Class: 10th Subject: Biology

Topic: Life Processes

 Living Things: Living things are complex organizations of molecules, which perform certain life
processes such as growth, metabolism, reproduction etc. that distinguish them from non-living
matter.

 Life Processes: The processes which together perform the job of maintenance and are essential for
sustaining life are called life processes.

 Physiology: It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of normal functions of living
organisms and their parts.

Some important life processes which are needed for living are:
1. Nutrition: It is the process by which organisms obtain their own food and procure it and utilize it.
This is known as nutrition.

2. Respiration: It is a process which involves gaseous exchanges i.e. intake of oxygen and release of
CO2 and breakdown of food to release energy inside the cells.
It involves two processes i.e. breathing and cellular oxidation. Breathing is simply the gaseous
exchange. When we inhale O2, it binds with Hb in the blood to reach every cell of the body. There
in a cell the oxygen burns food for energy and this energy is released in the form of ATP molecules.
The by-product of this reaction is CO2 which is exhaled by the body. This is known as oxidation
(of food).
In nutshell, respiration is breakdown of food through oxidation and release of ATP energy for
cellular activities.

3. Transportation: It is a process in which substances synthesized or absorbed in one part of the body
are carried to another part of the body.

4. Excretion: It is a process by which living organisms get rid of excess of metabolic waste from the
body.

5. Movement and locomotion:

a) Locomotion - It is a process by which living organisms as a whole move from one place to
another.
b) Movement - It is a process in which living organisms exhibit movement of their body parts
only.
6. Growth and development:
a) Growth is defined as the permanent and irreversible increase in the size of an organism.
b) Development is the whole series of changes which an organism undergoes during its life
time.

7. Control and Co-ordination: It is a process through which organs interact with each other and
compliment the functions of each other. It also enables an organism to receive information from
their surroundings.

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 8. Reproduction: It is a process of producing young ones of their own kind.

 Metabolism: It is defined as sum total of all the biochemical reactions that take place in our body.
There are two types of metabolism:
i) Catabolism ii) Anabolism
i) Catabolism: It is the breakdown of complex molecules into simple molecules. It is
associated with the release of tremendous energy and is called exergonic reaction. It is also
known as destructive reaction e.g. digestion, respiration etc.
ii) Anabolism: It is the synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules in our body.
Energy is absorbed during this reaction. Hence it is called exogenic reaction. It is also called
as constructive reaction e.g. protein synthesis, photosynthesis.

 Nutrition (Gk Nutritio - to obtain): It is defined as a process by which living beings obtain food
or synthesize it and change it into simple absorbable form through a series of biochemical processes
is called nutrition.

 Nutrients: The chemical substances present in the food are called nutrients. Thus, nutrients can be
defined as substances which an organism obtains from its surroundings and use as a source of
energy and for the biosynthesis of body constituents. Organisms obtain nutrition and nutrients from
the food they eat.

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD
1. Source of Energy: Food components on oxidation release energy which is used for carrying out
various life processes. The heat produced maintains the body temperature.
2. Formative functions: Nutrients are used in synthesizing new protoplasm, replacing worn-out
components of cells and increase in the no. and size of cells.
3. Regulative functions: Enzymes, vitamins, minerals and hormones control various metabolic
reactions and activities and also help in maintaining good health and resistance against diseases.

Modes of Nutrition: Methods of obtaining food by the organisms, is called modes of nutrition. Depending
on the modes of obtaining nutrients, all the organisms can be classified into two groups:
1. Autotrophic and 2. Heterotrophic

1. Autotrophic Nutrition: The word autotrophic has a Greek origin and is made up of two
words: auto: self troph: nourishment/nutrition.
In autotrophic nutrition, organisms manufacture their own food from simple inorganic raw
materials present in the surroundings. The organisms which show the autotrophic mode of nutrition
are called autotrophs. Depending upon the source of energy used in the preparation of food,
autotrophic nutrition is divided into two types- photosynthetic and chemosynthetic.

 Photosynthetic Nutrition: It is the characteristic feature of green plants. These plants trap solar
energy and manufacture their food in the form of simple sugar from inorganic compounds like CO2
and H2O in the presence of chlorophyll. This process is known as photosynthesis. Such organisms
are called photoautotrophs e.g. green plants and photosynthetic bacteria.

6CO2 + 12H2O chlorophyll

C6H12O6 + 6O2  + 6H2O
Sunlight

 Chemosynthetic nutrition: In this mode of nutrition, organisms make use of chemical energy
released during oxidation of simple organic compounds to prepare their food. Such organisms are
called chemotrophs for example sulphur bacteria, iron bacteria, nitrosomonas bacteria etc.
In sulphur bacteria a compound called hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to release energy.

CO2 + 4H2S + O2  CH2O + 4S + 3H2O

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 2. Heterotrophic Nutrition: The term heterotrophic also has a Greek origin and is made up of
two words:
Hetero: different troph: nourishment/nutrition
In heterotrophic nutrition, organisms can’t prepare their food by themselves and are directly or
indirectly dependent upon autotrophs of their food. Organisms which show this mode of nutrition
are called heterotrophs or consumers.
Heterotrophic nutrition may be saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic.

I. Saprotrophic Nutrition: In this mode of nutrition, organisms release some enzymes called
hydrolytic enzymes to digest the dead organic food and derive nourishment from dead, decaying
organic matter. A few animals also absorb soluble nutrients from non-living organic matter.
Such a nutrition in animals is called saprozoic nutrition e.g. protozoans, nematodes (round
worm, hook worm). Both saprophytic (mucor, soil bacteria, pseudomonas) and saprozoic
nutritions together are called Saprotrophic Nutrition e.g. mushroom, mould, yeast.

II. Parasitic Nutrition: It is a type of nutrition in which the organisms (or parasites) derive their
nutrients or food from other living organisms (host). The organisms that provides nourishment
is called parasite and the organism that supports or provides sustenance to a parasite, is called a
host e.g. Plasmodium, Tape worm, Cuscuta etc.

On the basis of occurrence, parasites are of two types:

i) Endo parasites: Those parasites that live within the body of host and get nourishment from
them are called endoparasites e.g. Tapeworm, Trypanosoma, Hook Worm etc.

ii) Ecto parasites: Those parasites which live on the body of host and generally attach themselves
during feeding are called ectoparasite e.g. bed bug, head louse, mosquito, leech, lice, ticks etc.

On the basis of food habits, parasites are further classified into two types:
i) Total Parasite / Obligate Parasites: Those parasites that completely depend on host for their
nourishment e.g. tapeworm, round worm, Cuscuta (plant) etc.

ii) Partial or Facultative parasites: Those parasites that don’t obtain whole of their nourishment
from the host plant e.g. Mistle toe, sandal wood tree, lice, mosquito etc.

III. Holozoic Nutrition: It is that type of nutrition in which the organisms feed exclusively on the solid
organic food materials. The food may be a whole plant or whole animal or their parts or it is defined
as the feeding of complex organic matter by ingestion which is subsequently digested and absorbed.
It involves a no. of processes

1. Ingestion: Taking in of complex organic food through mouth openings, is called ingestion. It
occurs with the help of pseudopodia in amoeba, cilia in paramecium, tentacles in hydra, mouth
parts in insects, hands in man etc.

2. Digestion: It is the process by which complex, large sized, insoluble organic compounds like
proteins, fats etc are changed into simple, small, soluble, diffusible organic compounds like
aminoacids, fatty acids etc by the action of digestive enzymes secreted by digestive glands.

3. Absorption: It is the process by which diffusible nutrients pass through the wall of alimentary
canal especially small intestines into blood or lymph.

4. Assimilation: It is an anabolic process by which simple nutrients are metabolized to resynthesize

the complex biomolecules like proteins, fats, etc. It occurs inside the cells. The resynthesized
biomolecules help in growth and repair of body tissues.

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 5. Egestion: It involves expelling of undigested food in the form of faeces which contain excess of
water and digestive enzymes.

Depending upon food habits Holozoic Animals are classified as:

 Herbivores (L. herba = herb; vorare = to eat): These animals feed only on plants and plant
materials for e.g. cow, buffalo, goat etc.

 Omnivores: These animals feed both on plant as well as animal matter for e.g. man, crow, bear,
cockroach, ant, etc.

 Carnivores ([Link]= flesh; vorare = to eat): These animals feed on flesh of other animals e.g.
lion, tiger, leopard etc.

 Detritivores (Scavengers, carrion eaters): Those organisms that feed on dead and decaying
organic matter e.g. vultures, earthworms, etc.

 Sanguinivores: These are the organisms that feed on blood of other animals e.g. leech, female
Anopheles etc.

 Frugivores: These are fruit eating animals e.g. birds, pets etc.

 Insectivores: These are the organisms that eat insects e.g. frog, toad, pitcher plant etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUTOTROPHIC AND HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION:

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

1. It occurs in green plants. 1. It occurs in plants which lack chlorophyll,
insectivorous plants and animals.
2. The raw materials for this type of nutrition 2. They are directly or indirectly dependent on
are CO2 and H2O. autotrophs.
3. Chlorophyll and sunlight are essential for 3. Chlorophyll and sunlight are not required for it.
it.
4. They convert light energy into chemical 4. They don’t convert light energy into chemical
energy. energy.

Myxotrophic Nutrition:- It is that type of nutrition in which organisms show dual mode of nutrition e.g.
some green species of Euglena are autotrophic in presence of light but become saprophytic in dark, venus
fly trap etc.

Nutrition in Plants: Green plants make their food by the process of photosynthesis. It is the process of
conversion of solar energy into` chemical energy. It takes place in the leaves of a plant.

Photosynthesis - (Photon: light; Synthesis: putting together) Green plants make use of molecules of CO2
from air and H2O from soil which breakup and recombine to form sugar and oxygen by utilizing solar
energy in the presence of green pigment called chlorophyll. Thus during photosynthesis transformation of
light energy into chemical energy ( in carbohydrate molecule). Hence, it may be defined as the synthesis of
organic compounds (carbo hydrates) from CO2 and H2O by green plants using radiant energy or solar
energy by chlorophyll. O2 is evolved as a by-product. The process of photosynthesis can be represented by:

6CO2 + 12H2O chlorophyll

C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 
sunlight
(Carbon dioxide from air) (Water soil) (Glucose food) (Water) (Oxygen)

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The steps involved in photosynthesis are:
 Absorption of solar energy by chlorophyll photolysis of water.
 Formation of ATP and NADPH.
 Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates by utilizing chemical energy.

Leaf as a Photosynthetic Organ

Leaves are the most suitable and well adapted organs
to carry out the process of photosynthesis. In the
leaves, the cuticle layer covers the outermost cellular
layer, the epidermis. Below this layer, mesophyll
tissue is present which is differentiated into palisade
and spongy tissue. Chloroplasts are concentrated in
the upper palisade layer of leaf. This helps them to
obtain light energy very quickly. The spongy tissue
inside the leaf provides easy diffusion of carbon
dioxide. They also bear minute pores called stomata
either on one or both the surfaces to facilitate
exchange of gases between the leaf and the atmosphere.

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Chloroplast: Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis. It is present in the cell organelles called
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are green-coloured plastids. Each chloroplast is converted by a double-
membrane. Inside the membrane, the center of chloroplast is filled with matrix or stroma. A no. of
organized flattened membranous sacs called the thylakoids, are present in the stroma. Thylakoids are
arranged in stack like manner, like the piles of coins called grana or inter granal thylakoids.
In addition, there are flat membranous tubules called the stoma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of
different grana. The stroma of chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of carbohydrates
and proteins. It also contains a small, double stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in thylakoids.

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:

Following are the raw materials for photosynthesis:
1. CO2 2. H2O 3. Chlorophyll 4. Sunlight

1. Carbon Dioxide: The land plants take gaseous form of CO2 which enters the leaf through stomata
present on the epidermal layers. The stomata are minute pores guarded by two kidney-shaped
guard cells. The guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomatal aperture. The aquatic
plants take dissolved form of CO2 through the general surface of plant body. In submerged aquatic
plant, the stomata are absent and absorption of water, mineral and gases occur through the general
surface of plants.
During early morning and evening hours, CO2 is given out in plants through respiration and is then
used by plants as raw material for photosynthesis. This time no net CO2 is taken in by plants nor
released. At this time, Rate of Respiration = rate of Photosynthesis. This is known as compensation
point.

Compensation Point: The point at which rate of photosynthesis and respiration in a plant are
exactly balanced and one process uses up the products of other process, is called compensation
point.

2. Water: It is an important raw material for photosynthesis because it undergoes lysis in presence of
light to produce molecular oxygen and provide hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons to generate
the assimilatory power. The O2 is released in air.

