or general and ‘s’ or specific”.
ii. “Intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his
behavior towards a goal”.
iii. ‘S’ – Special ability – Spearman
‘S’ – Space factor – Thurs stone
2.
i. English, Francis Gallon
ii. Hereditary Genius
iii. Stern
3. Nonverbal intelligence Test, Picture Completion Test and
i. Picture drawing test

ii. M.A.
I.Q. =
×100 C.A
iii. In order to remove the decimal point.
4. 00
i. Admission, Promotion & Classification
ii. Vocation, Research

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Exercises:
1. Explain the meaning and nature of intelligence.
2. Explain the different types of intelligence tests with examples.
3. Write Short note on the following questions (In 150 words)
a) Uses of intelligence tests.
b) Intelligent quotient.
c) Functions of intelligence.
d) Performance test of intelligence.

Reference books

Dr. S. S. Mathur (1996) Educational Psychology

Nerman L. Munn (1967) Introduction to Psychology
G. D. Boaz (1959) General Psychology



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11

CREATIVITY

Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Concept of Creativity
11.2.1 Definition of Creativity
11.3 Nature and Characteristics of Creativity
11.4 Characteristics of Creative Personality
11.5 Process of Creativity
11.6 Measurement of Creativity
11.7 Uses of Creativity test
11.8 Let us Sum up

11.0 OBJECTIVE

After reading this unit you will be able to.

 Define Creativity
 Explain the Characteristics of Creativity
 State the Characteristics of a Creative person
 Tell the uses of Creativity tests
 Test of Creativity by using creativity tests.
 Suggests the various ways and means for developing
creativity among children

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear Students, you know that thinking, problem; solving and

creating some things which are novel to the person are some of the
most complex activities of the human being. In the last chapter, we
have discussed that intelligence of a person helps him to think
rationally and to deal effectively with the environment. Individual
differs from one another in their amount of intelligence. Here in this
chapter you will know about creativity. You will also able to know
like intelligence, creativity also differs from individual to individual.
Creativity is a very important process for the progress and major
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advances in every field. All the advances are made as a result of

new ideas or creative process. It is the basis of the entire social
development and new inventions and discoveries in the field or
science and technology. Now, you may be very various to know
more about creativity which is so important in our life. Let us
discuss more details about it.

11.2 CONCEPT OF CREATIVIVY

Creativity was believed to be a gift of God long to be found in

highly talented people and geriuses. There fore, the view that the
very intelligent or very superior people would be also creative was
held. Creativity was regarded as a rare quality of distinguished
individuals. A creative person has an inborn talent. The relationship
between creativity and intelligence is neither linear nor curvilinear.
For a longtime creativity was considered to be associated with
artistic individuals who have been distinguished in various fields as
painters, sculptures or writers. Creativity is distinguished by novelty,
originality and is unusually inventive.

The more important feature of recent research is that

creativity is not an extra ordinary gift, but a basic ability of all human
beings. All persons to a certain degree potentially are creative.
Helvetius (1758) was the first to recognize creativity not as a divine
gift, but as a human quality. Contrary to the long held idea that it is
a divine gift, it is now accepted that creativity exists in every sphere
of human activity. People differ greatly on the degree creativity. The
creative abilities may not have realized and remain potential owing
to luck of proper stimulating conditions or owing to long neglect. So,
I think all of you are now feeling very happy by knowing that you
can also be a creative person by creating something new of your
own ideas. Let us discuss how you can also create something.

Creativity is the power of the mind to form new ideas and

thoughts. It helps you imagine something new and special. For
example drawing, painting, writing, comes from being able to
wonder, appreciate and think about things and be inspired by them.
For example if you draw well and you see a beautiful painting, you
begin to wonder at it’s beauty. You ask yourself why you should not
paint something as beautiful as the picture you have seen. Next
day, you begin to draw or paint something of your own which is
more beautiful than that you have seen. This is your creativity. So
creativity brings out something special in you. Now, you must be
clear about the concept of creativity. We will discuss some more
examples of creativity for better clarity.

You know that many great poets have written poems on

someone or something that made them wonder. Rudyard Kipling

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wondered about how a perfect man would be and wrote one of his
most famous poem ‘If’. William Words Worth, on seeing a bed of
daffodils was so wonderstruck by it’s beauty that the poem
“daffodils” just flowed from his pen. Yet, the daffodil is one of the
commonest blooms in England and millions just took them for
granted and still do.

In the same way great painters made their most famous

paintings. It is believed that Leonardo Davin a was inspired by a
lady to paint the ‘Monalisa’. You also know that Shahjahan’s
amazing Love for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, inspired the wonderous
building the “Tajmahal”. Many very creative people wonder at even
the tiniest, everyday aspects of life and then make their ideas into
great works of painting, scripture and literature. You can also take
up something you enjoy like drawing, music, dance etc. as you
begin to enjoy if, you will become more and more creative in it.
Even, ordinary, everyday things can be made into works of art like
vegetable carving, dall making and matchobox building etc.

