SCALE th

Scale Is the rado of the distance between any two points on a map to the actual distance between e correspondbarl
on the ground. .
The map scale is expressed in three different ways:
Map Scale

t J . Representative fraction
Statement/verbal scale Graphical/linear scale

StatementNerbal Scale
In this method, the scale is stated in words. The scale ofth~ toposheet G43S7 / G43S10 is drawn on a scale of '2 cm to J
The scale '2 cm to I km' implies that a distance of 2 cm between any two points on the map corresponds to a distance of
between the corresponding points on the ground. ··
Advantage
·• The scale is easy to understand by the layman.
• ~ Representing this scale on map is less time consuming. ,
• The scale provides us with the correct idea of distances it depicts. ·
Disadvantage
.• The scale can be used by only those who are familiar with the particular unit of measurement.

Graphical/Linear Scale
A graphical scale is represented by means of a straight line which is divided into equal parts, and the actual ground
that the line represents is specified on the scale. The scale is divided into two sections - the primary divisions are the
divisions and are marked to the right of the zero mark. The subdivisions of a primary division constitute the seconda,y di · ·
The secondary divisions are marked to the left of the zero mark. ·
Advantage
• The scale_remains true to the map even after reduction or enlargement of the map since the scale correspondingly in
and decreases.
• It is easy to calculate the ground distance using this scale as we can directly find the equivalent ground distance without
calculations.
Disadvantage
• One must be familiar with the particular units of measurement used on the scale.
• Drawing the scale is time consuming as well as requires skill and expertise.
Representative Fraction
In this type, the scale is represe?ted in the fonn of a ratio of the map distance and the corresponding ground distance.
=~tor represents the ~p distance and the denominator represents the corresponding ground distance. For example, the
50
unite0 }· ,ooo means ~=ut on the map corresponds to 50,000 units on the ground. The numerator is always expressed as J.
..:::e:
units
0
e numerator and denominator [Link] same. Thus, the scaJe is unit-free and can be expressed in •
used by all throughout the world. It 1s thus also called as universal scale or international scale.
RF• Distance on the map : Distance on the around (In same units)
 Adfllltage · .. i:· :;•;, . . ·. :· .
• It is a unit-free scale, so it has universal application. It can be used by any country according to its commonly accepted unit
of measurement
olsldvantage
• 1be scale is difficult to be understood by the layman.
• 'lbe scale does not remain true to the map when the map is photographically reduced or enlarged.
• Distances cannot be directly read out from the map. It needs to be calculated from the ratio. . ·

converting Statement Scale to Representative Fraction • I

1,et's convert the scale '2 cm to 1 km• to a representative fraction. · ·
SteP l: The given scale is 2 cm to I km. ·
We express this scale as 1 cm to 500 m (because the numerator should be I).
SteP 2: I cm to 500 m ·
1 cm to 500 m x I 00 (The numerator and denominator must have th~ same unit; therefore, 500 m is converted to
I cm to 50,000 cm 5o,ooo cm.)
1 .Qrlf to 50,000 .Ql1f
So the RF scale is I :50,000.

MEASURING DISTANCE ON A MAP

1bere are two ways by which we can measure a distance on a ~aP:.
Distance
./
Direct distance Indirect distance

Direct Distance
Direct distance is the straight line distance between any two points.
This distance between the two points is measured with a ruler and then
converted to ground distance according to the scale of the map.
Distance with a ruler is measured as follows:
Let's calculate the distance between Dattani and Kyariya. 17~ ~ ~~;...f-~'+-4-:-,~ ~
Step l: Measure distance between Dattani and Kyaria with a ruler
(centre to centre of the settlement).
Step 2: The map distance is 5.7 cm from which the ground distance ,
will be calculated.
The scale of the map is 2 cm to 1 km.
That is, 1 cm to ½ km
That is, 5.7 cm to 5.7/2 = 2.85 km I
Therefore the distance between Dattani and Kyariya is 2.85 km.