2H2O  4H+ + O2 + 4e-

(Water) (Hydrogen protons) (Oxygen) (Electrons)

Plants absorb H2O from the soil through roots. The absorbed H2O is then transported upward
through xylem and reaches the leaves where it is utilized by process of photosynthesis in
photosynthetic cells.

3. Chlorophyll: It is of four types:

Chlorophyll – A: It is blue-green in colour.
Chlorophyll - B: it is green in colour.
Xanthophills: It is yellow in colour.
Carotenes: It is orange in colour.
Chlorophyll - A and Chlorophyll - B are light absorbing pigments. While as Xanthophills and
Carotenes are responsible for imparting colour to fruits and flowers.

4. Sunlight: It is a natural and prime source of energy and is used by plants only in visible light
(violet, blue, red).

Mechanism of Photosynthesis: The study of photosynthesis demonstrated the existence of two phases, a
light phase and a dark phase. The reactions of light phase require light and hence also called
photochemical reactions whereas reactions of dark phase require no light (dark) and are purely chemical
reactions.

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A. Light Phase (Photochemical Phase or Hill’s reaction)
It can be studied under two headings:
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll: It takes place in grana region of chloroplast. During
light reaction, radiant energy of sun is trapped by chlorophyll and accessory pigments. When
exposed to light, chlorophyll molecule absorbs sunlight and gets excited and emits electrons.

2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecule into hydrogen
and oxygen: Emitted electrons from chlorophyll are channeled through electron transport chain in
chloroplast. The energy absorbed by chlorophyll is responsible for carrying out three functions:

a) Photolysis of Water: The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen by light energy
(absorbed by chlorophyll) is called photolysis of water. Oxygen is released into atmosphere as
by product of photosynthesis. Mn2+ , Cl- and Ca2+ are required for this.
photolysis
2H2O + Energy 4H+ + O2 + e-
Mn, Cl, Ca

b) Formation of ATP: For the formation of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), ADP (Adenosine
diphosphate) joins a phosphate group. This formation of ATP from ADP during light phase is
called photophosphorylation. The ATP thus formed is used as a source of energy during dark
phase of photosynthesis.

c) Synthesis of NADPH (Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate): The

released hydrogen ions from water are made available to NADP which gets reduced to NADPH.
It is used in dark phase.
ATP and NADPH molecules formed during light reaction together are known as assimilatory
power.

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi  O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

B. Dark Phase (Light Independent Phase) or (Blackman’s Reaction or Biosynthetic Phase): Light
independent reaction takes place in stroma of chloroplast. This reaction takes place only in absence of
light and the whole process takes place in presence of many enzymes. As such it is also called as
enzymatic reaction or enzymatic path way. In this reaction, ATP provides the energy while NADPH
provides the electrons and hydrogen required to fix Carbon Dioxide into carbohydrates.

It can be studied under the heading:

Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Carbohydrate: Carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose
(carbohydrate) by hydrogen in NADPH and by utilizing the chemical energy stored in ATP. Here CO2
first of all combines with RuBP (Ribulose Biphosphate) in presence of enzyme rubisco. After a series
of reactions, carbohydrate is synthesized and RuBP is regenerated. The overall reaction of dark phase
can be represented as:

RuBP + CO2 + NADPH + ATP  RuBP + C6H12O6 + NADP + ADP + ip

It was discovered by Melvin Calvin and Any Benson, so it is also called as Calvin Benson Cycle.

Factors affecting Photosynthesis

There are two types of factors affecting photosynthesis. They are:

1. EXTERNAL FACTORS:
 Light: In photosynthesis, light is converted into chemical energy in the food so formed. It can be
studied under following three headings:
i) Light Intensity: Usually with increase in light intensity, rate of photosynthesis increases.
ii) Light Quality: Blue and red light of spectrum is said to be the best light for photosynthesis.
The maximum photosynthesis is shown to occur in the red part of the spectrum with the next

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 peak in blue part. The green light has an inhibitory effect on photosynthesis. But plants
growing in deep water absorbs green light.
iii) Light Duration: Generally photosynthesis is independent of light duration. Plants which
remain in light for 10-12 hrs are said to have high rate of photosynthesis.

 Carbon Dioxide: It is present in low concentration and form about 0.03 % of the total atmosphere
CO2 is one of the raw materials of photosynthesis. CO2 is the natural limiting factor of
photosynthesis. If the CO2 concentration increases in plant body above 1% it reacts with H2O and
forms Carbonic Acid. The rate of photosynthesis decreases due to closure of stomata.

 Water: Out of the total amount of H2O taken by plants, they use only 1- 2% of it. Water deficiency
may decrease photosynthesis because it is one of the important factors of this process. Less
availability of water may further check the rate by closing the stomata, thereby affecting the entry
of CO2.

 Temperature: The optimum temperature for photosynthesis is 18 - 350 C. If the temperature is

increased, the rate of photosynthesis decreases due to denaturation of enzymes involved in the
process.

 Oxygen: Excess of O2 may become inhibitory for the process of photosynthesis. Enhanced supply
of O2 increases the respiration simultaneously decreasing the rate of photosynthesis.
An increase in O2 concentration decreases photosynthesis. This effect is known as Warburg effect.

2. INTERNAL FACTORS:
 Chlorophyll: When the amount of chlorophyll is more, more absorption of solar energy occurs
which will ultimately increase rate of photosynthesis.
 Leaf Anatomy: Size of leaf, its location and position in a plant affects rate of photosynthesis.
 Accumulation of Products: If no translocation of products occurs, rate of photosynthesis will
decrease and it can even stop.
 Photosynthetic /Assimilatory Number: (Amount of carbohydrates produced by 1gm of CO2 in
1 hr.) More the assimilatory number more will be the rate of photosynthesis.

Significance of Photosynthesis
1. Food: By photosynthesis, green plants synthesize food from simple raw materials like CO2 and
H2O. Thus, it sustains life on earth.

2. Oxygen: O2 released during this process is needed by animals and humans. It is also required for
respiration of microbes. O2 also supports combustion of fuels.

3. Fuels: Fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are formed of stored solar energy synthesized by
photosynthesis millions of years ago.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Nutrition: The sum total of processes (the taking in, breaking down, absorption and assimilation of food)
by which living organisms obtain food and prepare them for use in growth, repairing and reproduction of
energy is called nutrition. Or it may also be defined as the sum total of all process involved or concerned
with the conversion of raw food stuff into usable and simple compounds to release energy.

The five steps in the process of nutrition are:

1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Assimilation
5. Egestion

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 1) Ingestion: The intake of food inside the body is termed as ingestion. Thus ingestion may be
defined as a process by which the organism takes food. In man ingestion of food is done by the
mouth.

2) Digestion: It is a process in which complex food substances are broken down by the action of
various enzymes into simpler soluble substances (cycle) which can be absorbed. In man,
digestion starts in the mouth and continues on until the small intestines.

3) Absorption: It is the diffusion of the digested food by the living parts of the organism. In man
the digested food is absorbed in the small intestines through the intestinal wall having finger like
projections known as villi.

4) Assimilation: It means the incorporation of digested food substances into the living cells of an
animal & the subsequent use for building up new tissues.

5) Egestion: It is the process by which the undigested part of the food is thrown out of the body.
In man, the undigested food enters the large intestines from where it is thrown out through the
anus.

Nutrition in Amoeba: Amoeba is a unicellular protozoan. Amoeba eats tiny microscopic plants (algae,
bacteria) and animals which float in water. The mode of Nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic. The process of
obtaining food by Amoeba (single cell) is called Phagocytosis.

VARIOUS STEPS IN NUTRITION OF AMOEBA

1. Ingestion: Amoeba has no mouth for ingestion of food. Amoeba ingests food by using its
pseudopodia. When a food particle comes near Amoeba, it ingests the food particle by forming
pseudopodia around it. The food is engulfed with a little surrounding water to form a food vacuole
inside the Amoeba. The food vacuole acts as temporary stomach.

2. Digestion: In Amoeba food is digested in the food vacuole by digestive enzymes. The enzymes
from cytoplasm enter food vacuole and breaks down the food into small and water molecules by
chemical reaction, due to dissolved food.

3. Absorption: The digested food present in food vacuole is absorbed directly into the cytoplasm of
Amoeba cell by diffusion. Since amoeba consists of only one small cell, it does not require blood
system to carry the digested food, the food vacuole disappears.

4. Assimilation: Part of the absorbed food is used to obtain energy through respiration and the
remaining absorbed food is used for growth of amoeba.

5. Egestion: There is no fixed anus in amoeba. The digested food in amoeba is egested through the
plasma membrane. The food vacuole bursts and opens and then disappears.

Nutrition in Human Beings

Man is holozoic, omnivorous organism. The complex molecules that are present in the food cannot be
utilized as such by the body cells. They have to be broken down into simpler forms before it reaches the
cells. This chemical change is brought about by substances called enzymes.
Nutrition in man involves the steps such as ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

I. Digestive System of Man

The human digestive system is a coiled, muscular tube extending from mouth to anus. It has several
specialized compartments along its length: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines,
large intestines and anus. Accessory digestive organs are connected to the main system by a series of
ducts, namely, salivary glands, parts of pancreas, liver and gall bladder.
It includes the alimentary canal and digestive glands that secrete enzymes into the canal through ducts.

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 1. Alimentary Canal: It is differentiated into bucco -pharyngeal cavity, oesophagus, stomach and
intestines.

a. Bucco-Pharyngeal Cavity: It consists of the mouth cavity and pharynx. The mouth cavity is
formed by the cheeks (form the side walls), tongue (form the floor) and palate (form the roof). The
palate is distinguished into the anterior hard and posterior soft palate. Mouth cavity has two
openings at the back one, gullet, leading into the oesophogus and the lower one, glottis, leading into
the trachea. Glottis is covered by a small flap like structure called epiglottis which prevents entry
of food into trachea.
Mechanical breakdown begins in the mouth by chewing and grinding of food by the teeth and of the
tongue. This process is known as mastication.
Tongue is a muscular organ, which is covered by a special type of mucous membrane. Besides,
being the organ of taste, it mixes the food with saliva. It helps to form the food into a bolus before
it is swallowed and passed into pharynx.

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 TEETH: They are hard structures which are used for cutting, chewing and crushing the food
(Physical digestion). They are partly embedded in sockets of jaw bones (Thecodont). Teeth are
made of ivory like substance called dentine. The exposed parts of teeth or crowns are covered by a
shiny substance called enamel. Each jaw has 16 teeth of four types (Heterodont)

Type Shape Function Number in each jaw

Incisors Chisel – Shaped Biting 4
Canines Dagger – Shaped Tearing 2
Pre- Molars Cusped Broad Edged Grinding 4
Molars Cusped Broad Edged Grinding 6

Dental formula for human adult is 2123 in each quadrant.

Humans have two sets of teeth (diphyodont), deciduous and permanent. Deciduous or milk teeth
occur in infants. They start appearing and the age of 6 – 11 months and are completed by the age of
2 years.
Milk teeth are 20 in number. From 6 – 12 years, the milk teeth are lost and replaced by permanent
teeth that are 32 in number.

b. Pharynx: Pharynx is situated behind the tongue. It is short, funnel shaped structure arising from
soft palate. It is divided into three parts: a) Nasopharynx b) Oropharynx c) laryngopharynx
It is also called throat. Swallowing moves the food from mouth through the pharynx into the
oesophagus and then to the stomach.

c. Oesophagus: It is a muscular tube about 20 cm long and lies in the neck and chest cavity. It open
into the stomach. It has muscles which contract and relax rhythmically to push the food
downwards. This rhythmic involuntary contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles of alimentary
canal, is called peristalsis.

d. Stomach: It is large, somewhat J shaped muscular sac, situated just below the diaphragm towards
the left side in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. It is highly elastic. It is formed of following
parts viz cardiac stomach, body, antrum and pyloric.

o Cardiac Stomach: It receives the oesophagus through an aperture called as cardiac aperture
guarded by cardiac sphincter which prevents regurgitation of food. It is projected somewhat
upwards and is called fundus.

o Body: It is the main and middle part of stomach which is dome shaped.

o Pyloric: It is lower and narrow part which opens into duodenum.

e. Small Intestines: It is about 6.5m long and is thrown into coiled loops, which fill most of the
abdominal cavity. It is differentiated into three regions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

 Duodenum: It is widest, shortest and c-shaped. It is about 25cm long. It receives common
bile and pancreatic duct called hepato pancreatic duct.

 Jejunum: It is middle part and about 2.5m long.

 Ileum: It is the longest part and about 3.7m in length. It opens into caecum. Both jejunum
and ileum are highly coiled. Inner lining of small intestines is raised into 4 million minute
finger like projections called as villi which increases the surface area for absorption of food.

f. Large Intestines: It is about 1.5m long but it has a larger diameter than the small intestines. It is
divided into three parts- caecum, colon and rectum.