Some of the definitions given by different psychologists will

also help us to get the meaning more clear.

11.2.1 Definitions of Creativity

“Creativity is the capacity of a person to produce compositions,
products or ideas which are essentially new or novel and previously
unknown to the producer.”
- Drevdhal, J. E.
“Creative is a process extended in time and characterized by
original adaptiveness and realization.”
- Mc Kinnon
“A process is creative when it results in a novel work that is
accepted as tenable, useful or satisfying by a group at a point in
time.”
- Taylor
“Creativity is a process sensing gaps or disturbing missing
elements, forming ideas or hypotheses communicating the result,
possibly modifying and re-testing hypotheses.”

- Torrance
“It is distinguished between discovery, invention and creativity by
saying that fact is discovered, theory is invented by only a
masterpriece is created.”
- Bronowsky

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If we will analyse the definitions of creativity, it seems to fall under

four categories.
- The person who Crates
- Mental processes asserting within the person who creates.
- Cultural and environmental factors working on the creator.
- Products of creativity, i.e. poems, paintings, theories and
inventions.

Check Your Progress – I

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given.
ii) Check your answer.
i. Who recognize creative as a human quality?
ii. Who write the Poem Daffodils?
iii. Who painted the Monalisa?

11.3 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

CREATIVITY

All the definitions reveal the nature & characteristics of creativity.

- Creativity is the resultant of some interaction.
- Creativity is the ability to syntherise ideas or objects.
- It is a ability to create new ideas, theories or objects.
- It is a ability to develop something original.
- It is a process as well as a product.
- It is a complex & dynamic process.
- It knows no special medium, place, person or time.
- It is the capacity to accept challenge.
- It is readiness to change self and environment.
Though, creativity has some general characteristics, it’s
nature of work differs from person to person. For example creativity
to the artist is the ability to evoke an emotional mood. To the
architect, it is the ability to evolve new approaches, forms and new
materials. To the Scientist, creativity is the ability to explore new
way of extending knowledge. To the teacher, it is the ability to

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discover and apply dynamic methods of teaching learning whereas

to the student it is the ability to use words and phrases in new
situations, to solve sum speedily, to prepare new types of charts, to
write essays and stories depicting new ideas.

Students, till now you learn about creativity, it’s concept,

nature & characteristics. Now you will know the characteristics of a
creative personality.

Torrence has complied a list of eighty four characteristics of

a creative person.
some of these are:-
- A creative person is very adventurous.
- He is flexible in his thinking, feeling & doing.
- He is very keen to explore and invent.
- He is intuitive, self disciplined, visionary & willing to take risk.

On the whole, creative children are constantly probing,

discovering, imaging, asking questions, guessing and wondering.
Therefore, they should be encouraged to ask unusual questions, to
explore new ways of thinking, to try novel approaches to problem
solving, to play with ideas and material.

Check Your Progress – II

Note : Write your answer on the space given below
i. Write what according to you should be the main three
characteristics of “Creativity”.
ii. Write any four characteristics you observe in a creative
person.

11.5 PROCESS OF CREATIVITY

The process of creative thinking involves some specific and

definite steps these are:-
- Preparation
- Incubation
- Mumination or Inspiration and
- Verification or revision

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Preparation:

Creative thinking in most fields of endeavourer requires

some preparation. It includes much trial and error. For example in
writing a term paper, a student writes something, scratches out
what he has written and starts over again, only to destroy that also.
In this way continous and persistent efforts are mode. At some
point, he finds that he can not solve the problem. So he keeps the
work aside for the time being. Deliberately or involuntarily turning
away from the problem is the beginning of the second stage which
is known as incubation.

Incubation:

This stage is characterized by absence of activity or thinking

about the problem. We can take rest or engage in other activities.
Sometimes when we engaged in other work, this experience
provides clue to the solution of the problem. For example
Archimedes found the solution of the problem when he was taking
his bath.

Illumination:
This experience of sudden appearance of the solution is
known as inspiration or illumination. If occurs at any time, even in
dreaming. A solution may appear when it is least expected. This
process gives the insight or ‘Aha’ experience to the thinker. You
know that how Archimedes came out of the bath-room by telling
that “Eureka”, “Eureka”. This “Eureka” is the ‘Aha’ experience which
is also known as illumination.