56 57 58
Fig. 1: Measuring direct distance with ruler

Indirect Distance / Distance along Roads, Railway Lines

. For measuring the distance between two points on a curved line on a
map, one needs to use a thread.
Distance with a thread is measured as follows:
Let's calculate the distance along the metalled road from the causeway
near Pipliya (5516) to the causeway near Palrikhera (5614). '
Step 1: Place one end of the thread at the causeway near Pipliya on the
map. Carefully place the thread along the metalled road until
you reach the causeway at Palri Khera. Mark the point on the
thread that corresponds to the causeway at Palri Khera.
Step 2: Using a ruler, measure the length of the thread, which is 4.9 cm.
I Step 3: Convert it to ground distance by using the given map scale.
~
~ The given scale is 2 cm to 1 km. Therefore, 4.9 cm on the map
f equals to 4.9/2 km, i.e. 2.45 km on the ground.

!---------------
' Fl,. 1: Mtanring indirect distance with tJwad

--------------------lr. ,,,.,,,n11t1-,,s( 7 -
 ID' _-- :-- --- -~: ---
LOCATING A PLACE ON A TOPOSHEET USING A GR
72 30 East lngs --+ j A.
Four-Figure Grid Reference
To locate any place on a map we require its latitude and longi_t
of red horizontal and vertica
ude ..
l hne
o: 24°
" ' •
Q
~
; ··• •••
, .• Q·.
48
' Q
/~ 49
~
i t
~

the given toposheet, we can see a set

with definite values assigned to them . 2139000
numerical
(I) The horizontal lines are called northing,, and their Metres

value increases northwards.

ical value
(2) The vertical lines are called ea1tfng1, and their numer
increases eastwards.
the south-
(3) The point of origin of these northings and castings is
west comer of the map.
helps us ~o
(4) Together they form a network called grid. The grid
detennine the location of a place in terms of a four-figure gnd
1
reference.

toposheet.
( Kyarlya In the alongside
° .
Let us find the loca ti on
. .. h r. figure grid reference, first wnte the easting, wh·Jqj'
• While wntmg t e 1our-
57 here.
. 't the value of the northing, i.e.. 17.
• After the eastmg, wn e
of Kyariya is 5717
• So, in terms ef a four-figure grid reference, the location

Fig. 4: Finding/our-figure grid reference

' .,' ' ~ .•

Six-Figure Grid Reference

,•·
v.;:; I ~ --
)

18 . '· -
use a six-
To accurately locate a feature or a settlement on a map, we J

figure grid reference.

lly and ' . '

In the six-figure grid reference, an individual grid is vertica

,: )

' '.

e the 17 r' '

horizontally divided into IO equal parts. These divisions provid
ng.
third figure from easting and the sixth figure from the northi
of
Let us find the six-figure grid reference of a well north-west
Kyarlya. 16
th n, i.e.
• We first write the easting value 57. The well is in the 4 divisio
400 m away from 57. So the value is 574.
• We next write the value of the northing, i.e. 17. So
the value is now
away),
57417. The well is in the 6 division from 17 (i.e. about 600 m
th
55 57
at
so we write 6 after 17. So, the six-figure grid reference stands
Fig. 5: Finding six-figure grid reference
574176.
-east of Wa~.
Let us also fmd the six-figure grid reference of a temple north ,·
is in the 2 nd
divisio n, i.e. 200 m away from 56. So the val~e is 562.
• We first write the easting value 56. The temple
is now 56215. The temple is in the 1Qth division but its bast
• We next write the value of the northing, i.e. 15. So the value at562I
on the 9 line. Therefore, it is 900 m away from
th 15, so we write 9 after 15. So, the six-figure grid reference stands
th
the 10 division, is not considered
th as 1 o since then it will~
(Note: Any feature which lies beyond the 9 division, i.e. in 9.)
a seven-figure grid reference. So we adjust it and write it as

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

and ~atural and man-made features. They enable us to show
plcl
Topographical maps use symbols to represent relief features a map mean. '
the signs and symbols given on
of infonnation in a small space. Let us now understand what
P
Boundaries
Natural/ Conventional Natural/
Cd~