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 o Caecum: It is a small pouch like structure which ends into tubular structure called
vermiform appendix. Caecum and vermiform appendix are vestigial in function.

o Colon: It is long U shaped structure which is differentiate into four regions:

a) Ascending Colon: It extends up to liver on right side.
b) Transverse Colon: It crosses the abdominal cavity below pancreas.
c) Descending Colon: It runs downwards on the left side.
d) Sigmoid or Pelvic Colon: It is S shaped and opens into rectum.

o Rectum: It is slightly dilated part about 13cm long and is concerned with temporary storage
of faeces. It leads to anal canal which opens out by anus.

2. Associated or Accessory Digestive Glands: Salivary gland, gastric gland, liver, pancreas and
intestinal gland are the associated digestive glands.
a) Salivary gland: It is the gland which secretes saliva and breaks starch and complex sugars into
maltose. There are three pairs of salivary glands on the basis of their position but their function is
same i.e. to secrete saliva into the buccal cavity.
i) Parotid ii) Sub-maxillary iii) Sub-lingual

Saliva: It is a watery fluid which contains mucus for lubrication of food, salts which acts as buffer,
antibacterial agents and an enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. It has a pH of 6.8 and is
slightly acidic in nature. Our mouth secretes 1-5 litres of saliva per day.

b) Gastric Gland: Stomach is divided into three parts. Similarly, gastric glands are divided into
three types viz cardiac gland, pyloric gland and fundic gland.
The function of cardiac and pyloric glands is to make the medium inside the stomach alkaline.
Fundic gland consists of four types of cells which performs different functions.

i) Zymogenic / Chief Cells: It secretes two enzymes pepsin and renin which helps in protein
digestion.

ii) Goblet Cells: It secretes mucus that helps in the lubrication of food.

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 iii) Oxyntic Cells / Parietal Cells: It secretes HCl which kills the germs in food, activates
pepsinogen and prorenin, makes the medium acidic for the action of enzymes and deactivates
salivary amylase.

c) Liver: It is the largest gland, normally weighing about 1.5kg, situated just below the diaphragm
in the risht upper part of the abdominal cavity. A pear shaped sac-like structure situated on the
undersurface of liver, called gall bladder acts as a reserviour for storing bile secreted by the liver.
Bile contains no enzymes but contains bile salts which help in digesting and absorbing fats
(emulsification of fats). The daily secretion of bile is 600-1200 ml.

Liver is like a chemical factory which is involved in over 500 different kinds of functions like:
i) It converts ammonia into urea.
ii) It helps indigestion.
iii) It secretes anticoagulant “heparin” which prevents blood from being coagulated within the
cells.
iv) It converts glucose into glycogen by the process of glycogenesis.

d) Pancreas: It is the second largest gland of our body. It is yellow coloured and is about 12-15cm
in length. It lies at the loop of duodenum and is formed of head, body and tail. It is a heterocrine
gland i.e. it has an exocrine and an endocrine part in it. The endocrine part consists of clusters of
endocrine cells called as -cells of islets of Langerhanns which secretes two hormones i.e. insulin
and glucagon. The exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice which is rich in digestive enzymes. It
contains pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsin. Daily secretion is 1500ml/ day.

e) Intestinal Glands: These are present in the lining of intestines. They are numerous and
collectively secrete secretions. They secrete secretions called as intestinal juices or succus entericus
and daily secretion is 1 liter/day.

PROCESS OF DIGESTION
1. Digestion in Mouth: Digestion of food begins in mouth. The food ingested is chewed by teeth and is
broken into smaller particles so that large surface area is provided for the action of enzymes. This
process is called mastication. This food is then mixed with the saliva secreted by salivary glands which
moistens and lubricates the food and help in swallowing. The enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin) acts
on starch present in the food and breaks it into maltose in an alkaline medium.
The masticated food is now rolled into a bolus by the tongue and passed through the pharynx and
oesophagus. During swallowing, the epiglottis closes and prevents the food from entering the trachea.
The food is passed along oesophagus by peristalsis.

2. Digestion in Stomach: As the food reaches the stomach, it is mixed with the gastric juice secreted by
the gastric glands. The food is churned by the contraction and relaxation of muscles of the stomach.
Gastric juices contain dilute HCl, two enzymes rennin and pepsin, mucus. A small amount of gastric
lipase is also present in it.

 Pepsin: It gets activated in acidic medium and acts upon the proteins to convert them into
peptones.
 HCl: It kills the bacteria swallowed along with food, makes the medium acidic for the activation of
pepsin and stops the action of salivary amylase.
 Gastric Lipase: It partially breaks down the lipids.
 Mucus: It forms the inner lining of stomach and is secreted by the goblet cells of stomach. The
function of mucus is to protect the lining of stomach from the action of HCl.
 Renin: It is present in children. It acts on milk protein “Casein” in presence of Ca salts and
converts it into calcium paracaseinate. Pepsin then acts on calcium paracaseinate and converts it
into Ca ions and peptones.

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While still in stomach, the food is churned by the muscular activity of the stomach to a creamy fluid called
chyme. The food remains in stomach for a particular duration - carbohydrates (1 - 2 hours) proteins (2 - 3
hours), fats (3 - 6 hours) and is periodically poured through the pyloric into the duodenum in small
intestines.

3. Digestion in Duodenum: The chyme enters into the duodenum which receives two juices.
i) bile from liver
ii) pancreatic juices from pancreas

i. Bile helps in emulsification of fats i.e. breaking down of fats into fatty acids and glycerol, stops the
action of gastric enzymes and also makes the medium alkaline for the action of pancreatic juices.
Bile contains carbonate ions or sodium bicarbonate salts which makes the medium alkaline.

ii. Pancreatic juice contains following enzymes:

a) Trypsin: It converts remaining proteins into peptones and peptones into peptides and amino
acids.
b) Pancreatic amylase: It converts the undigested starch into maltose.
c) Lipase: It converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
The food now moves down to ileum and is formed in liquid state called chyle.

4. Digestion in Ileum: The food is slowly moved down to ileum where more digestive changes come into
action. The intestinal juice called succus entericus contains the following enzymes which also acts in
an alkaline medium.

i) Trypsin: It converts peptones into amino acids.

ii) Maltase: It converts maltose into glucose.
iii) Lactose: It converts lactose into glucose and galactose.
iv) Sucrase or Invertase: It converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
v) Lipase: It converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Thus, the digestion started in mouth is completed in small intestines. The digested food consists of simple
sugars (monosaccharides), amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.

II. Absorption of Food: It is the process by which the products of digestion are taken into the blood
stream. Most of the absorption of food materials takes place in the ileum of small intestines.
The absorption surface is greatly increased by the presence of millions of finger like projections
called villi. Each villus is converted by epithelium and contains blood vessels and lymph
vessels. Glucose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins are absorbed by the blood vessels while
as fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the lymph vessels (lacteals).

III. Assimilation of Food: The food after digestion and absorption is assimilated into the body
substances and protoplasm of the cells. This takes place in following ways:
i. Fatty acids and glycerol are used for deriving energy and for the formation of phospholipids.
(Biosynthesis i.e., formation of cell membrane) Excess fat is stored in the body in adipose tissue
which can be utilized in times of need.
ii. The simple sugars (monosaccharides) are used for generating energy for performing various
metabolic activities. The excess glucose is converted into glycogen in the liver which can be
reutilized during stress conditions.
iii. Amino acids are used for the formation of nucleic acids and proteins.

IV. Egestion: The undigested semi-solid food which remains in small intestines is passed into large
intestines. 95% water and salts are reabsorbed from it. The undigested waste called faeces is
stored in the rectum from where it is egested through anus and this process of elimination of
undigested food is called Defecation or Egestion.

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 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN:

INGESTION DIGESTION
In this step, the food is taken into the body. In this step, food containing large insoluble
molecules is broken down into small, water
There is no need of any digestive juices and soluble molecules.
enzymes. Digestive juices and enzymes are required
INGESTION EGESTION
The process of taking the food into the The process in which the undigested food is
body is called ingestion. removed is called egestion.
Food is in solid or liquid form. It is in semi-solid form.
It contains roughage along with the food It contains roughage and small amount of
nutrient. undigested nutrients.
It is called feeding. It is also called defecation.
ABSORPTION ASSIMILATION
The process in which the digested food The process in which the absorbed food taken in
passes through the intestinal wall into blood by body cells used for energy growth and repair is
stream is called absorption. called assimilation.
The absorbed food is sent to different parts The assimilated food is synthesized into
of the body. protoplasm.
The main site for absorption of food is The main site for assimilation of food is
small intestine. Ribosomes.

RESPIRATION: The phenomenon of release of energy by oxidation of various organic molecules for
cellular use, is called respiration. The substances which are oxidized during respiration are known as
respiratory substances. In broad sense, the process of exchange of gases between an organism and its
environment resulting in oxidation of respiratory substrate to release energy, is called respiration.

Respiration, thus involves:

a) Breathing: The mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the environment and release
carbon dioxide is termed as breathing. It is a physical (extra cellular) process. No energy is
released or no enzymes are involved in breathing. So, it is also called as extra cellular respiration.

b) Internal Respiration: Respiration is a catabolic process going on in the cells of body at room
temperature in which food is oxidized with the liberation of energy. Respiration involves taking in
oxygen (of air) into the cells and using it for releasing energy by burning food and then eliminating
the waste products (carbon dioxide and water) from the body. Respiration takes place inside the
cells of the body hence it is called cellular internal respiration.

Carbon dioxide and water are by-products of cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide is waste product of
respiration and is thrown out because its accumulation in the body is harmful to the organism. Water
produced during respiration is not harmful to the body.

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

Food Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Energy

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DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN:

BREATHING RESPIRATION
1. It is physical process where only exchange of 1. It is biochemical process where food
gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. (glucose) is oxidized to produce carbon
dioxide and water.
2. No energy is released. 2. Energy is released.
3. It is extra cellular. 3. It is intracellular.
4. No enzymes are involved. 4. It requires many enzymes to bring about the
oxidation.
5. It occurs in respiratory system. 5. It occurs in Mitochondria of cells.
6. Breathing involves the lungs of organisms. 6. It involves Mitochondria of cells.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION
1. It takes place in green plants. 1. It takes place in all living cells.
2. It requires carbon dioxide, water, 2. It requires oxygen and food.
chlorophyll and sunlight. 3. CO2 and water are produced.
3. Food and oxygen are produced. 4. Energy is released (exergonic).
4. Energy is stored (endergonic). 5. It takes place throughout the life (day and
5. It takes place only in sunlight. night) of the organism.
6. It is anabolic activity. 6. It is catabolic activity.
7. Weight of organism is increased. 7. Weight of organism is decreased.
8. Enzymes are located in chloroplast. 8. Enzymes are located in mitochondria.

The respiration is just opposite to photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O + ATP

Respiration : C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

RESPIRATION COMBUSTION
1. It takes place in living cells only. 1. It does not take place in living cells.
2. It is carried out with the help of various 2. Enzymes are not involved in this process.
enzymes.
3. Oxidation of food and liberation of energy
occurs in a stepwise manner. 3. The substances are oxidized spontaneously
4. It occurs at the body temperature of an with sudden release of energy.
organism. 4. Sudden release of energy generates high
5. 60% of energy escapes as body heat and 40% temperature.
of energy is packaged directly into new 5. Energy released in combustion is dissipated
chemical energy (ATP). as heat and to some extent as light.

Q: Respiration is a vital function of the body. Justify.

Ans. Respiration is a vital process and is essential for life because it provides energy for carrying out all the
processes which are necessary for the maintenance of life and to keep the organism alive.

Q: What is ATP and what is its role in respiration?

Ans. ATP means Adenosine Triphosphate. It is regarded as energy currency. ATP is in fact tiny
molecules formed in the cells which collect the extra amount of energy for future use.
When excess energy is released by combustion of molecules, it is used to make ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate.

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 ADP + (p) energy
ADP  (P) = ATP

Each ATP molecule on hydrolysis releases 30.54KJ/mol of energy.

Q: Which steps are involved in Respiration?

Ans
. The two steps involved in respiration are:
a) Breathing
b) Oxidation of digested food

Q: What is Respiratory Substrate?