Verification:
During this stage illumination or inspiration is tried out. We
determine whether the idea or solution appears suddenly is correct
or not. In case if does not work well, fresh attempts are made for
the solution. Sometimes the solution needs slight modification are
change. Then in the light of the results of verification or testing
revision is made and the solution or idea is made workable. But at
no stage, the creative thinkers thinks is made workable or idea is
made workable. But at no stage, the creative thinkers thinks it
completely project. It is open for essential modification or revision at
any time when needed.
Though these are the difference stages in this process, skill
you should not consider it as the rigid and fixed for all the times for
all the thinkers because one may get the solution at the first stage,
one may get the solution in the last stage, one may repeat the cycle
again and again till for the a proper solution. However, these stages
represents a scientific and systematic analysis of a higher creative
process.

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Check Your Process - III Fill in the

blanks.
i. The period when a person deliberately turning away from the
problem is known as the period of ………………………….
ii. In the process of creative thinking the ‘Aha’ experience
comes in the...................stage.

11.6 MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY

You know that measurement is essential to know the

existence of anything. So in case of creativity, we also need to
measure creativity among individuals. According to Torrence,
measurement of creativity is essential in idealifying creative
individuals. So, question may arise in your mind that why we should
identify creative individuals? Identification of creative individual is
essential because it:-

- enhances understanding of human mind and personality.

- Helps in individual teaching.
- Helps in guiding the mental growth and development.
- Emphasizes the need for guidance in future.
- Helps in arranging remedial programme.

Creativity can be identified in various areas like academic,

artistic, mechnical and scientific etc,. So, again a question may
come to your mind that how creativity can be idealified in different
areas? As every individual is unique, they also have their unique
way of thinking. So they differ in their areas of interest. These areas
can be identified by using various testing and non testing
techniques. These are:-

Observation: In this technique what your can to do is just to

observe the behaviour of the individual in different situations. From
your observation you will be able to ideality the individual’s creative
areas.

Cumulative Record: If cumulative recordd is maintained about the

indivudal, it also help you to know about the post activities of the
individual. This record if property observed by you also enable you
to identity the area of creativity of the same individual.

Informal Tests: You may ask small questions informally between

the class discussions or general talks and may hope some idea
about the individuals creative ability. For example you can ask
questions like what changes will happen in our society after 10
years? How can you improve your mathematics laboratory? What

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will you do if you do not get sufficient food and money? Like this
you can ask a number of questions from different areas to identity
the creativity area.

Standardized Tests:
Different type of creativity tests developed by psychologists
are used to measure creativity. Some of them are foreign tests and
some are Indian tests.

Foreign tests:
Some standardized foreign tests used to measure creativity
are:-
- Guilford and Merifield test of creativity for college students.
- Burron and weish Art scale.
- Harris test of Scientific Creativity.

Indian Tests:
Like foreign tests, Indian tests are also developed to test the
creativity in different areas. Some of these are:-
- Mazumdar Scientific Creativity Test
- ISPT Creativity Performance scale
- Chatteriee Mosaic Test
- Passi – A Battery of creativity Test

Besides these, Guilford and Merrifield have developed test

techniques that measures fluency, flexibility, originality, re-definition
and sensitivity to problems. Getzels and Jackson have used five
different measures of Creativity in their research. They are:-

Word –Association – Tests : In this test students are required to

give as many definitions and numbers of different categories into
which they could be placed.

Uses of things tests: Here the students is asked to give as many

uses as he can for a common object.

Hidden shapes Test: A student in this test is required to find more

complex form of figure on card in a simple form.

Three difference Endings: A student is required to suggest three

different endings to an incomplete short tables.

Make up problems: A student is required to makeup as many

mathematical problems he can on the basis of information given in
a complex paragraph.

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There are also minessola tests of creative thinking

comprising non-verbal tests like picture construction, creative
design, circtes and sahares etc. you can also refers to the
Torrence’s check list comprising eighty four characteristics for
identifying the creative children.

Check Your Progress – IV

Note: Write the answers in the space given below.
i. Prepare a creativity test using the five measures given by
Getzels & Jackson.

11.7 USES OF CREATIVITY TEST

If anything you will prepare, you must think how this can be
used. Here you know that how creativity can be idealified & you
also have prepared a creativity test. So you should use it. Before
using it, you should know how you can use it.
You know that creativity is a natural endowment. If needs
stimulation and nourishment. Most of creative talent if not given
proper training, education and appertunity for creativity expression,
results in wastage. Moreover, creativity is universal. It is not
monopoly of a few geniuses only. Everyone of us to certain degree
possesses creative abilities. In a democratic set up like owners, it is
not only the geniuses who are needed to create, manitest and
produce, others whether mediocres or below averages are also
required to think constructly and creatively.

Creativity tests are useful in finding the nature and amount of

creativity among the children. This also help us to provide proper
environment and guidance to develop the originality of the
individual in a full fledged way. We can organise various activities
and situations to develop creativity among children according to
their abilities. These are:-

Freedom to Respond:
Adequate freedom should be given to children in responding
to a situation. They should be encouraged to think about as many
ideas as they may for the solution of the problem.