~
Man-made Meaning symbol Man-made MeanJng
feature feature
i-V
International Fonns boundary
-·-· -·-· -·- {tate Forms border between ~
boundary between countries boundary -•-• :::" "
states within a country
::11 _ --- -.1 .____ __ __L ~~!:'.'.·: ~
 - Natunl/ Natural/
1'fllHDlde Conventional Conventlon1I
Meaning Man-made Meaning l)'lllbol
-
l/
(eltare

District Fonns border between

l)'lllbol

✓
feature
043S10

t,oundary districts within a state -- -- Tehsil/faluka Forms border between

boundary tehsils within a district
or

043S7
-
Roads and Railways
Natani/ Natural/
Mo-made Meaning Conventional Conventional
Man-made Meaning symbol
feature symbol
feature
The horizontal distance
=I==
Toll between the tracks is
Highway made up of with toll 1,676 mm. Double
concrete, without speed Broad gauge signifies double line
Expressway ; (
double track in which each
obstacles, and designed
with bridge track is designated to
for swiftness
........
- 20
with distance stone
allow train travel in
each direction.
Broad gauge The single tracks allows •• m ••
Asphalt or pitched road,
According to
importance
single with
station
trains in both direction
to share the same track RS
Metalled road indicates a developed
region
Railways:
under
construction
Railway line under
construction

Other gauges includes

-
Kachcha road or meter gauge - 1,000 mm
a non-tarred road and narrow gauge - 762
Unmetalled
ad
which indicates
underdeveloped region, --
- --
-- - Other gauges
double
mmand610mm
Double line track in 11 11 11 11
usually found in which each track is
villages designated to allow
Path broader than pack train travel in each
track, made for bullock direction
or camel carts; it Other gauges Movement of trains
track connects one village to single with in both direction on a
20
another, thus facilitating III
distance stone single track
transport of village
Cutting - construction
goods
through areas of low
Path used by humans hills, where the rocks
and animals to travel, are cleared to create a
ack track
with pass
usually found in hilly
areas where vehicles
cannot reach
---* - Cuttings with
tunnel
route to make way for a
road or railways
Tunnel - a passage
-El· ·Er
for a road or railways
Path made by man through a hill
in steep regions or '-../
An overhead structure
_7>tpath
forested areas due to
the continuous use of a
••••••••
Bridge
to carry a road or "
on roads and other tracks
'-../
railways across a river/
track to cross a certain
area
stream, marshy areas "
on railwa lines

-·
II: Broad S!au2e double
 Waterbodics
NatunV NaturaV Convent101111
Conventional Meaning
Man-made Meaning Man-made symbol
symbol
feature feature

Perennial river
Has water throughout
the year
A hollow region which
contains rainwater,
Q m~~ perennialll1acle
indicative of rocky
..J
II
Dries up in summer, is
Seasonal river indicative of seasonal
rainfall
~
~
terrain
W,a dry
When a river falls from A tank which is used for
the edge of a cliff or
collection of water
Digg;
Waterfall
steep slope, it forms a
waterfall A well with bricks and
Movement of river in stones surrounding

•
/ .. loops, indicative of the it; deep with water
"" Meanders throughout the year
middle course of the
river Well water that is salty
,..VDry river perennial well or brackish in nature is Brackish
During summers, the
bed with a shown with the word
river dries off leaving a
perennial 'Brackish' written on its
trickle of water channel
channel of side in black.
flowing in it
water A well without a lining
A wall, of earth or J of bricks and stones;
/ 1 Unlined
"' Embankment stone, constructed along ' ' ' ' ' ! ! ! ! ! , perennial well
a river, tank, or railway , , , , , , , , , , ,
generally less deep and
provides water to a
0
line smaller area
YRiverwith River with rocks A wall-like structure
rocks and and island, signifies ✓ built across a river for
island deposition by rivers Dam controlling the water
Gully erosion along flow and behind which
✓
Broken banks of seasonal a reservoir is formed to '"''"""
earthwork
ground rivers, indicative of store water for later use
seasonal rainfall
A spring is a point or
Weirs are low dams. '"'"'"'' weir

opening on Earth's
J
+
surface from where
Spring the underground water
stored in acquifer seeps
out and flows out on the
surface

