Unit I

1.1 Need and Advantages of Irrigation and Drainage

Irrigation
➢ Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil for the purpose of
helping crops grow. It is essential to have a backup plan when nature
doesn’t provide enough rain.
Importance/ Necessity:
➢ Low/Inadequate Rainfall: In many places, it doesn’t rain enough to
keep crops alive.
➢ Unreliable Weather: Rain can be unpredictable. Irrigation provides a
"safety net" so farmers don't lose their harvest during a dry spell.
➢ Growing High- Value Crops: Some high-value crops (like rice or
sugarcane) need more water than nature usually provides.
➢ Multiple Harvests: With irrigation, farmers can grow crops all year
round, even during the "dry season."
Advantages
➢ Food Security: It ensures a steady food supply for the population by
increasing crop yields.
➢ Protection against Famine: It prevents crop failure during droughts.
➢ Economic Growth: Farmers can grow more expensive crops and sell
their surplus, improving their income.
➢ Groundwater Recharge: Some irrigation methods help seep water back
into the ground, keeping the water table healthy.
Drainage
➢ Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of excess water from the
surface or below the surface of the soil. Just as plants need water, they
also need air; too much water "drowns" the roots by taking up the space
where air should be preventing proper respiration and leading to root.

Importance/ Necessity:

➢ Preventing Water logging: If soil stays soaked for too long, air cannot
reach the plant roots, and the plants "drown" or rot.
➢ Salt Management: Without drainage, salts can build up in the soil,
making it toxic for plants. Drainage "washes" these salts away.
 ➢ Soil Structure: Too much water makes the soil soft and muddy, making
it impossible for heavy farming machinery to move.
Advantages
➢ Healthier Roots: It allows air to circulate in the soil, which is essential
for root breathing and growth.
➢ Earlier Planting: Drained soil warms up faster in the spring, allowing
farmers to start planting earlier in the season.
➢ Disease Control: Many plant diseases and pests (like fungus) thrive in
damp, soggy conditions. Drainage keeps the environment drier and
healthier.
➢ Soil Aeration: It encourages helpful soil bacteria to break down organic
matter, which provides natural fertilizer to the plants.

1.2 Disadvantages of Over-irrigation and water logging

Over-irrigation and waterlogging (soil saturation) cause significant damage to
agricultural land, soil health, and crop productivity.
Disadvantages:
➢ Root Suffocation: Water fills soil pores, forcing out air and oxygen needed
for roots to breathe, leading to root rot and death.
➢ Reduced Soil Fertility: Excessive water leaches vital nutrients (nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorus) deep below the root zone, making them unavailable
to plants.
➢ Soil Stalinization: Rising water tables bring underground salts to the
surface, forming a white salt crust, which makes the soil alkaline/saline and
unproductive.
➢ Stunted Crop Growth: Oxygen deficiency causes poor nutrient uptake,
resulting in yellowing leaves (chlorosis), wilting, and poor yields.
➢ Increased Disease and Pests: Wet conditions create an ideal environment
for fungi, algae, and mold, leading to root rot pathogens (e.g., Pythium,
Phytophthora).
➢ Soil Structure Destruction: Prolonged water-logging causes soil
compaction and loss of water-holding capacity, making the soil hard to
cultivate.
➢ Delayed Farming Operations: Saturated fields make it difficult to use farm
machinery for planting or harvesting.
 ➢ Waste of Resources: Excessive water usage wastes water, reduces
efficiency, and requires higher energy for pumping.

1.3 Types and Components of Irrigation Systems

Common Types of Irrigation

➢ Surface Irrigation: The most common method where water flows over
the soil surface by gravity (e.g., basin, furrow, and border irrigation).
➢ Sub-Surface Irrigation: Water is applied below the ground surface
through pipes or by raising the water table.
➢ Sprinkler Irrigation: Water is sprayed into the air through nozzles,
mimicking rainfall.
➢ Lift Irrigation: Water is lifted from a lower level (well or river) using
pumps.

Components of Irrigation Systems

➢ Headwork: Structures like weirs or dams built across a river to divert
water into the canal.
➢ Canal Network: Includes the main canal, branch canals, distributaries,
and field channels.
➢ Control Structures: Gates, regulators, and outlets used to control the
flow and volume of water.
➢ Cross Drainage Works: Structures (like aqueducts or siphons) used when
a canal meets a natural drain or river.
1.4 Status, Challenges, and Opportunities in Nepal

Irrigation is very important for improving farming and food production. There
are many problems, but also many opportunities. With better planning,
technology, and community involvement, irrigation can be improved in the
future.