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Opportunity for involvement:

The feelings like “It is my creation”, “I have solved” give
much satisfaction to children. Therefore opportunity should be
provided to them to derive satisfaction from being a cause.

Encouraging originality and flexibility:

Originality on the part of children in any form should be
encouraged. They should also be asked problem questions to
answer. In learning a task if they need to change their methods of
learning, hey should essentially be encouraged to do it.

Removal of heritation and fear:

The cause of haritation and fear for doing any work should
be discovered and removed as far as possible.

Providing appropriate opportunities and atmosphere:

A healthy favourable atmosphere for creative thinking and
expression is an essential condition for the stimulation and
nourishment of creativity among children.

Developing healthy habits among children:

Industriousness, perisistence, reliance and self confidence
are some of the qualities that are helpful in creative output.
Therefore children should be helped to imbibe these qualitites.

Using the Creative resources of the Community:

Children should be made to visit the centres of creative art or
scientific and industrial creative work. Occasionally, the creative
artists, scientists or creative persons from other fields may also
invited which will be helpful in enhancing the span of knowledge of
children and kindly the spark of creativity among them.

Avoidance of Blocks to Creative thinking:

Factors like conservatism, faculty methods of teaching, rigid
habits of work, un sympathetic treatment should be avoided.

Proper organization of the curriculum:

Curriculum should reflect what if desires from the creative
children interms of fluency, flexibility, originality, divergent thinking,
inventiveness and elaboration etc.

Use of Special Techniques:

Besides these uses, special techniques also should be used
to foster creativity, Researchers have suggested some special
techniques like.

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Brain Storming:
It is a technique which emphasizes the important of
divergent thinking. It involves generating ideas in response t some

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problem in a group. It allows children to attack and solve a problem

without any inhibition or restriction.

Providing the self examples and ideals

“Self example is better than precept.’ Children are very

imitative. Therefore the presents, teachers and elders should try to
develop the habit of creative thinking among themselves.

Besides these, gaming techniques, showing with and

humane, encouraging debates, discussions, quick and providing
activities like drama, dance music etc. should be arranged for the
children to develop their creativity.

After identifying creative children adequate and appropriate

provisions should be made for their education and training,
because the future of mankind depends upon the development of
their creative potential.

Check your Progress- V

i. Write two ways of Brain storming.
ii. Write what according to you are the two best ways of using
creative resources of the community.

11.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed that creativity is necessary for

problem solving. But are all problems demands creative solutions?
No. For example there is only one correct answer to the question a
how much is 75 plus 25? But an architect asked design a new
museum for a particular community might produce a variety of
design solutions. When asked to solve a problem or form a
concept, people may respond without much though in a pre
determined manner, or they form a hypothesis and then test it to
evaluate potential solutions. For particularly difficult problem, a
creative solution is often best, although it may not be an obvious
one. A creative solution is one that makes others say ‘why did not I
think of that? It is not always easy to define a creative solution.
Similarly, it is not always easy to identify a creative individual.

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This unit gives you an idea creativity is the process of

developing original, novel and yet appropriate response to a
problem. A novel response is one that is new or that has no
precedent. An original response is one that is not usually given.
However, unless an original and novel solution is also appropriate,
it can not be termed creative, though not too easy, still by observing
carefully the characteristics of a creative person and administering
different creativity tests, a creative person can be identified by you.
On that basis you can create situations, provide facilities to develop
creativity among them. Sometimes creative individuals experience
a sudden brilliant illumination, but more often their new ideas come
about through a slow intuitive understanding of the field of
endeavour. Their back-ground allows them to be constructively
creative. This unit is an attempt to give an outline of how the nature
and characteristics of creativity & creative individuals help in
identifying creative individuals. Different types of creativity tests &
their uses in educational situation are also part of this unit. In short,
this unit gives an awareness to the parents, teachers and elders
about their role in promoting creativity among children.

Unit End Exercises

1. i) Helvitius
ii) William words worth
iii) Leonardo Da Vinci
2. i) Novelty, originality & appropriateness
ii) Curiosity, imagining, adventurous & asking questions
3. i) Incubation
ii) Illumination/ Imspiration
4. Word association Test –
Uses of thing Tests – Ten uses of ‘Scale’
Hidden shape Test – Providing card or paper of different size
& asking to prepare as many pictures can be drawn using it.
Three different endings – Write an incomplete story asking to
complete the story in three different way.
Make-up Problems – Give a paragraph of information & ask
the students to prepare many problems on the basis of the
information.
5. i) ‘Organising a function’ & “Student self government in
schools”
ii) Visit to centres of creative work and inviting creative
persons from other fields for leature.

