Environmental Science

Exam Quick-Reference Guide

Lessons 1–9 · AECC · School of Open Learning, Delhi University

Lesson 1 Introduction to Environmental Studies

4 SPHERES OF EARTH

Lithosphere Solid crust — rocks, soil, minerals

Hydrosphere All water —

Atmosphere 4Biosphere
layers from ground upward Overlapping

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS (TEMPERATURES ARE EXAM-READY FACTS)

Layer Altitude (km) Temperature range Key species/fact

Troposphere 0–11 +15°C to −56°C N2, O2, Ar, CO2, H2O — weather here

Stratosphere 11–50 −56°C to −2°C Ozone (O3) absorbs UV-B (280–315 nm)

Mesosphere 50–85 −2°C to −96°C O2+, NO+; coldest layer

Thermosphere 85–500 −96°C to 1200°C O2+, O+, NO+ absorb shortwave radiation

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
→ Brundtland Commission (1987) — Our Common Future: 'development meeting present needs without compromising
future generations'
→ 3 pillars: Environmental + Social + Economic sustainability
→ 17 SDGs adopted by UN in 2015, target year 2030
→ Dry air composition: 78.08% N2, 20.95% O2, 0.93% Ar, 0.04% CO2

CRITICAL DATES TO MEMORISE

Year Event

1962 Silent Spring — Rachel Carson

1971 Ramsar Convention — World Wetlands Day = 2 Feb

1972 Stockholm UN Conference — World Environment Day = 5 June

1973 Project Tiger launched (India)

2 Dec 1984 Bhopal Gas Tragedy

1985/1987 Vienna Convention / Montreal Protocol (ozone protection)

1992 Earth Summit Rio; UNFCCC, UNCBD, UNCCD signed

1997 Kyoto Protocol (greenhouse gases)

2015 Paris Convention + International Solar Alliance (HQ: Gurugram, India)

Lesson 2 Ecosystem: Structure

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Type Description Examples

Producers (autotrophs) Make own food via photosynthesis Green plants, algae, cyanobacteria

Primary consumers Herbivores — eat plants directly Grasshoppers, rabbits, goats

Secondary consumers Eat herbivores Frogs, snakes, jackals

Tertiary consumers Top carnivores Tiger, lion, vulture, kite

Decomposers Break down dead organic matter Bacteria, fungi, earthworms

(saprophytes)

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Pyramid Shape Exception

Pyramid of Numbers Usually upright (grassland, aquatic); can be inverted or Spindle = parasitic food chain
spindle (forest)

Pyramid of Biomass Upright (forest, grassland); Inverted (pond) Pond = inverted because phytoplankton small
but productive

Pyramid of Energy Always upright — NEVER inverted 10% rule always applies

Exam tip: 10% rule: 1000 kcal (producers) → 100 (primary consumers) → 10 (secondary) → 1 kcal (tertiary). Energy pyramid coined
by Charles Elton = Eltonian Pyramid.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
→ Term coined by Hult (1885); defined by Clement
→ Primary — starts on bare/new substrate (volcanic rock, rocky areas)
→ Secondary — previously occupied area disturbed (fire, flood, acid rain)
→ Autogenic — driven by biotic factors; Allogenic — driven by abiotic factors
→ Retrogressive — backward succession; forest → shrub → barren (due to deforestation, overgrazing)
→ Induced — human-made (e.g. crop cultivation)
→ Climax community = stable final ecosystem established after succession

Lesson 3 Ecosystem: Functions

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Atmospheric cycles Water,

EdaphicCarbon, Oxygen
(sedimentary) Nitrogen, S

NITROGEN CYCLE — KEY STEPS

Process What happens Key organisms

Nitrogen fixation (non-biological) Lightning combines N2 + O2; also chemical —

fertilisers

Biological N fixation (symbiotic) Root nodule bacteria fix N2 → NH3 → amino Rhizobium (in legumes), Anabaena-Azolla
acids

Biological N fixation Free-living soil/water organisms Azobacter, Anabaena, Nostoc

(non-symbiotic)

Ammonification Dead matter decomposed → NH3/NH4 Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus

Nitrification NH4 → NO3 (absorbed by plants) Nitrosomonas bacteria

Denitrification NO3 → N2 back to atmosphere Pseudomonas

FOOD CHAIN TYPES

→ Grazing food chain — starts with living green plants; sunlight-dependent
→ Detritus food chain — starts with dead organic matter; NOT sunlight-dependent
→ Food web = interlinking of multiple food chains; more stable and realistic
→ Y-shaped energy flow model = connects grazing + detritus food chains
PRODUCTIVITY