Status of Irrigation

Irrigation is very important for farming, especially in Nepal where most farmers
depend on rainfall.

About 65–70% of people work in agriculture.

Only around one-third of farmland has irrigation throughout the year.

Most irrigation systems are:

➢ Canal systems (using river water)

➢ Farmer-managed systems

Water sources include:

➢ Rivers
➢ Groundwater (wells, tube wells)
 ➢ During the rainy season, water is usually enough, but in the dry season, there
is not enough water for irrigation.

Challenges of Irrigation

➢ Difficult geography – Hilly and mountainous land makes construction and

water distribution hard.
➢ Poor maintenance – Canals and structures are not properly maintained,
reducing efficiency.
➢ Water loss – Seepage and evaporation cause significant water wastage.
➢ Lack of proper management – Weak coordination and unequal water
distribution among farmers.
➢ Financial limitations – High construction cost and limited budget for
operation and maintenance.
➢ Climate change impacts – Irregular rainfall, droughts, and floods affect
water availability.

Opportunities of Irrigation

➢ Expansion of irrigation systems – Building new projects and improving old

ones.
➢ Modern technologies – Use of drip and sprinkler irrigation for efficient
water use.
➢ Groundwater utilization – Increasing use of tube wells and wells.
➢ Farmer participation – Strengthening farmer-managed irrigation systems.
➢ Water conservation methods – Rainwater harvesting and efficient use of
water.
➢ Policy improvement – Better government plans and public-private
partnerships.

1.5 Crops, Seasons, and Cropping Patterns and Intensity

Crops
Crops are plants grown by farmers for food, fiber, fodder, or economic value.
Types of crops:
➢ Food crops: Rice, wheat, maize
➢ Cash crops: Sugarcane, cotton, tobacco
 ➢ Pulses: Lentil, gram
➢ Oilseeds: Mustard, soybean

Crop Seasons (in Nepal/South Asia)

There are mainly three cropping seasons:
➢ Kharif Season (Monsoon crops)
Time: June – October
Water source: Rainfall
Major crops: Rice, maize, millet
Condition: Warm and wet
➢ Rabi Season (Winter crops)
Time: October – March
Water source: Irrigation / residual moisture
Major crops: Wheat, barley, mustard
Condition: Cool and dry

➢ Zaid Season (Summer crops)

Time: March – June
Water source: Irrigation
Major crops: Vegetables, watermelon, cucumber
Condition: Hot and dry

Cropping Pattern
➢ Cropping pattern refers to the sequence and arrangement of crops grown
on a particular land over a period of time.

Types of cropping pattern:

➢ Mono-cropping: One crop grown repeatedly (e.g., only rice)
➢ Crop rotation: Different crops grown in sequence (e.g., rice → wheat →
legumes)
➢ Mixed cropping: Two or more crops grown together (e.g., maize +
beans)
➢ Intercropping: Crops grown in a planned row pattern
 Cropping Intensity
➢ Cropping intensity indicates how many times crops are grown on the
same land in a year.
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Cropping Intensity (%) = ∗ 100
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Net Sown Area = Actual land cultivated

Gross Cropped Area = Total cropped area (including multiple cropping)

1.6 Commanded area and irrigation intensities:

Commanded areas (GCA/CCA) represent the total land serviced by an
irrigation system, while irrigation intensity measures the percentage of
culturable command area (CCA) actually irrigated per year, typically
exceeding when multiple crops are grown. Effective planning involves
maximizing CCA usage while managing water availability

Commanded Area Definitions

➢ Gross Command Area (GCA): The total geographical area that can be
irrigated by a canal system, including non-cultivable land (roads,
villages, ponds).
➢ Culturable Command Area (CCA): The portion of the GCA that is
actually cultivable and can be served by the system, excluding
uncultivable areas.
➢ Non-Culturable Area: Includes residential areas, rivers, roads, and
rocky land within the GCA.
➢ Formula CCA = GCA - Non-Culturable Area

Irrigation intensity: Intensity of Irrigation refers to the percentage of the

Culturable Commanded Area (CCA) that is actually irrigated during a specific
season or year. Since farmers rarely irrigate 100% of their land at once, this value
helps determine water [Link] the percentage of the CCA that is
proposed to be irrigated annually or in a specific season (e.g., Kharif or Rabi).
Formula:

Total Intensity: The sum of intensities of individual seasons (e.g.,

Kharif + Rabi = annual intensity).