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Exercises
1. What is creativity? Explain it’s nature & characteristics.
2. Who is a creative child? What are his chief characteristics?
3. Define creativity. Explain how can you identify creativity among
children.
4. Explain the role of parents and teachers in the promotion of
creativity in children.
5. Write short note on the following questions within 150 words.
a. Steps in creative process
b. Uses of creativity
c. Brain storming
d. Creativity Tests

Reference Books
1) Ladislav Duric (1990) “Essentials of Educational Psychology.”
2) J. C. Aggarwal (1999) “Essentials of Educational Psychology.”
3) Dr. S. S, Mathur (1996) “Educational Psychology.”



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12

GROUP DYNAMICS

Unit structure:

12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Group Dynamics
12.2.1 Meaning
12.2.2 Process of Group Dynamics
12.2.3 Importance of Group Dynamics
12.3 Group Mind
12.3.1 Meaning
12.3.2 Importance of Group Mind.
12.4 Techniques of Group Learning
12.4.1 Co - operative Learning
12.4.2 Group Discussion
12.5 Let us sum up
12.6 Glossary
12.7 Suggested reading

12.0 OBJECTIVES

 To develop an understanding of group dynamics.

 To develop an understanding of the process of group dynamics.
 To gain insight into the importance of group dynamics and
group mind.
 To acquaint the learners with the different techniques of group
learning.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Group Dynamics

Human beings exhibit some characteristic behavior patterns
when interacting in groups. Therefore, understanding group
behaviour plays a vital role in order to establish a harmonious
society. The psychology of the group is also called group behavior.
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The group helps a person in the satisfaction of his fundamental

needs and in achieving a sense of accomplishment. In modern
organizations, groups are employed as major instruments for
operations, particularly for problem- solving and improving
performance.

Meaning of a Group:-
It has been commonly observed and also established
through various experimental studies that there are differences in
the behaviour of an individual when they are alone and when they
are together in a group. As a member of a group, he exhibits group
behaviour. When two or more people come together it is known as
a Group. A group is one in which people come together to attain a
common goal & the relations among the members are
interdependent i.e. each members behavior influences the
behaviour of the others in the group.

According to Mill, “A unit composed of two or more persons

who come together to achieve a specific purpose & consider a
contact meaningful is a GROUP.”

Bass approached the definition of a group in the angle of

motivation & satisfaction of needs.

Bogurdas defines a group as, “A collection of two or more

persons with common interest, stimulating each other having
common loyalty & participating in common activities.”

Characteristics of a Group: A typical group must have the

following essential characteristics in order to be called a group in
the psychological sense.

1. Leadership: - According to Carter, a leader is a person who is

able to lead the group towards the attainment of the goal. The
teacher helps the students in the attainment of the goals. In that
sense, the teacher is the leader of the classroom group.

2. Interdependency/ Common Interest: - The members of a

group have common and well defined goals, interest and ideals.
Every member tries to attain the goals set down by the society
e.g. members of rotary club have a common aim of social work
for the benefit of underprivileged. The behavior of one member
of a group influences that of the other and in this way his own
behavior is influenced. This type of relationship is also known
as psychological relationship.

3. Cohesiveness (Oneness): - There is a sense of oneness in the

group because of the similarity in interest. A member looks upon

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other as related to him. In this way, good feelings, devotion,

faithfulness, adjustment, suggestion & imitation are developed
amongst the members.

4. Conformity (Comply by the rules set within the group): -The

members of the group have to adhere to the rules set by the
group. The actions of members are controlled by the group. All
the members of the group follow the ideals & traditions of the
group.

5. Organized structure: - Any group has an organized structure

which is well defined .e.g. The class is an organized structure
which is homogeneous with respect to age, subject, etc.

6. Motivation/ Mutual Obligation: - The degree of motivation or

the motivational level that exists among the members of the
group should be the same. It is such a power as keeps not
only the members of the group united but also provides them
with energy e.g. the relationship between the children & parents
in the family or the love of husband & wife. In spite of
differences, they have certain common aims, ideals & values.
We-feeling is developed leading to the development of affinity in
the group. Social values are also developed.

12.2 GROUP DYNAMIC

12.2.1 Meaning of Group Dynamics:

It is a relatively new concept in the socio – psychological
field. Etymologically, the word, Dynamic, is derived from a Greek
word, which means ‘force’. Thus, Group Dynamics stands for the
forces operating in a group. A group is constantly interacting,
thereby bringing about a perpetual change in the personality and
behaviour of the members constituting the group. The behaviour is
not static. Group Dynamics means the change of behaviour through
interaction in the group. It refers to the forces which operate in
group situations. It studies the structure of the group and other
phenomenon which emerge out of group interaction.

 According to the Goods dictionary – “Group Dynamics implies

an interactive psychological relationship in which members of a
group develop a common perception based on feelings and
emotions. These inter-stimulative relationships may be
described by the term Group Dynamics.”