Fig. JO: Seasonal river Fig. 11: Meander

Fig. 14: Broken ground Fig. 15: Tank Fig. I 6: Hi-ir

.. NaturaV Natural/
''1

Conventional Conventional
~an-made Meaning Man-made MeanJng
symbol symbol
reature feature
An open channel raised A raised metalled road
Aqueduct
✓
on pillars to cany
water over valleys or
mountain regions, under
the influence of gravity
A channel which carries
,......_
'----/

Aqueduct Causeway
✓
built across a minor
stream or swampy region
or region inundated by
shallow levels of water
during high tides
c~~•¥ i
.o. . o~•
water from a river to
eanal A tube immersed in the
fields for irrigation or is
✓ water of a canal. The
used for navigation
water first moves up the
A tank for storing water Siphon
tube from the canal and
raised above the ground then to the fields at a
with help of stands or lower level
pillars A water channel with a
Overhead tank
The water is pumped gate at its head to control
into it by high powered the water. When the gate
motors and distributed Sluice is opened, water flows
from it to nearby areas. into the aqueduct or
canal.

Fig. I 8: Canal

Vegetation
·r,:i Natural/ Conventional
NaturaV Conventional Meaning
Meaning Man-made symbol
Man~de symbol feature
feature
A forest in which
Cultivation of banana-like the government has
Plantain fiuits which are generally
cooked before eating
Df proprietary rights and
the power to issue
rules regarding the
A region of thorny use of such forests.
Scrub bushes, low trees, and
shrubs, indicative of "
,...... . ,...... Protected
forest
Here, permission
can be given to the PF
scanty rainfall in a region communities living in
the periphery to use the
A region of thorny forest for meeting their
bushes, low trees, and Open scrub needs of livelihood
Open scrub shrubs, indicative of . like grazing of animals
scanty rainfall in a region or collection of forest
A variety of trees
..., ..., products .

Palms
belonging to the
Arecaceae family. They
Q '\. 'l' The tree used for
survey purpose. This
palmyra other Surveyed tree tree is not allowed to
grow in hot climate areas.
be cut.
A forest which is a
government property
and local people are
Reserved
forest
prohibited to use_for RF
bunting and grazing,
unless a forest officer
specially allows
Fig. u : {)pc-If St:rtlb
· Fig. zI: Plantain
Ir..,,..n1 M.,,. j II Ill
 Settlement
Natv111 Natani/
Coave1111Nal Convent1o, ,
"----
featare
Meutaa tylBbol Ma■-made
reamre
Meaning

A house in which
l)'Jnbol
---.....
1

Pennanent
■■
✓ A house where people ~est House
hut live continuously
A house where people
r Inspection
Bungalow
Government employees
arc entitled to stay 1t
□□
Temporary A house in which
live for a few months, e.g.
✓ hut Government employees
a howle in a hilly area
Deserted A scttlcmcnt that 1w
Circuit House of high posts are entitled
✓- A
✓ towns/village11 been abandoned X to stay
The office of the local
I
./
Inhabited
" settlement

Antiquities
A IICttlcment in which
people are living

Ancient monuments
...
-4-
~ (J:1ur
li°lice station police force

Police chauki
A police post with two
or three policemen,
under a police station
Police chauk;

/
Temple A place of worship
A dome-shaped
e P,ower lines
For transmission of
power, it may be with
pylons surveyed or with
~
~
structure, which is poles unsurveyed ~
j
Chhatri held up by a series of
fl A hospital providing ---
ornamental columns or
pillars
_!;Jospital medical help to sick and
injured people EB ,

J
i A health care unit that ---
+
Church A place of worship
Jispensary is small and has lesser
amenities
~
Mosque A place of worship
A v\'eterinary: A hospital/dispensary
j Post office
An office responsible
for postal services t Hospital/
Dispensary
for animals EB
Representation of Heights above Sea Level I

Natural/ ._:,
Natural/
Mu-made Meaning ,j Conventional Man-made Meaning Conventioul
symbol symbol
feature feature ;
Imaginary lines joining .,... Trigonometrical