Type Formula / Description

GPP (Gross Primary Productivity) Total photosynthesis = CO2 fixed per gram chlorophyll per hour

NPP (Net Primary Productivity) GPP − Respiration energy

Secondary Productivity Energy stored at consumer level (Odum, 1971)

Homeostasis Ecosystem's ability to resist change and maintain equilibrium (Odum, 1971)
Lesson 4 Types of Ecosystems & Services

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem Key features India examples / fauna

Coniferous forest High Himalaya; needle leaves; snow months Pine, deodar; snow leopard, hangul, Himalayan bear

Evergreen forest Western Ghats, NE India; dense canopy; two Tiger, leopard, lion-tailed macaque, Pigmy Hog
monsoons; highest species richness

Deciduous forest Moderate monsoon; seasonal leaf shedding; Teak, Sal; tiger, chital, barking deer
Deccan peninsula

Thorn / scrub Semi-arid; xerophytic; deep roots; sparse trees Babool, khejdi; blackbuck, chinkara

Mangrove Coastal intertidal; prop roots; stabilises Sundarbans (W Bengal); saltwater crocodile
coastline

Tundra Extreme north/alpine; short growing season; Mosses, lichens; arctic fox, lemming, snowy owl
low productivity

Grassland Prairies (US), pampas (S America), steppes Terai (India foothills); Himalayan pastures; Shola
(Eurasia), savanna (Africa)

Desert <12 cm rain/year Thar (Rajasthan), Ladakh (cold), Rann of Kutch (seasonal
salt marsh)

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
→ Lentic = still water (pond, lake); Lotic = running water (stream, river)
→ Estuary = brackish; where river meets ocean; high productivity; supports most fisheries
→ Coral reef = coelenterate + dinoflagellate algae symbiosis; warm tropical waters
→ World's largest coral reef = Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
→ India coral reefs: Gulf of Kutch, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar

4 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Service type Examples

Provisioning Food, freshwater, timber, medicines, genetic resources, fuelwood

Regulating Air/water purification, climate regulation, flood control, pollination, decomposition

Cultural Recreation, spiritual enrichment, art, music, architecture, tourism

Supporting Biogeochemical cycles, photosynthesis, soil formation, water cycle

Exam tip: Supporting services enable all others. Medicines = Provisioning. Biogeochemical cycles = Supporting. Pollination =
Regulating.
Lesson 5 Natural Resources: Land

LAND RESOURCE CATEGORIES

Stability Resources

Very stable Relief, geological formations, minerals (non-renewable) — metallic (Fe, Al, Cu), non-metallic (graphite,
limestone), fuel (coal, petroleum)

Moderately stable Soil (renewable but slow), water

Very unstable Vegetation, biodiversity

→ Humus = topmost organic layer of soil — most fertile

→ ~40% of land surface = agricultural; 1.6 billion ha under cultivation
→ About 80% of world's developing countries rely on medicinal plants for primary health care

SOIL EROSION
→ Loss of topsoil by wind, water or gravity; 1 cm soil takes 200–300 years to form
→ Causes: slope, sandy soil, deforestation, overgrazing, intensive farming, floods
→ Solutions: no-till/low-till, contour farming, terrace farming, reforestation, windbreaks

DESERTIFICATION
→ Extreme land degradation — semidry → arid → desert-like
→ UNESCO: 1/3 of Earth's land (drylands) at risk
→ Major consequence: mass migration toward cities
→ Causes: deforestation, overgrazing, misuse of water, climate change

DEFORESTATION CAUSES
→ Agriculture = 80% of tropical deforestation (largest driver)
→ Others: urbanisation, timber/firewood demand, illegal logging, forest fires, mining
→ Annual deforestation rate: ~1.3 million km² per decade (UN FAO)

IMPACTS OF DAMS & MINING

Impact Dams Mining

Vegetation loss Submergence of forests in reservoir Open-pit mining clears large areas

Pollution Methane from decaying vegetation Air, water, soil pollution from tailings

Water issues Siltation reduces reservoir capacity Groundwater depletion

Social Displacement of local communities Health hazards for workers; unsafe conditions

Ecosystem Blocks fish migration; changes aquatic flow Destroys terrestrial + aquatic ecosystems
Lesson 6 Natural Resources: Water