 Kretch & Crutch - Group Dynamics implies changes that take

place within groups.

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Thus group dynamics is the study of forces exerted by the

group on the individual or the individual on the group.

12.2.2 Process of Group Dynamics: -

• Argyle (1969) categorized 4 stages in the “life” of a group
 forming
 storming
 norming
 performing

• Heron (1989) identified a fifth stage

 Mourning / Adjourning

 Forming - This is when a group first gets together. People tend

to find out about each other, consider purposes, brainstorm
ideas and possible structures for tasks and consider their own
roles within the group. This is usually a very sociable time in the
life of the group.
 Storming - As the group begins to settle in and individuals get
to know each other, they may start competing for status and role
in the group. Disagreements occur and where some members
may try to assert strong opinions or leadership tactics, others
may withdraw. If tensions are not mutually dealt with at this
stage, they tend to disrupt group communication and activity,
and most importantly, mutual respect for the roles of members.
To reach stages (c) and (d) conflicts need to be resolved.
 Norming - After the more tense stage of storming, the group
usually begins to settle as members have found a common
approach to the task that all agree upon or accept (this is where
unsettled conflicts can be problematic as they will probably
reoccur later). Action plans begin to emerge and people find
space to begin working on tasks.
 Performing - This is the stage when the group achieves
optimum efficiency and work gets done. At this stage it is
important to know the team work strategies you are working with
(Sharples, 1999: 71) that will best utilize the expertise of each
member. It is also useful be aware of time spent on each task
through a log or diary, so that possible conflicts do not reoccur.
 Mourning / Adjourning - Having satisfactorily got through the
group tasks, if the group has been successful in working
together, despite initial tensions and conflicts, we often see
members sad to leave each other. This is where mutual respect
and achievement is felt most significantly. Often sub-groups
form from the larger groups to continue with personal or
professional development interests.

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12.2.3 Importance of developing Group Dynamics in Learning:

1) To improve the behavior of students - In a class room group,

the students come into contact with each other and acquire
appropriate type of education.

2) To develop mental processes - Some sort of exchange of

thoughts goes on in the class group through which intellectual
activities like reasoning, memory, judgments, decisions,
thinking and imagination develop.

3) To develop the feeling of self sacrifice - The students in a

class room group remain in close contact with each other.
Therefore so much love, good will and sympathy develops in
them that in the time of need they do not hesitate to sacrifice
themselves for the sake of others.

4) To prepare for future social life - Children in class room group

live together for pretty long time and try to adjust their thoughts,
habits and view points to others. Such a type of experience
prepares them for future social life.

5) To excite sympathy of numbers - A student starts doing as

other students do. Their tendency is called sympathy of
numbers.

6) To develop qualities of leadership - Students in classroom

groups plan or organize a number of co curricular activities.
Thus qualities of leadership are developed in them.

7) To acquire more knowledge - In a classroom group the

students learn the habits of competition and imitation and get an
inspiration to acquire more knowledge.

8) To develop the feeling of co-operation - The teacher

encourages all the members of a classroom group to work
together and thus feeling of cooperation is developed in them.

Check your progress

1) What is a group? What are the basic characteristics of a group?
2) What is group Dynamics? Why is it important for a teacher to
know about the dynamics of a group?

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12.3 GROUP MIND

12.3.1 Group Mind
Sociologist, Lebon has used this term for explaining the
various characteristics of crowd behavior. Lebon asserted that
individuals behave in a peculiar way when there are members of
crowd. Explaining the reasons for this, Lebon says that individuals
as a member of crowd are in the grip of collective or group mind
and thus behave differently. At this time, as a member of crowd
their unconscious personality disappears and it is their conscious
personality moved by the group mind that is responsible for their
peculiar behavior.

Various sociologist and psychologist like Mc Dougall use this

term as a concept to explain the behavior of individuals as
members of highly stable enduring groups like the army or some
political and religious organizations. He asserted that members of
these highly organized well-integrated groups behave differently in
these groups as they would otherwise behave as an individual
outside these groups.
Thus, the concept of group mind has been made into use for
explaining our peculiar behavior as a member of crowd or a highly
organized and integrated group.

12.3.2 Importance of Group Mind:

School is a social group. All the students and teachers are
its members. A School has a purpose of imparting education .The
atmosphere of school persuades new members to join the group
and continues making efforts to modify the behavior of elder
members. Several types of conditions are essential for building up
an organized school community. They are as under:

1. Continuous existence of the community - The school

community is not like a crowd. It has stability. Teachers remain
in the school for long time. A large number of students study in
the school and in this way it is stable. For its stability, it is
essential that the teachers do not change often and students do
not leave it after studying for sometimes. They stay at school for
considerable time so that they may understand the value of
school society and acquire its good virtues.