Ans. The organic compounds which are oxidized during respiration are known as respiratory substrates
e.g., Glucose.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
There are two types of respiration
a) Aerobic Respiration
b) Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration: Aerobic respiration is the respiration which takes place in the presence of oxygen.
It is completed into two main steps.
i) Glycolysis
ii) Krebs Cycle

In Aerobic respiration, the glucose (food) is completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water by
oxidation and releases energy in the form of ATP. The breaking down of glucose during aerobic
respiration is represented as:
Glycolysis Oxygen (Kreb’s Cycle)
Glucose Pyruvic Acid 6CO2 + H2O + 38ATP
(1 molecule) (In Cytoplasm) (Pyruvate 2 molecules) In Mitochondria (Energy)

One molecule of glucose produces 38 energy rich ATP molecules. Organisms which obtain energy by
aerobic respiration cannot live without oxygen because if there is no oxygen they cannot get energy from
food.

In Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid with the release of some energy. This reaction
occurs in cytoplasm.

In Kreb’s cycle, TCA cycle, tricarbolic acidic cycle: Pyruvic acid, in the presence of oxygen is
completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water with the release of more energy. This reaction occurs in
Mitochondria of cell.

Anaerobic Respiration: Anaerobic respiration is the respiration which takes place in the absence of
oxygen. Here Pyruvic acid undergoes two types of incomplete reductions.
i) In one, it results in the production of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide as in bacteria and yeast. Here
it is called as fermentation and is brought about by a complex enzyme called zymase.
ii) In the other, it forms lactic acid as during the muscular exercise in the human body and in other
animals.

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DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN:
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. It takes place in presence of O2. 1. It takes place in absence of O2.
2. Substrate (glucose) is completely broken 2. Substrate is partially broken down.
down.
3. The end products are carbon dioxide and 3. The end products are ethyl alcohol and CO2
water. (in yeast plant) and lactic acid (in animal
muscles).
4. Aerobic respiration produces a considerable 4. It produces less energy (2 ATP molecules)
amount of energy (38ATP molecules).
5. Glycolysis is carried out in cytoplasm 5. Anaerobic Respiration is carried out in
(outside Mitochondria) while krebs takes cytoplasm (outside Mitochondria).
place in Mitochondria.
6. Carbon dioxide is evolved. 6. Carbon dioxide may not be evolved.
7. It is very efficient process. 7. It is less efficient process.

To sum up we can say

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Respiration in plants differ from respiration in animals in three aspects.
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
1. All parts of the plant (root, stem and leaves) 1. An animal respires as a single unit.
perform respiration individually.
2. Transport of respiratory gases (oxygen and 2. Respiratory gases are transported over long
carbon dioxide) is minimum. distances in animals.
3. It takes place at a slow rate. 3. It takes place at much faster rate.
Respiration involves exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. So oxygen and carbon dioxide are
respiratory gases. All the parts of a plant (like root, stem and leaves) perform respiration individually.
During respiration, there is little transport of respiratory gases from one part of the plant to the other part of
the plant. Respiration in plants takes place at a slow rate. All the parts of plants like roots, stem and leaves
get oxygen needed for respiration by diffusion.

Respiration in Roots: Root hairs are involved in exchange of respiratory gases by diffusion. Root hairs
are the extensions of the epidermal cells of a root. Roots take up oxygen present in between the soil
particles by the process of diffusion. Oxygen (from air in soil particles) diffuses into root hairs and reaches
the other cells of the root for respiration. Carbon dioxide produced in the cells of the root during
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 18 of 43
respiration moves out from the same root hairs by diffusion. Thus respiration in roots occurs by diffusion
of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) through root hairs.
Plant dies if its roots remain water logged for a long time because too much water expels all the air from in
between soil for aerobic respiration and the roots are forced to respire anaerobically producing ethyl
alcohol. This may kill the plants.

RESPIRATION IN HIGHER PLANTS

Respiratory organs of higher plants are Lenticels and Stomata.
1. Lenticels: Lenticels are tiny apertures found in the stem regions, through which exchange of gases
takes place between the air and living cells of the stem. Lenticels are present in hard, woody stems
of large plants.
2. Stomata: Stomata are the pores (openings) on the lower surface of the leaves through which
exchange of gases take place between the air and the cells of the leaves. Water vapour from the
leaves also goes out through stomata during transpiration. Soft stems of herbaceous plants also have
stomata.

Role of Lenticels and Stomata in Respiration - During respiration, oxygen enters from the atmosphere to
the plant body through them (lenticels and stomata) and carbon dioxide and water vapours come out from
the same passage.

Respiration in Stems - Exchange of respiratory gases in the stems of herbaceous plants takes place
through stomata. Oxygen from air diffuses into the stem of herbaceous plant through stomata and CO2 is
released through the same stomata. Hard and woody stems of big plants do not have stomata, so exchange
of respiratory gases in woody stems of big plants or trees take place through lenticels. Oxygen from air
diffuses into the stem of woody plant through lenticels and reaches all the inner cells of the stem for
respiration. Carbon dioxide produced during respiration diffuses out into the air through the same lenticels.

Respiration in Leaves - Exchange of respiratory gases in the leaves takes place through stomata. Oxygen
from air diffuses into the leaf through stomata and reaches all the cells for respiration. Carbon dioxide
produced during respiration diffuses out from the leaf into the air through the same stomata.

Respiration through Body Surface (Cell Surfaces) - In lower plants and animals like Spirogyra,
Chlamydomonas, Amoeba, Paramecium, Hydra, Sponges, exchange of respiratory gases takes place
through general body surfaces by diffusion.

RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
There is a constant exchange of gases between an organism and its environment. The surface of an
organism where the gaseous exchange takes place is called respiratory surface. This surface is especially
adopted for exchange of gases.
It must have following characteristics:
1) The respiratory surface must have a large surface area.
2) It should be extremely thin and moist for efficient diffusion.
3) It should be richly supplied with blood capillaries.
4) It must be permeable to respiratory gases.
5) There should be a provision for carrying O2 to respiratory surface and carrying away CO2 from the
respiratory surface.

Organs of Respiration in Animal

In lower animals, like Amoeba, Euglena etc. no specific respiratory organs are present. In these animals
exchange of gases takes place through the cell membrane by diffusion. In earthworm respiration is
cutaneous i.e. it breathes through most skin-frogs respire through skin as well as through lungs. Thus, it
shows both cutaneous as well as pulmonary respiration (through lungs). Insects contain small pores on
their bodies called spiracles which open into air tube like structures called trachea through which they
respire. So, respiration of insects through spiracles and network of Trachea, is called Tracheal etc.
respiration. Aquatic animals like fishes, prawns contain gills. Fish have gills enclosed in gill chambers or
operculum one on either side of the body just behind the head. Since the amount of O 2 dissolved in H2O is
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 19 of 43
fairly low, the aquatic animals must breathe faster to get sufficient O2. Fish takes in H2O through mouth
and send it over the gills. The large surface of gills is lined with blood capillaries where the dissolved O2 is
taken up by the blood and CO2 is released into the external H2O. Respiration through gills is called
Branchial respiration.

Common Features of Respiratory Organs:

Respiratory organs (skins, gills, trachea, lungs) have three common features.
i) All respiratory organs have large surface area to get enough oxygen.
ii) All respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
iii) All respiratory organs (skins, gills, trachea, lungs) have a rich blood supply for transport of
respiratory gases. Only in tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

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The process of respiration in human beings involves respiratory system which performs two main
functions:
i) To breathe in oxygen needed for respiration.
ii) To breathe out carbon dioxide produced during respiration.

Respiratory system in animals is formed of two parts:

1) Respiratory Tract 2) Respiratory organs

I) Respiratory Tract: It is the passage for transport of fresh and foul air and comprises of various
organs.
1) Nostrils or External Nares: It is a small pair of oval apertures at the base of nose just above
the mouth.
2) Nasal Cavity or Nasal Chamber: These are a pair of large chambers present above the bony
palate. Nasal chambers are separated by nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three
parts:
i) Vestibular part ii) Respiratory part iii) Olfactory part

Nasal cavity is lined by ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium rich in mucus secreting cells.
Both mucus and cilia check the entry of dust particles and microbes. Nasal chamber thus helps in:
 Warming of air
 Filtration of air
 Air moistening
 Sterilizing
 Smelling
 Air conditioning
Due to these functions, nasal respiration is advantageous over mouth respiration.

3) Internal nares: These are openings of nasal chambers which open in pharynx.

4) Pharynx: It is a common passage for the entry of food and air. It leads to trachea and
oesophagus. The lower part of pharynx has silt like aperture called as glottis which always
remains open except during food swallowing. The glottis bears the leaf like cartilaginous flap
called epiglottis which closes the glottis during swallowing in order to prevent the entry of food
into respiratory tract. Entry of food into respiratory tract can be fatal.

5) Larynx or sound box or voice box: It is a small thin walled tubular part present in neck. It is
an enlarged upper part of trachea. It is more developed in males than in females after puberty.
In males, it becomes permanent and protrudes outwards and is called “Adam’s apple”. Inside
the larynx are two vocal cards. Vibrations in vocal cards results in the production of sound
which is altered and converted into speech with the help of buccal cavity, soft palate, tongue
and lips.

6) Trachea or wind pipe: It is a long, thin walled tubular structure. It is about 11 cm in length
and 2.5 cm in diameter which runs downwards through the neck in front of oesophagus. It is
supported by 16-20 incomplete c-shaped cartilaginous tracheal rings which prevent its
collapsing. It is lined by ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium with mucus secreting
goblet cells.

7) Primary Bronchi: It is a pair of small thin walled tubular structures formed by the division of
trachea. Each primary bronchi enters a lung of its own side and forms a bronchial intercom.

8) Bronchial Intercom: It is a network present inside the lungs formed by the division and re-
division of primary bronchus.

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Right bronchus enters into right lung and divides into three smaller branches called secondary bronchi one
going to each lobe of lung while as left bronchus enters into left lung and divides into two smaller
secondary bronchi. Secondary bronchi further divides into still smaller bronchi called tertiary bronchi.
Cartilaginous rings extend up to tertiary bronchi. Each tertiary bronchus further divides into still smaller
branches called bronchioles. Each bronchiole further divides into minute branches called terminal
bronchioles which further divide into respiratory bronchiole. Each of which divides into finest branches
called alveolar duct, each of which opens into an alveolar sac or infundibulum or atrium.
An alveolar sac is formed of central passage and 6-8 pockets like outgrowths called alveoli or air sacs.
Alveoli are the site of respiration. There are as many as 750 million alveoli in both the lungs which
provides about 100m2 surface area for respiration which is about 50 times than that of skin (1.6m2). So,
lungs replace skin very effectively in mammals as organs of respiration.

II) Respiratory Organs: Respiratory organs in man are lungs, so it is called pulmonary respiration.

LUNGS
a. Position: Lungs are a pair of soft, elastic and spongy organs present in thoracic cavity one on
either side of heart. The thoracic cavity is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular
partition called diaphragm.

b. Pleura: It is thin, transparent two layered membrane. The outer membrane is adhered to chest
wall and diaphragm and is called as parietal pleura. The inner membrane closely covers the
lungs and is called visceral pleura. Between these layers, is a narrow cavity called as pleural
cavity filled with a watery fluid called pleural fluid which performs three functions:
i) It performs free frictionless movement of lungs.
ii) It protects lungs from mechanical shock.
iii) It keeps pleura together and lungs expanded.

Structure
 Each lung is conical shaped having upper apex and lower broader base. Right lung is slightly larger
and broader in size.
 Each lung is lobulated organ and is divided externally into lobes by transverse oblique grooves
called fissures.
 Left lung is divided into two lobes- superior and inferior lobes while as right lung is divided into
three lobes- superior, middle and inferior lobes.
 Left lung has a cardiac notch in order to accommodate heart.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Breathing is a mechanical process and it involves two steps:
1. Inhalation or Inspiration: It is the bringing of fresh air into lungs. During inhalation, the diaphragm
flattens by moving its curved part downwards. The intercoastal muscles and thoracic cavity expands.
This makes thorax to move upwards and outwards, thereby increasing volume inside thoracic cavity.
This causes a decrease in air pressure inside. As a result, the air from outside rushes into lungs
through nostrils, trachea and bronchi. Through the thin walls of alveoli, O2 diffuses into the blood
which then supplies this O2 to tissues. It is then used by cells for cellular respiration.

2. Exhalation or expiration: It is the throwing out of expulsion of foul air from the lungs. As a result of
cellular respiration, CO2 is produced. This CO2 is absorbed by blood from the tissues and carried to
alveoli of lungs. At this stage, the thoracic cavity returns to its normal size due to relaxation of
diaphragm and rib muscles and CO2 is pushed out of body through nostrils and trachea.
Breathing is an involuntary process and the rate of breathing is controlled by respiratory centre of brain.
An average rate of breathing in an normal man is 15 - 18 times/minute and the rate of breathing
increases at the time of activities because demand of O2 increases and there is an increase of 20 - 25
times /minute during vigorous physical exercise.