~
places having the same $iltion/ The place is 'x · m
~ 2001
~ntours
height above the sea Triangulated above sea level.
level height i
The spot is 'x' m above •
• 200
I
sea level. When it
pot height is approximate, it is The benchmark is x
written in italics and in
Benchmark
m above sea level. • BM 63·~
smaller font.
.200
Other Features }

Natural/
..'i!•,
-
Natural/Man- --
j Conventional
-
Conventional Meaning
Man-made Meaning ,Jt• made feature symbol _:
t, symbol
feature
Sometimes the relief The outer limits of the
---,
J
Forest
of an area is highly
inaccessible for survey.
boundary protected and reserved
forests
-- - -

So, for such areas survey ,,,-------- ......... :..-

/,;,;, ..._-_-_:... ~::,:\
is not possible and ,,,,,:, ,:/:,:---:--::,:,~\\\

•
An excavation made '
Fonn lines
through eye estimation, :: : : f ttc5,;\
:il••,111 \ \ \\\\
,,,,1111 Mine into the earth to extract
_;
'(
the relieffeature is shown \ \\ \\\:,::-;,;/ ,' ,'::: minerals
\ \\,,:~::::,,:,',' ,','
in discontinuous brown ____....
coloured lines called ',::;_:_~~ii::.~:?
.......•,. -.-:,•:.•
Mounds or hills of sand ......... ·••:1
.·•·! ... ·-~•~·~ .
formlines. The formlines Sand dune
have no value assigned to (shifting) deposited by wind ·:.•.::
them. .•••••••
-..=.~-- . . . . . • . tt...
__,,,.
C

~atural/ Natural/
Meaning Conventional Conventional
~•0 -made Man-made Meaning
feature symbol symbol
feature
~
A continuous stretch A barren land covered
of hard horizontal with broken rocks and
embedded rock structure Stony waste Stony waste
pebbles, from where fine
which has been exposed particles are blown away
sheet rock
to the surface by the Sheet Rock

11 ~
removal of the overlying A sudden steep rise in
Cliff I
soil cover and levelled ✓
land I
[!] . into a polished surface
,--
by agents of erosion
A place where rocks are
~
~
A rounded isolated hill Limestone
Rocky knob or a mountain Quarry excavated and crushed quarry
/) Rocky knob into smaller pieces to

I)
,--
A piece of bedrock
protruding on the
be used for construction
and other industries ~
Marble stone
Rock outcrop surface since overlying Rock outcrop . quarry
materials are blown
away An area which is
hollowed or lowered by
A large outdoor furnace Depression
the deflation actions of
Dep
Kiln
✓
used for baking of
bricks
@ winds
A gap or pathway made
A big oven used for clear in forests and --------
calcination of limestone Fire line devoid of vegetation to
or calcium carbonate. Fire line
Limekiln Limestone under intense @ stop the spread of forest
fires
j heat in the kiln changes (Lime)
into calcium oxide Tourist site
Place of interest to ~
(quicklime).
tourists ~

Fig. 23: Sheet rock Fig. 24: Rocky knob Fig. 25: Rock outcrop

Fig. 26: Stony waste

Colo urs Used in Top ogra phic Map s
tanks; bro .
Blac k - name s of all settle ments ; lines of latitu de and longitude; seaso nal water bodie s such as rivers, streams, and churc
, emba nkme nts, temples, chhatris,
groun d; railw ay lines; surve y trees with their numb ers, earthw ork dams
mosq ues, tomb s, grave s, bound aries, rest house s, circui t house s
and unlined peren nial wells, overhead tanks, vet
Blue - featu res relate d to peren nial water bodie s, aqued ucts, lined
hospi tals/d ispen saries , touris t sites
plantations
Gree n - forest s, grass lands , orcha rds, scatte red trees, palms , palmy ras,
Whit e - uncul tivate d land
Yello w - cultiv ated land
,
Brow n - sand dunes, conto urs k k art tracks footpa ths; rnasonaiy darns, settlemen
· · roads , pac trac s, c ,
Red - easttn gs and north mgs; metal led roads, unmetalled
hospi tals, dispe nsarie s
-
11>ENTIFYING RIVERS AN D POINTS ASSOCIATED WITH THEM
[!) [!)