2. Aims of a school - All schools have aims and ideals to be

realized. They have their own traditions which help in molding
the personality of the child as per the requirements of the
society. There is a close affinity developed towards their
institution by participating in various activities. The schools
should organize activities like annual day, sports day,
exhibitions, morning assembly etc. so that there is a lot of
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interaction among students and with teachers which helps in

developing a we-feeling ,thereby instilling pride towards their
alma mater.

3. Social feelings and pride in traditions - The young students

of a school feel proud of their school. The students of different
schools compare the activities of their schools and each student
tries to prove that his school is the better one. Individuals
compete in debates, sports, games, one act play etc and
develop in the students for the school. Tradition of the school,
results, sports, cultural activities etc produces a feeling of rivalry
among the students. Students are ready to do many a thing to
bring self respect & glory to their alma mater. All these things
help in developments of social feelings in them.

4. Co-operative and creative atmosphere - The school is an

organized group. It is essential that the students work in co-
operation with each other. In order to achieve this, the teacher
will have to lead them. As far as possible, individual competition
should not be encouraged but group game should be organized
e.g. inter-class game competitions, etc.

It is essential for the school environment to be creative and

progressive. It should change with time so that it remains the mirror
of the school. Its aim should be decided. It should lead the society.
Such a thing is possible only in the creative atmosphere of the
school.

Check your progress

1. Explain the process of group formation/ life stages of a group?
2. What is group mind? How does the knowledge of group mind
help a teacher?

12.4 TECHNIQUES OF GROUP LEARNING

12.4.1 Techniques of Group Learning - Co-operative Learning

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so
that students work together to maximize their own as well as each
other's learning. Class members are organized into small groups
after receiving instruction from the teacher. They then work through

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the assignment until all group members successfully understand

and complete it. Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for
mutual benefit so that all group members gain from each other's
efforts.

Some Basic Cooperative Learning Strategies:-

1. Three-Step Interview:
Form pairs of students. The teacher may ask students to
read necessary matter beforehand.
Step One: One student interviews another within specified time
limits. e.g. In order to study the topic ‘Learning’, the following
questions may be asked: What is meant by learning? When does
learning occur? Give an example of when learning does not occur.

Step Two: The two then reverse roles and conduct the interview
again. Same questions or similar type of questions may be used

Step Three: In a learning team composed of two pairs, the

students then share the highlights of the information or insights got
from the paired interview.

2. Roundtable:
Roundtable, a cooperative learning structure useful for
brainstorming, reviewing, or practicing a skill, uses a single sheet of
paper and pen for each cooperative learning group. Students in the
group respond in turn to a question or problem by stating their
ideas aloud as they write them on the paper. Team members are
encouraged not to skip turns, but if their thoughts are at a standstill,
they are allowed to say "Pass" rather than to turn the brainstorm
into a brain drizzle. Thus, there is almost universal participation in
Roundtable. Students, for example, could identify the
characteristics of an effective leader or the attributes of terrorism
before these topics are formally introduced. Comparing a student-
generated list with those of the "experts," creates interest. In
Roundtable, the multiple answers encourage creativity and deeper
thinking.

3. Think-Pair-Share:
Think: In this activity the instructor poses a question, preferably
one demanding analysis, evaluation, or synthesis, and gives
students thirty seconds or more to think through an appropriate
response. This time can also be spent writing the response.
Pair: After this "wait time," students then turn to partners and share
their responses.

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Share: During the third and last stage, student responses can be
shared within learning teams, with larger groups, or with the entire
class during a follow-up discussion.

4. Gallery Walk:
Assign a topic to be studied by a group. Let the group depict
their thoughts, understanding of the topic by means of a concept
map. All groups put up their products for the rest of the groups to
see. One spokesperson remains near the group’s chart while the
other members take a gallery walk to see what others have done.
Queries will be answered by the spokesperson. The spokesperson
role should be rotated so that no one is left without the stimulation
of exploring the different student creations.

5. Jigsaw:
The students in a history class, for example, are divided into
small groups of five or six students each. Suppose their task is to
learn about World War II. In one jigsaw group, Sara is responsible
for researching Hitler's rise to power in pre-war Germany. Another
member of the group, Steven, is assigned to cover concentration
camps; Pradeep is assigned Britain's role in the war; Meeta is to
research the contribution of the Soviet Union; Tahira will handle
Japan's entry into the war; Rachna will read about the development
of the atom bomb. Eventually each student will come back to her or
his jigsaw group and will try to present a well-organized report to
the group. The situation is specifically structured so that the only
access any member has to the other five assignments is by
listening closely to the report of the person reciting.

6. Circle the Sage:

Divide the class into teams of say 4 to 5 members. Select
some students from the class who will be able to explain a concept
to the students. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out in
the room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each
surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going to
the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the
classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then
return to their teams. Each in turn, explains what they learned.
Because each one has gone to a different sage, they compare
notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally,
the disagreements are aired and resolved.