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 Inhalation Exhalation

Mechanism of gaseous exchange between tissues and blood

When we breathe in air through nose, the air enters the nostril, passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi and finally reaches the lungs. In the lungs, air passes through bronchioles and reaches the
tiny air sacs called alveoli. Oxygen of air diffuses out from alveoli walls into the blood. The oxygen is
carried by a red pigment called haemoglobin present in blood to all parts of the body. As the blood passes
through the tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into cells due to its higher concentration in
blood. The oxidation of food (glucose) takes place in Mitochondria present in the cells. Carbon dioxide
produced during respiration in the cells of the body tissues diffuses into blood in the form of
carbaminohaemoglobin due to higher concentration in body tissues. Blood carries carbon dioxide to the
lungs. Carbon dioxide is removed with the air we breathe out.
Thus, blood which comes from the lungs has higher concentration of oxygen but the body tissues have
higher concentration of carbon dioxide. It is due to this difference in concentration of oxygen and carbon
dioxide; gases are exchanged between tissue and blood.

Transportation
The transport of substances like food, H2O, O2, enzymes, hormones etc. inside the body of an organism is
called internal transport and the organs which carry out transport within the body constitutes the internal
transport system.

Transport of Materials in Plants

Plants absorb H2O and minerals from the soil by their root system. Root hairs present on the root facilitate
the absorption of H2O and minerals. The absorbed H2O and minerals have to be transported from roots to
all the parts of plant. Similarly the food, which is prepared, has to be transported to various parts of the
plant.
These functions of internal transport in plants are carried out by xylem and phloem. H2O and minerals
absorbed by the roots are transported through xylem tissue while as food prepared by leaves is transported
through phloem.
The upward movement of H2O and minerals from roots to aerial parts of the plant against the gravitational
force is called ascent of sap and the transport of food prepared the process of photosynthesis to various
parts of plant is called translocation.

Transport of H2O and Minerals (Ascent of Sap)

Ascent of sap is carried out of xylem tissue. In flowering plants xylem vessels and tracheids conduct water
and minerals and in non-flowering plants, tracheids are the only conducting cells. Tracheids are long, thin,
spindle shaped cells with pits in their thick walls. Water flows from one tracheid to another through pits.
The xylem vessels are elongated, non-living, lignified and placed end to end to form the pipeline for
conducting water and minerals from roots to the leaves.
Minerals and H2O needed by the plant are absorbed by the roots. The root hairs absorb H2O from the soil
by the process of osmosis and take in minerals by the process of diffusion. Thus a difference in
concentration of ions is created between the roots and soil which enables the water to enter into the roots.
This water along with dissolved minerals from root hairs passes into xylem and then ascent of sap takes
place from xylem of roots into the xylem of stem and finally through xylem of leaf.

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A continuous H2O column flows from xylem of roots, xylem of stem and finally to xylem of leaf. This
water column does not break due to cohesion and adhesion force. Evaporation of H2O molecules from the
cells of the leaf creates a suction force which pulls H2O from xylem cells. Thus, cohesive and adhesive
forces and transpiration pull help in the upper movement of sap from roots to leaves.

Transport of food and other substances (Translocation)

The transport of food from leaves to different parts of a plant is called Translocation.
The food is manufactured in the leaf and is carried to phloem. The manufactured food that enters into sieve
tubes of the phloem and transported as a dilute aqueous solution may be in upward or downward direction.
Food is transported to all the non-green parts of the plant for growth and metabolic activities. Phloem also
transports amino acids, hormones etc.

Translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy. In this process, glucose is transferred to phloem
tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing the water to move
into it (endosmosis). Soluble material is then transferred from phloem tissue to other tissues which have
less pressure than in phloem. Thus, according to plant’s requirement, the material is translocated from
higher osmotic pressure areas to lower osmotic pressure areas.

Transpiration - The loss of H2O in the form of vapours from the aerial parts of the plant into atmosphere
is called Transpiration. Transpiration mainly occurs through stomata but it may also occur through cuticle
and lenticles.

Types of Transpiration
i) Cuticular Transpiration: It is the transpiration which occurs through cuticle (a waxy covering on
the leaves and green stem). Up to 10% of total transpiration may occur through it.

ii) Lenticular Transpiration: It is the transpiration which occurs through lenticles. Very small
percent of transpiration takes place through lenticles.

iii) Stomatal Transpiration: It is the transpiration which occurs through stomata. About 80 - 90% of
H2O is transpired through stomata.

Transportation in Human Beings:

In case of humans, there are various things which needs to be transported from one region to another e.g. it
has to carry urea from the liver to an area from which it can be excreted out of body. It depends upon
pressure difference between two points and the substance goes from higher region to lower region. There
are two transport systems in our body.
a) Blood vascular system
b) Lymphatic system

a) Blood Vascular System: A vascular system is that system which has tubes filled by fluid to be
transported from one place to another. In case of humans, it comprises of heart which is a pumping organ
to receive blood and blood vessels.

Blood: It is a fluid connective tissue. It is reddish coloured due to presence of a pigment called
hemoglobin. This blood carries various functions in our body.
i) Circulation of blood is responsible for transportation of soluble digested food from small intestines
to various parts of body. Blood also carries glucose from liver to muscles.
ii) Blood carries soluble excretory materials such as urea to organs of excretion.
iii) Blood carries hormones from endocrine glands to target parts.
iv) Circulation of blood helps to maintain constant body temperature by distributing excessive heat
from deeply seated organs.
v) Blood transports O2 from lungs to all parts of body.
vi) Blood carries CO2 produced by the tissues to the lungs for breathing out.
vii) WBC of blood acts as soldiers of body by killing bacteria and other germs.

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 viii) It acts as a buffer and maintains a constant pH which maintains the concentration of solute potential
of blood i.e. electrolytes.
ix) It regularizes the body temperature. It equalizes the body temperature by carrying heat from one
region to another region of the body.
x) It helps in clotting the blood to prevent excess loss of blood.

An adult contains about 6 litres of blood which is slightly alkaline in nature having pH 7.2 – 7.4.

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

Plasma: It is liquid part of blood in which different blood cells are present. It is straw coloured or can be
colourless. It contains major portion of water (90%) and also (10%) of organic / inorganic substances. The
different organic substances that are present in it are urea, amino acids, proteins; hormones and the
different inorganic substance present in it are sulphates, phosphates, Mg. Besides, the organic and
inorganic substances, it also contains a blood clotting protein called fibrinogen and also contains
anticoagulant called heparin. If fibrinogen is removed from blood, it results in the formation of serum in
plasma. (Serum- A blood plasma from which blood clotting protein is removed)

Function of Plasma
1) It carries dissolved substances from one part to another part of the body.
2) It provides space for floating of corpuscles.
3) It carries food and waste to the cells for oxygen.
4) It carries dead remains of diseased bacteria and corpuscles to the proper organs.
5) It transports excretory matter.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS

1. RBC
2. WBC
3. Platelets

1. RBCs: These are also called erythrocytes. These are small, round, biconcave, disc-like structures
that are thinnest at the centre. The real colour of RBC is pale yellow but appear red due to presence of
haemoglobin. These are 7-8 um in diameter and are denucleated (to transport more O2). In males, the
no. of RBC’s is 5.5 m/cm3 and females have 4-4.5/cm3. RBC has a life span of 120 days and main
constituent of RBC is haemoglobin. Due to less presence of RBC’s a disease called Anaemia is
caused which causes breathlessness. If there is more amount of haemoglobin present in blood, it leads
to abnormal growth of RBC thus leads to cancer called polycythemia. Formation of RBC is called
erythropoiesis and is formed in red bone marrow. These RBCs get degraded in liver. Shrinking of
RBC’s in liver is called erytopis. The content of haemoglobin in males is 15.5 + 2.5 gm / decileter
In females it is 14.0 + 2.5gm/deciliter

In children it is 4 – 11.0 + 2.5 gm / deciliter (12 years).

2. WBCs: These are also called leucocytes. These are colourless and amoeboid shaped/ irregular).
These are larger in size than RBC’s and are fewer in number. The no. of WBC’s in males and
females is same -5000/mm3. These are nucleated i.e. they have nucleus. There are various types of
WBC’s like monocytes. Basophills, neutrophills, eosinophills, lymphocytes.

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WBC’s are of two types:
a. Granular
b. Agranular

a. Granular WBCs: These have granular cytoplasm and lobed nucleus. These are three types of
basophills, neutrophills, eosinophills.

b. Agranular WBCs: These have smooth cytoplasm and lobed nucleus e.g. monocytes, lympocytes.
WBC’s don’t have a particular life span because they are of different types. So, their life span varies
like lymphocytes. They have a life span of almost 3-4 days. They provide immunity to body when
foreign material enters our body i.e. antigen and our body responses to it. The WBC’s engulf it and
form a protein called antibodies. These are also called soldiers of our body.
Most WBC’s are amoeboid and can throw out pseudopodia by which they can squeeze out through the
walls of capillaries into tissues. This process is called diapedesis. If more no. of WBC are present in
body it will lead to a disease (cancer) called leukaemia.
If less no. of WBC’s is present, it will lead to a disease called leucopenia. These are formed in white
and yellow bone marrow.

Blood Platelets - These are also called thrombocytes. These are small, spherical structures numbering
about 4,00,000 / mm3. These have life span of 2-3 days and are denucleated. It contains a blood clotting
protein called thrombin. The function of B.P. is to form a solid plug at the time of injury which prevents
further blood loss.

Blood Vascular System - It comprises of heart and blood vessels (Arteries, Veins and Capillaries). Human
circulatory system is closed because blood flows in blood vessels.

Blood Vessels - These are hollow, tubular vessels which transport blood from heart to body tissue and from
the tissues to heart. These blood vessels are of three types.

Arteries - These are thick-walled which always carry blood away from heart to various body parts. These
are elastic in nature, have narrow lumen, are deep seated in body parts and have no valves in them. Blood
flows at high pressure and speed. These generally carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which
carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs. Average dia. is 500 microns. The wall of artery
especially near heart is thick that enables them to dilate but not rupture when heart contracts and forces
blood in them.

Veins - These are thin walled which always carries blood from various body parts to heart except
pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from lungs to left auricle. These are slightly elastic, have
wide lumen, superficial in position and have valves in them to prevent back flow of blood. Blood flows
through them at low pressure and speed.

Capillaries - The arteries further divide into thinner branches called arterioles inside the organ. Average
diameter of arterioles is 120 um. Arteries further divide into smallest vessels called meta-arterioles which
in turn divide into capillaries. These are thinnest B.V. with a dia. of 4-10um. Capillaries rejoin and form
veins, venules and finally venacava with a diameter of 10mm which come out of organ. So, capillaries
join arteries and veins. These form a vast network of vessels. Blood flows very slow less than 1mm/sec
which facilitates the exchange of food materials, gases and waste materials.

HEART
It is thick, muscular, reddish brown, conical organ made of cardiac muscles about the size of one’s fist. It
lies in thoracic cavity between the lungs immediately above diaphragm. Its lower conical part is titled to
left and is enclosed in a bony cage formed of ribs, sternum (breast bone), back-bone.
It is about 12 cm long and 9cm broad. It is heavier in man than woman- 280-340gm in males and 230-
280gm in woman.

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Heart is enclosed in double layered membranous sac called pericardium. The outer membrane is called
parietal pericardium and the inner membrane is called visceral pericardium. Between two layers of
pericardium lies pericardial fluid which performs following functions.

i) It allows frictionless movement of heart.

ii) It protects heart from mechanical shock.
iii) It keeps the heart moist.

Human heart is four chambered and is divided into right and left half and each half consists of upper thin
walled atrium or auricles and lower thick walled ventricles.
Auricles are receiving chambers and ventricles are pumping chambers. Walls of auricle are thin because
they have to receive blood. Ventricle is thick because they have to pump blood.
Auricles are externally demarcated from ventricles by an irregular groove called coronary sulcus and
ventricles are externally demarcated by a groove known as inter- ventricular sulcus. Internally two auricle
are separated by inter auricular septum while as partition between two ventricles is called inter ventricular
septum.