[!) .411

'fhe rivers and streams shown on a map can

t,e pere nniai or seasonal . Seasona1 nver . s are 93
. ed . peren . . b
ur, and
depict. m . blac. k colo ma 1, m lue A
blue Ime m a nver depi cts a perenma1c annel ·of
. h
. dry . bed
water m a nver .
. 92
• Rivers have deposition of silt or •edl
• mmhm
neIs or have riverine Islands 88 m . d' d
chan
. p· 54 1cate
ID 1g. .

Fig. 54: Riverine islands

Jll! 8~H ~
100~ ,.a.c :~,:,//,:i,:.:;:,:~.;..;..;4" ~'ii JIL ~~~
.:..:¥ .P ~ +.'-H'i'+.!
9.;,;;;,;.;,;.,:~~ ~ ~ ~r -~cci'~::.,ni-:-'...:..
,•:·.
t
~

: :!
···l I
23 24
32 33 .. 2

Fig. 56: Broken ground

Fig. 55: Arrow showing direction ofriver
I
shown
\
a rive r can be unde rstoo d from the arrow s placed between the lines representing the river
• The direction of the flow of
contours of the region.
in Fig. 55 or by studying the spot heights and seasonal rainfall.
ona l rive r has sym bol of brok en grou nd shown in Fig. 56 which is an evidence of
• The banks of a seas der river channel and a
se disp lay char acter istics like waterfalls and V-shaped valleys. A broa
Rivers in the upp er cour river is in its middle
•
nel (Fig . 57) as well as the pres ence of sediments and riverine islands prove that the
meandering chan
course. wed by a height. The
form ed whe n wate r tumb les dow n from a height. It is denoted by the word 'Falls' follo
• A waterfall is
means the height of the waterfall is 15 m.
word Falls 15 min the map shown in Fig. 58 bank of the river. If we stand facing the
the flow of a river help s us to decipher the right bank and left
The direc tion of left bank of the
•
of the river , our righ t side will be the right bank of the river and our left side will be the
direction of the flow
river (Fig. 59).

Left
bank

~
...J
::.::
z ~ 0/ 0 riwr
~ ~ Fig. 59: Deciphering tire banA:s
- ,,.,,,..
• __ _- ----- '-
Fig. 58: Waterfalls
----------- I .,.,.,.,.,,o1,nJM¥& /Mi:.
 l a a -~

Fig. 63: Inl an d drainage

IDENTIFYING THE C L IM AT E A N D V E ~
CJ im at e of an A re a
an
There ar e various clu es in a m ap wh ich gi ve us
idea ab ou t the cli ma te of an area.
• Moderate rainfall: Areas covered wi th dens
e 1

jungles may be considered to have moderate

rainfall.
• Seasonal rainfall: The presence of season
al
streams and rivers, broken ground , and dry
river bed with a perennial water-channel
indicates seasonal rainfall.
• Scanty rainfaD: The presence of open scru
b,,
brackish wells, sand dunes, and disappearing
streams indicates scanty rainfall.

20 ID«oding Topo- JIJ 1- - - - - - - - -

 I Evidences
1
Proba ble occup ation 1
- •- .

Yellow wash Agriculture

Green wash and different types of forests Fores try
Open scrub, pack tracks, veterinary hospital/dispensary Cattle rearin g
Metalled roads with large settlements Trade , tertiary or servic e sector
Post office, police chauki, rest house Gove rnmen t Servic es
Quarries and mines Quarrying and minin g
Tourist spots - Sunse t Point, Anadra Point, Delwa na temple, Nakh i Talao , Touri
sm (Mt Abu)
\

Interpreting a topomap is a job which requires understanding about the features on the map
and what they indica te. In the f ol\ow i
solved worksheet, we will get a better understanding and indepth analysis of topos heet interp retatio
lP.~mt hPrP ..:ar,::,. tn
n. Vario us theore tical conce