12.4.2 Techniques of Group Learning – Group Discussions

A Group Discussion is a methodology frequently used by an
organization to gauge whether the candidate has certain
personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its members. In this
methodology, the group of candidates is given a topic or a situation,
given a few minutes to think about the same, and then asked to
discuss it among themselves for 15-20 minutes. How a particular

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candidate handles, the topic, the interruptions, etc. brings to fore

his clarity of concepts, his ability to express himself and his
handling of social behavioural patterns.

Some of the personality traits that one can gauge through a Group
Discussion are:
 Ability to work in a team
 Communication skills
 Reasoning ability
 Leadership skills
 Initiative
 Assertiveness
 Flexibility
 Creativity
 Ability to think on ones feet

The aspects which make up a Group Discussion are verbal

communication, non-verbal behavior, conformation to norms,
decision-making ability and cooperation.

A school, too, is a social organization and the technique of

Group Discussion can be used by a teacher to clarify concepts and
also to impart essential social skills. Such discussions can be held
in the classroom itself and topics from the subject, itself can be
used. This method of learning helps in enhancing a student’s
communication skills and other skills for personality development
such as it checks
 how one behaves, participates and contributes in a group,
 how much importance does a child give to the group
objective as well as his own,
 how well do one listens to viewpoints of others and how
open-minded one is in accepting views contrary to one’s
own.

12.5 LET US SUM UP:

 When two or more people come together it is known as a

Group. A group is one in which people come together to attain a
common goal & the relations among the members are
interdependent. Thus, a unit composed of two or more persons
who come together to achieve a specific purpose & consider a
contact meaningful is a GROUP.

 A group is characterized by Leadership, Interdependency,

Cohesion, Conformity, Organised structure and Motivation.

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 Group Dynamics means the change of behaviour through

interaction in the group. It refers to the forces which operate in
group situations. It studies the structure of the group and other
phenomenon which emerge out of group interaction.

 The five stages in the life of a group are: Forming, Storming,

Norming Performing and Mourning.

 Individuals behave in a peculiar way when there are members

of crowd as they are in the grip of collective or group mind. As a
member of a crowd, their unconscious personality disappears
and it is their conscious personality moved by the group mind
that is responsible for their peculiar behavior.

 Co-operative learning as well as Group Discussions are some of

the techniques of Group Learning.

 Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so

that students work together to maximize their own as well as
each other's learning

 A Group Discussion is a methodology used to gauge whether

an individual has certain personality traits and/or skills that a
group desires in its members.

Check your progress…

1. How can a teacher use the technique of cooperative learning to
enhance her student’s learning? Illustrate.
2. Group Discussions helps in developing learning and social skills
in an individual. Discuss.

12.6 GLOSSARY
Group: A collection of two or more persons with common interest,
stimulating each other having common loyalty & participating in
common activities.

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Group Dynamics: the study of forces exerted by the group on the

individual or the individual on the group.

Group Mind: the peculiar behaviour of an individual as a member of

crowd or a highly organized and integrated group.

Co-operative Learning: the instructional use of small groups so

that students work together to maximize their own as well as each
other's learning.

Group Discussion: a methodology used to gauge whether an

individual has certain personality traits and/or skills that a group
desires in its members.

12.7 SUGGESTED READING

1) [Link] (2004) , Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas

Publishing House PVT .LTD., New Delhi- 110014
2) S.K. Mangal (2008), Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited. New Delhi.
3) W.N. Dandekar, W.N.( 1996), Fundamentals of Experimental
Psychology; Anmol Prakashan , 683, Budhwar Peth, Pune-
411002.

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II

2
 III

Kakkar SB (1989): Education Psychology & Guidance, Ambala

Lahey RB. Graham JE & others: An Introduction to Educational Psychology,
6th edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publ,
Lefrancois Guy, R: Theories of Human learning
Mangal SK: Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of India, N. Delhi
Mangal SK: Essentials of Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of
India, N. Delhi
Mathur SS (1983): Educational Psychology, Agra Mathur
SS; Advanced Educational Psychology
Rajamanickam M. Experimental Psychology with Advanced
Experiments, Vol 1& 2, Concept Publishing Co, N. Delhi
Sharma RA (19960 Essentials of Educational Psychology, R Lall
Book Depot, Meerut
Sharma RN & Sharma RK (2002) Educational Psychology, Atlantic
Publishers & Distributors, N. Delhi.
Sharma RN & Sharma RK (2003) Advance Educational
Psychology, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, N. Delhi
Tara Chand (1993) Educational Psychology N Delhi Walia
JS: Foundational of Educational Psychology
Woolfolk AR (1995) Educational Psychology, 6th edition, Allyn &
Bacon, Boston

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