Right Auricle opens into rt. Ventricle through an aperture guarded by a valve called as tricuspid valve.
Similarly, left auricle opens into left ventricle through an aperture guarded by a valve called as bicuspid
value or mitral value. At the base of aorta and pulmonary artery is present semi-lunar valve which prevents
back flow of blood. Right auricle receives deoxygenated blood from upper and lower parts of body by
superior and Inferior Vana Cava. Left auricle receives oxygenated blood from lungs by pulmonary vein.
The largest artery in the body, the aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart, goes up a little way,
bends over, and then goes down through the chest and through the abdomen. The aorta gives of branches
that go to the head and neck, the arms, the major organs of the chest and abdomen, and the legs. At the
base of the aorta is a set of valves consisting of three crescent shaped cusps called as semilunar valve. The
heart wall receives blood for its nourishment through the right and left coronary arteries which originate
from the point where the aorta leaves the heart. After nourishing the heart muscles, blood returns through
the coronary veins to the right atrium.
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CARDIAC CYCLE OR FUNCTION OF HEART
The most vital function of heart is heart beat which takes place all the time throughout the life time. The
sequence of events which take place during the completion of one heart beat or the period between the end
of one heart beat to the end of next heart beat is called cardiac cycle. The normal rate of heart beat is 70-72
times per minute at rest and may increase to 100 or more during activities. Approx 5 litres of blood are
pumped per minute. Cardiac cycle involves repeated, rhythmic contraction i.e. systole and relaxation i.e.
diastole of heart muscles. Cardiac cycle is formed of three phases.
1) Atrial Systole
2) Ventricular Systole
3) Joint Diastole

1) Atrial Systole: It involves contraction of atria which pushes the blood to respective ventricles. As the
right atrium and left atrium fills with blood, pressure in them increases, so that the auriculo- ventricular
valves open and atria contract. Atrial contraction forces pumping of deoxygenated blood from right
atrium to right ventricle through tricuspid value and oxygenated blood from left atrium to left ventricle
through bicuspid value. Atrial systole takes about 0.1 sec.

2) Ventricular Systole: It involves simultaneous relaxation of atria and contraction of ventricles. Due to
ventricular systole, the pressure in ventricles increases the auriculo-ventricular valves close rapidly to
prevent back flow. This closing of Auriculo - Ventriclar valve at the start of ventricular systole
produces first heart sound called Lubb or Systolic Sound. Finally, the pressure in ventricles increase, so
semilunar valves open and blood enters into pulmonary artery and aorta. Deoxygenated blood from
right ventricle enters into pulmonary artery which carries it to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated
blood from left ventricle enters into aorta which carries it to all parts of body. This takes about 0.3 sec.

3) Joint Diastole / Complete Cardiac Diastole: Ventricular systole is followed by joint diastole. As atria
are already in diastole, so all the chambers of the heart enter the diastolic phase. Due to ventricular
diastole, ventricles relax and the pressure in ventricles decreases than in aorta and pulmonary artery. It
results in the rapid closure of semilunar valve. This rapid closure of semilunar valves at the beginning
of ventricular diastole produces the second heart sound called Dupp or Diastolic Sound. Joint diastole
takes 0.4 seconds. So, complete cardiac cycle is completed in 0.8 seconds.

Heart muscle contraction is due to the presence of nodal tissues in two regions of heart. The sino atrial
node (S . A. Node) initiates the heart beat in the form of an electrical impulse that travelers down a
special path way through the heart. The S. A. node is called the pacemaker of heart since it gives the
heart beat regular. The atrio ventricular node (A.V. Node) causes the ventricles to contract.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION OF BLOOD

Mammalian heart is four chambered and has double circulation which means blood passes twice through
the heart to supply blood once to the body. Double circulation involves two circulations.

1) Systemic Circulation: In this circulation, blood completes its circulation from left ventricle to right
auricle through body organs. Here the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into aorta which supplies
it to body organs other than lungs through a number of arteries. De oxygenated blood from these
organs is returned to right auricle through large veins (pre and post vana cava). Right auricle pumps
de-oxygenated blood in right ventricle.

2) Pulmonary Circulation: In this circulation blood completes its circulation from right ventricle to left
auricle through lungs. Here right ventricle pumps de-oxygenated blood into pulmonary artery which
supplies it to lungs where oxygenation of blood takes place. Oxygenated blood from lungs is returned
to left auricle by four pulmonary veins. Left auricle pumps the blood to left ventricle.

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LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
It is the second important circulatory system that permeates through the entire human body and transports
the liquid called lymph from body tissues to body vascular system. The lymphatic system is a network of
tissues and organs that help to get rid of toxins, wastes and unwanted materials. It consists of:

1) Lymph: It is light yellow colour, mobile, fluid connective tissue which drains into lymphatic
capillaries from inter cellular spaces. It consists of two parts:
i. Plasma
ii. Lymphocytic cells

a) Plasma: It is a fluid matrix which is somewhat similar in composition to blood plasma. It

contains proteins, fats, germs and fragmented dead cells.

b) Lymphocytic cells: These are special cells which fights against infections.

2) Lymph Capillaries: These are blindly ending mesh work of thin walled and highly permeable
tubes having variable diameter. The tissue fluid drains into lymph capillaries which join to form
large lymphatic vessels.

3) Lymph Vessels: These are lymph containing vessels formed by joining of lymph capillaries. These
are larger tubes resembling veins without valves. They join with the venous system near the heart.
The tissue fluid flowing through the lymph vessels is slightly concentrated by the loss of water as it
passes along the system.

4) Lymph Nodes: These are situated at intervals throughout the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes
contain lymphocytes which accumulate in the lymph nodes where they produce antibodies and act
as an important part of immune system. They remove bacteria and foreign particles from lymph.
Example: tonsils, spleen, thymus, adenoids.

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH
1) Lymph absorbs some of the fluid from digestive tract. It passes proteins to tissues. It carries
digested fat.
2) It drains excess fluid from extra cellular spaces back in the blood.
3) It protects the body by killing germs.
4) It carries carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste materials from tissues to blood.

Heart Beat
1. One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called heartbeat.
2. In normal person heartbeat is 70-72 times per minute or once after every 0.8 seconds.
3. Heartbeat is observed by stethoscope.
4. Heartbeats faster during and after exercise because body needs more energy under these conditions.
5. The heartbeat felt in the artery is called PULSE RATE. Normal pulse rate is 70-72 times per
minute.

ECG - Electro Cardio Gram

The muscles fibres (or muscle cell) of the heart are specialized at certain parts of the heart, to generate
electric currents that cause the normal rythemic heartbeats.

1. Electrocardiograph is an instrument to record heart beat which are generated by electric current by
cardiac muscles which are involuntary in nature.

2. ECG or electro cardiogram is the graphical recording that indicates the area of malfunctioning of
heart and extent of malfunctioning of heart.

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Blood Pressure
1. The blood pressure is the pressure of the flow of blood in the aorta and its main arteries.
2. The BP varies according to contraction and relaxation of heart.
3. The BP exerted during relaxation of heart is called Diastolic pressure and it is 80mm of Hg.
4. The BP exerted during contraction of heart is called systolic pressure and it is 120mm of Hg.
5. BP is usually expressed as 120/80 mm of mercury. (Normal BP for a man of 20 years). Maximum
BP should not exceed 150 in males and 140 in females.
6. Blood pressure is measured by Sphygmomanometer.

EXCRETION
Excretion may be defined as the process of removal of intracellular metabolic wastes out of the body
mostly in fluid form. In animals, the rate of catabolism is much higher than the rate of anabolism.
Nitrogenous wastes produced during protein catabolism are highly toxic. If they accumulate in the body,
they dis-balance the steady state and lead to death. Thus, they need to be de-toxified and then eliminated
out.

Osmoregulation - It is the process of regulating the amount of wastes and ion concentration in the body of
an organism. Excretion and osmoregulation are side by side. The organ system responsible for excretion
and osmoregulation is called excretory system.

Importance
1. Excretion removes the unwanted by products of metabolic pathway which unnecessarily hinder the
biochemical reaction.
2. It removes many toxic chemical substances which damage the cells and act as enzyme inhibitors.
3. Excretion and osmoregulation regulate the ionic concentration of body fluid.
4. It regulates the H2O content of the body fluid which is very important in maintaining the solute
potential and volume of body fluid.
5. It is very important process as it helps in regulating the pH of body fluid.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants like any other living organisms also produce number of waste products. There are no excretory
organs in plants. The excretory matter is accumulated in the plant body in the form of crystals, salts,
resins, latex, tannins and carbon dioxide.

a) The main waste products produced by plants are carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxygen. The
gaseous waste products (carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour) are removed through stomata in
leaves and lenticels in stems.

b) Plants store some of the solid and liquid waste products in their body parts and shed these wastes by
shedding leaves, peeling of bark and feeling of fruits. Some waste product of plants are useful to
human. E.g. oxygen, gum, sandalwood oil, raphides, resins.

Solid Wastes: Raphides, rubber

Solid waste product of plant present in yam (Zamikand) are Raphides.

Liquid Wastes: Sandalwood oil, eucalyptus oil.

Gaseous wastes: carbon dioxide, water vapour, oxygen.

Some of the important excretory products in plants are:

1. Carbon Dioxide: End product of respiration plants excrete carbon dioxide during respiration only
at night because during the day, the carbon dioxide produced is utilized for photosynthesis.

2. Oxygen: End product of photosynthesis.

Excrete oxygen during daytime as photosynthesis occurs during daytime.

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 3. Water Vapour: End product of respiration.
Plants excrete it all the time (day and night).

4. Raphides: They are solid waste product of a plant which is stored in its fruits like yam (Zamikand).
They are made of calcium oxalate crystals, which make raphide needle shaped, and hence a fruit
with Raphides can hurt the throat. This problem can be solved by eating sour substances (acidic)
like tamarind, as Raphides are soluble in acids.

5. Rubber: Minerals salts like calcium carbonate or calcium oxalate are deposited as insoluble
crystals called crystoliths, which are deposited in the leaves of Indian rubber.

6. Alkaloids:-It is a nitrogenous waste and is poisonous if taken in higher quantities. They are also
precursor of many herbal medicines e.g. quinine, caffeine, nicotine.

7. Tanins: They are found in the bark or fruits of some plants and used mainly for tanning leather.

8. Sectional Oils: (Sandalwood oil, eucalyptus oil, clove oil and lavender oil). They are present in
flowers like rose, jasmine etc. They give them sweet odour.

9. Organic Acids:- These acids are found in some plant cells like citric acid in citrus fruits, tartaric
acid in tamarind etc.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXCRETION AND SECRETION:

EXCRETION SECRETION
It is a process through which metabolic wastes It is a process through which products in the
are expelled out from the body. liquid form are secreted out in the glands.
It is a process of manufacturing excretory Secretion is done in endocrine glands and
products. exocrine glands.
Skin, lungs, liver and kidney are excretory In digestive glands, liver and in all the harmonic
organs. glands, secretion takes place.

Excretory Products in Animals: The chief excretory products in animals are the following:

1. Nitrogenous Waste Materials: Nitrogenous waste substances such as ammonia, urea or uric acid
are produced during protein metabolism according to species. Small amount of nitrogenous wastes
are also produced during metabolism of nucleic acids. Ammonia are most toxic followed by urea
and uric acid. The latter is least toxic.

i) Ammonotelism: The process of excretion of ammonia is termed as ammonotelism.

Animals which excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic. E.g. Amoeba, Paramecium.

ii) Ureotelism: Excretion of urea is called as ureotelism and the animals which excrete urea are
called ureotelic. As urea is less toxic and less soluble in water than ammonia. Hence, it can
stay for sometime in the body. E.g. Man and all other mammals.

iii) Uricotelism: Excretion of uric acid is called as uricotelism and the animals which excrete
uric acid are called uricotelic. E.g. Uricotelic animals include most insects e.g. cockroach.

2. Mineral salts e.g. Na+, K+ etc.

3. Carbon dioxide
4. Water
5. Pigments
6. Vitamins and hormones

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EXCRETION IN ANIMALS

Different animals have different arrangements (or organs) for excretion, which depend on the constitution
of the animal. For example:
1. In Amoeba (and other single celled animals), the waste material carbon dioxide is removed by
diffusion through the cell membrane, but nitrogenous wastes (like ammonia) and excess water are
removed by the contractile vacuole.
2. In earthworms, the tubular structures called nephridia are the excretory organs. In addition to
nephridia, the moist skin of earthworm also acts as an excretory organ.
3. Insects like centipedes, millipedes etc., have tubular structures called malphigian tubules through
which waste materials are expelled.
4. In human beings, the microscopic thin tubules form nephron, which functions as excretory unit.
About 1 million nephrons taken together form the excretory organ of human beings called kidney.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF HUMANS

1. Kidney: Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped located towards the back of the lower part of the
abdominal cavity, one on either side of the backbone. Left kidney is slightly larger and placed a little
higher than the right kidney (R. kidney has the pressure of liver). It is 10 cm long, 5 cm broad and 4
cm thick and weighs 150 gm. On the top of each kidney, is a gland called Adrenal Gland.
Kidney has a convex and a concave side. Concavity of kidney is called Hilum or Hilus which is always
inwardly directed. It guards the entry and exit of blood vessels (renal artery, renal vein). Renal artery
brings oxygenated blood laden with waste products and renal vein carries deoxygenated blood from
which waste products have been removed. The hilum leads to a flat, funnel shaped space called renal
pelvis. Each kidney is embedded in renal fat.
Internally, each kidney is formed of about one million nephrons surrounded by a tough white fibrous
capsule called renal capsule which is smooth and transparent. It encloses and protects the kidney and
also helps to maintain the shape of the kidney. Renal capsule has two regions:-
i. Outer - Cortex ii. Inner - Medulla

i) Renal Cortex: It is the outer part of renal capsule which has reddish colour.

ii) Renal Medulla: It is also red brown in colour. Inside the renal medulla are 5-18 triangular
structures called renal pyramids.

iii) Renal Pelvis: It is the urine collecting region where ureters leave kidney. Ureters originate from
here.