➢ Seasonal Intensity: The percentage of CCA irrigated in a specific season

(e.g., 40% in Rabi, 35% in Kharif).
➢ Annual Intensity of Irrigation (AII): The sum of the seasonal intensities for
the entire year.
Note: The AII can often exceed 100% if the same land is irrigated for
multiple crops across different seasons.

Factors Affecting Intensity: Water availability, crop type, soil type, and climate,
with higher intensities usually seen in areas with high-intensity farming.

1.7 Methods of field Irrigation

1. Canal (Surface) Irrigation

Water is distributed over the soil surface by gravity, often via channels or
furrows.

Suitability: Best for level or gently sloping land and soils with low to moderate
infiltration rates (like clay or loam). It is commonly used for field crops like rice,
wheat, and sugarcane.

Advantages: Low energy cost; simple to operate.

Disadvantages: High water wastage due to evaporation and deep percolation.

2. Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface like
natural rainfall using pumps and nozzles.

Suitability: Ideal for uneven or undulating terrain where leveling is too costly. It
works well for most crops (except those sensitive to leaf moisture like some
tobacco) and sandy soils that drain too quickly for surface irrigation.

Advantages: High water efficiency; can be used for frost protection.

Disadvantages: High initial cost; affected by strong winds.

3. Drip (Trickle) Irrigation

Water is delivered slowly and directly to the root zone of plants through a
network of valves, pipes, and emitters.

Suitability: Best for widely spaced crops (orchards, grapes, vegetables) and
areas with severe water scarcity. It is highly effective in rocky or difficult terrain
and for soils with low water-holding capacity.

Advantages: Most water-efficient method (up to 90%+); reduces weed growth

and fertilizer loss.

Disadvantages: High maintenance (emitters can clog); expensive to install.

4. Sub-surface Irrigation

Water is applied below the soil surface, either by raising the water table or using
buried perforated pipes.

Suitability: Suitable for crops with deep root systems and soils with high
capillary action. It is often used in areas with a high natural water table or where
surface evaporation is extremely high.

Advantages: No evaporation loss; does not interfere with farm machinery on

the surface.
 Disadvantages: Risk of salt buildup at the surface; very difficult to repair if
pipes clog or leak.

1.8 Planning of Irrigation and Drainage

Planning an irrigation and drainage project is a multi-stage process focused on
ensuring the technical, economic, and environmental viability of agricultural
development.

1. Stages of Project Development

➢ Promotional Stage: Identifying the need for the project, often based on local
requests or government strategy.
➢ Planning Stage: Dividing into Preliminary Planning (initial data collection
and feasibility) and Detailed Planning (final engineering designs and site
selection).
➢ Construction Stage: Physical installation of structures like canals, dams, and
pipes.
➢ Settlement/Operation Stage: Handing over the system to users and
establishing management protocols.

2. Essential Data Collection

➢ Topographical: Surveying land contours to determine how water will flow.

➢ Hydrological: Assessing water source availability (rivers, lakes, or
groundwater) throughout the year.
 ➢ Agronomical: Analyzing soil types (e.g., clay vs. sandy) and selecting
suitable crops based on climatic conditions.
➢ Meteorological: Studying rainfall patterns and evaporation rates to estimate
water demand.

3. Engineering Components

➢ Storage & Diversion: Dams or weirs to collect and redirect water.

➢ Conveyance & Distribution: Networks of canals or pipelines to transport
water to fields.
➢ Drainage Works: Systems to remove excess water and prevent soil salinity
or waterlogging.
➢ Control Structures: Gates and regulators to manage flow rates.

4. Feasibility & Evaluation

➢ Economic Analysis: Ensuring total estimated benefits (e.g., increased crop

yield) exceed total costs (construction and maintenance).
➢ Environmental Impact: Assessing potential effects on the local ecosystem
and ecological balance.
➢ Social Aspects: Considering land tenure, labor requirements, and the
participation of Water Use.