2. Ureters: These are a pair of long (25 - 30 cm), narrow, muscular and tubular structures, each arising
from renal pelvis. Ureters run downwards and open in urinary bladder.

3. Urinary Bladder: It is a large, thin walled, distensible, pear shaped sac present in pelvic region of the
abdominal cavity. It temporarily stores the urine. It is distensible to store about 0.5- 1 litre of urine.
Its upper part is called body of bladder and is concerned with storage of urine while its lower part is
called neck of bladder. Neck of bladder is guarded by two sphincters which remain closed and open
only at the time of micturition (urination).

4. Urethra: It is a muscular and tubular structure which extends from neck of bladder to outside through
urethral aperture. In females, it is about 4 cm long while as in male; it is about 20 cm long and is the
common passage for urine as well as seminal fluid.

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STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON
Nephrons are structural and functional units of kidneys which extracts wastes from the blood. Nephrons
are also called as renal tubules or urineferous tubules. There are about one million nephrons per kidney.

Each nephron is about 6 cm long and is formed of two parts:

1) Bowman’s capsule
2) Nephric tubule

1) Bowman’s Capsule: It is a double thin walled cup shaped semi permeable structure present in the renal
cortex. In the cavity of the Bowman’s capsule, enters an artery called as renal artery which breaks
down and forms a group of about 50 capillaries called glomerulus. It receives blood at high pressure
from a branch of renal artery called as afferent arteriole.
Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus are both collectively called as malphigian body or renal corpuscle
or Pygmalion corpuscle and is about 150 um in diameter. These were first reported by Marcello
Malphigi.

2) Nephric tubule: It is long and coiled and is formed of:

a) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT):- It is present in cortex and is convoluted. It is about 12-
24mm in length. The cells have numerous mitochondria for active transport.

b) Loop of Henle: It runs straight in the renal medulla. It is U-shaped and is formed of thin
descending and thick ascending limb.

c) Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):- It is convoluted and is again present in cortex. It opens in the
collecting tubule.

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 d) Collecting Tubule: These converge in medulla and unite together in hilum to form collecting duct
which finally opens in renal pelvis.
The artery that enters into the Bowman’s capsule is called afferent arteriole and the artery that
leaves the Bowman’s capsule is called efferent arteriole. The veins that surround the nephric tubule
are called vasa recta.

Mechanism of Urine Formation

Nitrogenous wastes are formed inside all the body cells. These wastes are transported to kidneys by blood
and are changed into urine by 3 processes:
1. Glomerular Filtration / Ultra Filtration: It is called so because this filtration occurs under
pressure. In this filtration, a protein free fluid called glomerular filtrate or nephric filtrate or
capsular filtrate or primary urine is filtered from the blood of glomerular capillaries to the lumen of
the Bowman’s capsule by a force called filtering force. The filtration occurs across a membrane
made of the glomerular capillary wall and the inner membrane of the Bowman’s capsule. The pores
of this membrane are impermeable to large molecules or particles like blood cells & protein
molecules. But smaller molecules like glucose, amino acids, urea , mineral salts are filtered into the
Bowman’s capsule and this process of selectively filtering out small molecules while keeping large
ones like the proteins is called dialysis, the glomeruli of the kidney act as dialysis bags.

2. Tubular Reabsorption / Selective Reabsorption: The glomerular filtrate is moved in the nephron
towards the collecting tubule. During its passage about 99 % of H2O, whole of glucose and Amino
acids, most of Na+ , Cl-, some urea and uric acid are reabsorbed back in the blood and this process
by which only useful substances are reabsorbed from the nephric filtrate into the blood, is called
Selective Re-Absorption.

3. Tubular Secretion (Augmentation): It is the process by which the glandular cells of nephron
especially of DCT extract the wastes like uric acid, creatinine K+, H+, ammonia etc from the blood
into the glomerular filtrate.
As a result of these three processes, the wastes are changed into urine. Volume of urine is much
less than glomerular filtrate and its composition is also much different from that of glomerular
filtrate due to loss and gain of substances in the tubule.

Physical Nature of Urine: Urine is a transparent, light yellow liquid with slightly acidic pH. The colour
of urine is caused by the pigment urochrome, which is a breakdown product of the haemoglobin from worn
out red blood corpuscles. The colour of the urine may be affected by foods such as beets, by vitamin
supplements such as the B-complex or by certain medications. The pH range of urine is normally between
5.0 and 7.8 depending upon the amount of acidic and basic foods in the diet. Fruits increase the acidity and
vegetables increase the alkalinity of the urine.

Composition: About 95% of volume of urine is water, other substances are only 5%. Organic substances
include nitrogen, urea, creatinine, ammonia, hippuric acid, amino acids, hormones, enzymes, etc. The
inorganic substances include chlorine, phosphate, sulphate, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
arsenic and lead. It is important to note that no glucose is normally found in urine.

RENAL FAILURE (KIDNEY FAILURE)

At times owing to certain infection, injury or restricted blood flow to the kidneys, the kidneys are damaged
i.e. stop working properly. In case of complete damage, the excretory products like urea are accumulated
in the blood. Water level is also disturbed. This can result in the death of the person. In this situation two
things are done.
1. Kidney Transplant 2. Dialysis

1. Kidney Transplant: The damaged kidney is replaced by a matching kidney (from a healthy
person) by a surgical operation.

2. Dialysis: Dialysis is a process through which the urine is filtered with the help of artificial
kidney. The process of purifying blood by Artificial Kidney is called Haemodialysis.
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 34 of 43
Process of Haemodialysis
1. Blood of patient is taken out from main artery, cooled to 00C and mixed with an anticoagulant such
as heparin.
2. Blood is pumped into an apparatus called artificial kidney. In this apparatus blood flows through
channels or tubes having semi-permeable membrane of cellophane.
3. Cellophane tubes are kept in a dialyzing fluid which contains some small solutes and mineral ions.
As the blood flows through these cellophane tubes, nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid,
createnine, etc. diffuse out in dialyzing fluid.
4. The blood that comes out of artificial kidney is pure blood. It is then warmed to body temperature
and mixed with antiheparin to restore its normal coagulability and returned to a vein of patient.
5. Haemodialysis serves and prolongs the life of uraemic patients.

Role of various Accessory Excretory Organs of Man:

There are four accessory excretory organs of man. These are:
i) Skin
ii) Lungs
iii) Intestine
iv) Liver

Excretory role of Lungs: The main gaseous waste is CO2 & it is removed by exhaling in breath. The
entire volume of CO2, produced during respiration in the body is regularly excreted in the expired air by
the lungs. The CO2 is carried to the lungss, by the blood in the form of carboxy haemoglobin.

Excretory role of Intestine: The parts of the food material which remain undigested passes on to the large
intestine from where it is thrown out through anus in the form of faeces. Besides this, the
intestine has a lining of epithelial cells which excrete certain salts, for instance, those of iron & calcium.
These salts are excreted along with the faeces.

Excretory role of Skin: The skin behaves as an organ of excretion due to the presence of sweat glands &
sebaceous glands in it. The sweat glands eliminate water, urea, NaCl, lactic acid, amino acids & glucose
from the blood & excrete them on the surface of the skin. The subaceous glands secrete sebum which is a
wax like secretion & eliminates some lipids such as waxes, sterols, other hydrocarbons & fatty acids on
the skin.

Excretory role of Liver: The main nitrogenous waste is produced in the liver and is then finally excreted
by the kidneys.

In the liver, the amino acids break down and results in the accumulation of nitrogenous wastes.
These nitrogenous wastes break down further into ammonia. Ammonia is very toxic, therefore liver
converts ammonia along with CO2 into urea with the help of specific enzymes. This urea is finally thrown
out by the kidneys.

The haemoglobin of the dead red blood cells also breaks down in the liver. Liver manufactures bile
pigments {bilirubin (brown or orange) & biliverdin (green)}from haemoglobin of the dead red blood cells.
The bile pigments pass through the bile ducts into the intestine and are eliminated along with the faeces.

RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 35 of 43

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Differentiate between:

a) Blood and Lymph

BLOOD LYMPH
Colour Blood is reddish in colour. Lymph is pale yellow in colour.
Opacity It is opaque. It is semitransparent.
Viscosity It is quite viscous or thick. Viscosity is low.
RBCs It contains RBCs. RBCs are absent.
Blood Platelets They are present. They are absent.

Leucocyte count is low, 500 per ml,

Leucocytes Leucocyte count is 5000 – 8000 per ml.
mostly due to Lymphocytes.

Flow Blood flows rapidly. Flow of lymph is slow.

Blood flow is bidirectional, from heart Lymph flow is unidirectional, from

Direction
to organs and organs to heart. tissues to the subclavin veins.

It is the main transport medium of the It functions as a middleman between

Transport
different materials in the body. blood and tissues.

b) RBCs and WBCs

RBCs WBCs
The number is 4.5 – 5.0 million/ml of The number is 5000 – 8000 / ml of
Number
blood. blood.
Types All the RBCs are of one type. WBCs are of five types.
Size The size is about 7 μm. The size is 8 – 15 μm.
Form RBCs are biconcave and circular. They are rounded to irregular in shape.
A nucleus is absent, i.e., RBCs are
Nucleus WBCs are nucleated.
enucleate.
Cell Most of the cell organelles degenerate
They retain all the cell organelles.
Organelles during development.

Haemoglobin It is present. It is absent.

They take part in transportation of most of They take part in phagocytosis of germs,
Function
oxygen and smaller quantities of CO2. dead cell and formation of antibodies.

RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 36 of 43

 c) Arteries and Veins

Artery Vein
Direction of
It carries blood from heart to an organ It carries blood from organ to an heart.
flow
Speed Blood flow is rapid in artery. Blood flow is slow in vein.
Jerks Blood flows with jerks Blood flows smoothly.
Pressure Blood flows under pressure There is little pressure.
Internal
They are absent. They are present to prevent back flow.
Valves
It is comparatively thinner and little
Wall It is thick and elastic.
elastic.
Lumen Narrow. Wide.
Type of Artery carries oxygenated blood except Vein carries deoxygenated blood except
Blood pulmonary arteries. pulmonary vein.
Occurrence It is deep seated. It is superficial.
Collapsibility Artery is not collapsible. Vein is collapsible.
Blood after
It does not contain blood after death. It is full of blood even after death.
death

d) Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

It occurs permanently only in a few
organism. In other words, it may occur as a
Method It is common method of respiration.
temporary measure to overcome shortage of
oxygen.
It is completed in 3 steps – glycolysis, It is completed in 2 steps – glycolysis and
Steps
krebs cycle and terminal oxidation. anaerobic breakdown of pyruvic acid.
Oxygen It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
Respiratory substrate is completely Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken
Breakdown
broken down. down.
At least one end product is organic.
End
They are inorganic. Inorganic products may or may not be
products
present.
Toxicity End products show little toxicity. The organic end product is generally toxic.
It occurs partly in cytoplasm and Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely
Occurrence
partly in mitochondria. in cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required.
E.T.C. An electron transport chain is required. ETC is not required
It releases 686 kcal or 2870 kJ of Energy liberated is 36 – 50 kcal or 150 – 210
Energy
energy per mole of glucose. kJ per mole of glucose.
The liberated energy is used in
The liberated energy is used in synthesis of 2
ATP forming 36 – 38 ATP molecules per
ATP molecules.
mole of glucose.

RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 37 of 43

 e) Inhalation and Exhalation

Inhalation / Inspiration Exhalation / Expiration

Inhalation is bringing in of fresh air from It is passing out of foul air to the
Action
outside. outside.
Rib Cage It is pushed outwardly and upwardly It is pulled inwardly and downwardly
Diaphragm It contracts and becomes nearly flat. It relaxes and becomes dome - shaped.
Thoraric
Cavity It increases in size. It decreases in size.

There is increase in air pressure in the

Air Pressure Air Pressure decreases in lungs.
lungs.
Respiratory
They contract to bring about inhalation. They relax to cause exhalation.
Muscles
Type of
It is an active process. It is an passive process.
Process

Air rushes from outside and causes Air is expelled from lungs causing their
Result
inflation of lungs. deflation.

Inhaled air has an oxygen concentration of Exhaled air has an oxygen concentration
Oxygen
20 – 84 % of 15.7 %

Carbon
Its concentration in inhaled air is 0.04 %. Its concentration in exhaled air is 4.0 %.
Dioxide

RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 38 of 43

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

Q1: Why is diffusion insufficient to meet oxygen requirement of multicellular organisms like
humans?
Ans. In multicellular organisms like human beings only the cells of skin (surface layer) are
exposed to surrounding environment. The rest of body cells of internal organs are not in direct
contact with the surrounding environment. Hence, exchange of gases by diffusion may not be
possible in these cells. Thus, multicellular organisms require specialized organs for breathing,
exchange of gases and transport of gases to meet the oxygen requirement.

Q2: What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Ans. If an organism shows the following characters, it means it is alive:
1. It is made up of cell/cells which has/ have protoplasm.
2. It shows movement and locomotion.
3. It requires food for performing life activities.
4. It respires and utilizes the inhaled oxygen for oxidation of food.
5. It has the ability to receive the stimuli and gives appropriate responses.
6. It shows growth and development.
7. It expels out metabolic wastes.

Q3: What are outside raw materials used by an organism?

Ans. The outside raw materials used by an organism are:-
1. Oxygen: It is used for respiration and production of energy i.e. ATP.
2. Food: It is to be oxidized in order to release energy and for growth and maintenance of body.
3. Minerals and Vitamins: These are used for proper maintenance of body.
4. Carbon dioxide: It is used by autotrophs for synthesis of food through photosynthesis.
5. Water: It is used to perform all physiological processes.

Q4: What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans. The processes essential for maintaining life are – nutrition, respiration, transportation,
excretion, control and coordination, movement and locomotion.

Q5: What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Ans. Difference between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

1. It occurs in green plants, some bacteria 1. It occurs in plants which lack
and in some protista. chlorophyll, insectivorous plants, and
animals.
2. Chlorophyll is necessary for trapping 2. Chlorophyll is absent as such they do
sunlight. not trap sunlight.
3. Food is self manufactured using 3. Food is obtained directly or indirectly by
carbon dioxide and water as raw consuming autotrophs.
materials.
4. Digestion of food does not occur. 4. Digestion is required.
5. They are placed at the bottom of food 5. They are placed above producers in the
chain as producers. food chain as consumers.

Q6: Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Ans. Refer to notes.

Q7: What is the role of hydrochloric acid in our stomach?

Ans. Gastric HCl performs the following functions:

RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 39 of 43

 1. It provides acidic medium which is essential for the activation and action of gastric enzyme
pepsin.
2. It kills bacteria present in the food.
3. It converts inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin.

Q8: What are the functions of digestive enzymes?

Ans. The major constituents of the diet are relatively complex such as carbohydrates, proteins,
fats etc. which cannot be absorbed unless they are broken down into simple compounds. The
function of digestive enzymes is to help in breaking down of complex food materials into simpler
compounds which can be readily used by animals through absorption and assimilation. As such,
digestive enzymes help in converting proteins into amino acids, fats into fatty acids and glycerols
and carbohydrates into simple sugars.

Q9: How is small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Ans. Human intestine is several meters long. The internal lining of small intestine is folded and
projected in the form of finger like structures called villi which increases the absorptive surface
manifolds. Moreover, villi are highly vascular containing blood capillaries and lymph capillaries.
Furthermore, the lining of small intestine is very thin which facilitate rapid diffusion of substances.

Q10: What advantage does a terrestrial organism have over an aquatic organism with regard to
obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans. Terrestrial organisms consume atmospheric oxygen, while aquatic animals consume
dissolved oxygen present in water. Air contains about 21% of oxygen while water has less than 1%
oxygen in dissolved state. Oxygen diffuses through water much slower as compare to air. A
terrestrial organism has the advantage of utilizing greater amount of oxygen at a faster rate with
lesser effort whereas; aquatic organisms have to exert more effort to obtain the same amount of
oxygen.

Q11: What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy to various
organisms?
Ans. In all organisms the first step in which glucose is oxidized is the breakdown of glucose, a six
carbon molecule, into a three-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This process takes place in
cytoplasm.
The fate of pyruvate depends upon the presence or absence of oxygen. Pyruvate may be converted
into ethanol, carbon dioxide and 2 ATP molecules in the absence of oxygen. This process takes
place in yeast during fermentation. It is called anaerobic respiration. Break down of pyruvate using
oxygen takes place in mitochondria. This process breaks up pyruvate into carbon dioxide, water
and 38 ATP molecules. It is called aerobic respiration. In case of lack of oxygen pyruvate breaks
up into lactic acid as in muscles of human beings.

Q12: How are oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Ans. In this exchange, the blood takes up oxygen from the alveolar air and releases carbon
dioxide to it. Such an exchange occurs because the concentration of oxygen is more in the alveolar
air. The blood has more concentration of CO2 as compared to alveolar air. Thus the CO2 moves
from blood to alveolar air due to simple diffusion. This exchange of gases is called external
respiration and results in the oxygenation of blood. The oxygenated blood than returns from the
lungs by pulmonary vein to the left side of heart supplies the oxygenated blood to the body tissues.
The exchange of gases occurs between the oxygenated blood and the tissue cells. The
concentration of oxygen is more in the blood and less in the tissue cells. So the oxygen moves from
blood to the tissues and less in the blood and the CO2 moves from tissues to the blood. This process
is called internal respiration. The blood now becomes de-oxygenated.

Q13: How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of gases?
Ans. Human lungs have a highly branched network of respiratory tubes. A primary bronchus
divides into secondary bronchus, which in turn forms tertiary bronchus. Tertiary bronchus divides
repeatedly into bronchioles which finally terminate into alveoli. Alveoli are small rounded pouches
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 40 of 43
 which are extremely thin walled and possess a network of capillaries. Exchange of gases takes
place in alveoli and hence an alveolus is called miniature lung. The alveoli provide a vast surface
area where exchange of gases can take place. Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary blood
capillaries and CO2 diffuses out from capillaries into alveoli. It is estimated that the total surface
area of alveoli of human lungs is about 100m2.

Q14: What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are its functions?
Ans. Refer to transportation in animals.

Q15: What are the components of the transport system in highly organized plants?
Ans. Transport system in highly organized plants consists of two main components: Xylem and
Phloem.
1. Xylem: It is responsible for transport of water and minerals and its components are:-
(i) xylem vessels, (ii) xylem tracheids,
(iii) xylem parenchyma, and (iv) xylem fibres.
2. Phloem: It is responsible for transport of food substances and its components are:-
(i) Sieve tubes (ii) Companion cells
(iii) Phloem parenchyma (iv) Phloem fibres

Q16: Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
Ans. The metabolic rate of their body is higher than those of other animals and as such their
energy requirement is also more. For this, they need energy to maintain the body temperature.
Thus it is necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood so that the required amount of
oxygen could be available to the cells and tissues.

Q17: How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Ans. The amount of urine produced is regulated by the hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or
vasopressin. The function of this hormone is to reabsorb water from the nephric filtrate.
If in blood excess of water is present, less amount of ADH is secreted and more nephric filtrate is
formed. As this filtrate passes through tubular part of nephron, less water is absorbed by blood
capillaries. Hence, dilute and excess urine is passed out.
If in blood less amount of water is present, more ADH will be secreted, more water will be
absorbed from nephric filtrate by blood capillaries surrounding the nephron, hence concentrated and
less amount of urine will be passed.

Q18: How are H2O and minerals transported in plants?

Ans. Refer to notes.

Q19: How is food transported in plants?

Ans. Refer to transportation in plants.

Q20: Describe the structure and function of nephron.

Ans. Refer to excretion in animals.

Q21: What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans. Like animals, plants also produce a number of waste products during their life processes.
As compared to animals, plants produce waste products very slowly and in very small amounts.
The plants have no special organs for waste removal like animals. The plants remove their waste
products by different methods, some of the important plant wastes and the methods by which they
are removed are described below:
The main waste products of plant are:
1. Carbon dioxide 2. Water vapour 3. Oxygen

a) Carbon dioxide and waste vapour are produced as wastes during respiration by plants whereas the
O2 is produced as a waste during photosynthesis. These gaseous wastes are removal through the
stomata in leaves and lenticels in stems and release to the air.
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 41 of 43
 b) The plants also store some of the waste products in their body parts e.g. some of the waste products
collect in the leaves, bark and fruits of the plants. The plants get rid of these waste products by
shedding of leaves, peeling of bark and felling of roots. Some of the plant wastes get stored in the
fruits of the plant in the form of solid bodies called raphides.
c) The plants secrete their wastes in the form of gum and resins.
d) Some excretory products such as latex, gum, essential oils etc. are stored in special type of tissues
and glands e.g. lactiferous tissue collect Latex which is the natural source of rubber, Resin ducts
store resin and oil glands store essential oils etc.

Q22: Multiple Choice Question:

1. The kidneys in human are a part of the system for
a) Nutrition
b) Respiration
c) Excretion
d) Transportation
Ans. c) Excretion

2. The xylem in plants are responsible for;

a) transport of water
b) transport of food
c) transport of amino acids
d) transport of oxygen
Ans. a) Transport of water

3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires;

a) carbon dioxides and water
b) chlorophyll
c) sunlight
d) all of these
Ans. d) All of these

4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and eergy takes place in;
a) cytoplasm
b) chloroplast
c) mitochondria
d) nucleus
Ans. c) Mitochondria

Q23: How are fats digested in our bodies? What does this process take place in?
Ans. Fats are digested in the small intestine. The secretion of liver, called bile breaks down the
large globules of fat into smaller globules. This is called emulsification of fats. The bile also
makes the medium alkaline so that the pancreatic enzyme containing lipase further digest fats to
form fatty acids.

Q24: What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans. Saliva contains salivary amylase and is released in our mouth. It breaks down starch into
maltose (complex carbohydrates into simpler ones).

Q25: What is the necessary condition for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Ans. For autotrophic nutrition to take place the conditions necessary are-light, chlorophyll,
carbon dioxide and water. These all should reach a cell which contains chlorophyll in it. The by-
product of the nutrition is oxygen which is released through stomata.

Q26: What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms
that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Ans. Refer to Notes
RPSN / Class 10th / Science / Biology / Unit I / Life Processes Page 42 of 43
 Q27: How are the alveoli designed to maximize the exchange of gases?
Ans. The alveoli are present at the terminal of bronchioles. They are balloon shaped structures
which increases the surface area to about 100m2 for the exchange of gases and are richly supplied
with blood vessels to take the oxygen to different cells.

Q28: Describe double circulation in human beings. What is it necessary?

Ans. Refer to notes

Q29: What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our body?

Ans. Haemoglobin is a red pigment present in our body which carries oxygen to all the parts of
the body. If there is deficiency of haemoglobin then amount of oxygen reaching our body cells will
decrease which may lead to release of less energy in our body, leading to a disease called anemia.
Breathlessness, tiredness, weakness are the symptoms of anemia.

Q30: What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Ans.
Transport in Xylem Transport in Phloem
1. Water and mineral salts are transported. 1. Food in aqueous form is translocated.
2. The transport is generally passive. 2. The transport is active

Q31: Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to
their structure and functioning.

ALVEOLI NEPHRON
1. It is the structural and functional unit of 1. It is the structural and functional unit of
lungs. kidneys.
2. It is thin walled, has a large surface area
2. It is thin walled, has a large surface area and is richly supplied with blood vessels.
and is richly supplied with blood vessels. 3. It removes nitrogenous wastes from the
3. It removes carbon-dioxide from the blood. blood.

Q32: Write a note on dental caries (tooth decay).

Ans. Dental caries is the most common disease of dental tissues, mainly of molars and premolars.
It is more common in those children and adult persons whose diets are rich in carbohydrates which
need less chewing and generally stick to the teeth.

 Causative Agent: It is caused by acidogenic (acid producing) bacteria of mouth, strepto coccus
mutans, in the presence of high proportion of sugar. The bacteria cause an aerobic
decomposition of sugars into organic acids.

 Symptoms: Dental caries is characterized by gradual softening of enamel and dentine due to
classification. Before this, the masses of bacterial cells and food particles stick to the teeth and
form dental plague to cover the teeth. Finally, it leads to appearance of cavities in the teeth
leading to inflammation and necrosis of pulp, called pulpitis.
Prevention:
i) Avoid sugar-rich eatables.
ii) Regular brushing of teeth after meals.
iii) Vigorous chewing of fibrous foods.
iv) Consumption of water containing 1ppm of fluoride.
v) Clearing of food particles from between the teeth by dental floss.

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