WATER DISTRIBUTION

Ocean (saline) 97.5% of all water on Earth

Total freshwater 2.5% (most

Glaciers/groundwater ~1.97% of Earth's water

Lakes/rivers/atmosphere ~0.03% —

INDIA WATER FACTS

→ India = 2.45% of world area | 4% of world water | 17.7% of world population
→ 12 major rivers; only ~35% of surface water exploitable
→ Ganga-Brahmaputra basins = 45% of replenishable groundwater
→ Per capita availability: 1816 m³ (2001) → 1545 m³ (2011) → 1486 m³ (2018) — declining
→ Agriculture = over 90% of India's water demand

WATER CONFLICTS

Conflict Details

Cauvery dispute Karnataka vs Tamil Nadu; Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) created by Supreme Court in
2018

Indus Water Treaty India–Pakistan; shares Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Satluj, Beas

Middle East Jordan, Nile, Tigris-Euphrates river basins — Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, Jordan, Syria

SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

Method Key points

Rainwater harvesting Cheap, eco-friendly; Tamil Nadu = first state to make it compulsory across the state

Watershed management Programs: Haryali, Arvary Pani Sansad (Rajasthan), Neeru-Meeru (AP)

Dams Irrigation, hydropower, flood control; Indira Gandhi Canal brought water to desert Rajasthan

Water recycling/reuse UNEP launched IWRM — Integrated Water Resources Management

Lesson 7 Natural Resources: Energy

RENEWABLE VS NON-RENEWABLE — QUICK CONTRAST

Feature Renewable Non-Renewable

Types Solar, wind, hydro, tidal, geothermal, biomass, Coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear (uranium/thorium)
hydrogen

Environment Eco-friendly, low/zero carbon Polluting, greenhouse gases

Cost High upfront, low running cost Cheaper setup, well-established infrastructure

Availability Inexhaustible (sun, wind) Finite — coal ~65–200 yr; oil ~40 yr

RENEWABLE ENERGY — KEY FACTS

Source Key facts

Solar Earth receives 1.4 kJ/sec/m²; solar cells use Silicon + Silver (expensive); system lifespan 30–40 yr

Wind Minimum 15 km/hr (4.2 m/s) for turbines; largest farm = Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu (380 MW)

Hydro First station in India = Sidrapong, Darjeeling, 1897 (130 kW); accounts for ~16% of global electricity

Tidal India potential = 15,000 MW; key sites: Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch (1000 MW), Sunderbans (100 MW)

Geothermal Natural geysers: Manikaran (Kullu, HP) and Sohana (Haryana)

Biomass Includes crop residues, dung, wood; 80% of rural India's energy; chulhas efficiency <8%; Biogas: 5000–5500 kcal/kg

COAL TYPES (CARBON % MATTERS IN EXAMS)

Coal type Carbon % Calorific value Where found

Anthracite (best) 92–98% 7500–8100 kcal/g Only Jammu & Kashmir

Bituminous 78–90% 6600–7500 Bokaro, Jharia, Raniganj

Sub-bituminous 75–83% 6100–6500 Central India

Lignite (worst) 60–70% 5000–6000 Neyveli, Tamil Nadu

→ Petroleum: 67% in 13 OPEC countries; Saudi Arabia = 25%; world reserves ~40 yr at current rate
→ Natural gas: 95% methane; cleanest fossil fuel; Russia = 40% of reserves
→ CNG: Delhi buses/autos — mostly methane, compressed to 80 atm
→ LPG: butane + propane + ethyl mercaptan (smell detection); Indane & Bharat Petroleum

NUCLEAR ENERGY
→ Fission: heavy nucleus split by neutrons → chain reaction; U-235 most common fuel
→ Fusion: two light nuclei joined at ~1 billion°C; basis of sun's energy
→ Reactor components: Moderator (heavy water/graphite) | Control rods (boron/cadmium) | Coolant | Shielding (concrete
2–25m thick)

Exam tip: National Solar Mission (Jawaharlal Nehru NSM): part of NAPCC; launched by Dr Manmohan Singh 30 June 2008;
approved 11 Jan 2010. Target revised to 1 lakh MW solar by 2022.
Lesson 8 Biodiversity

3 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Level Definition Examples

Genetic diversity Variation in DNA within a species — both within and Rice varieties (Oryza sativa), mango varieties
between populations

Species diversity Variety and relative abundance of species; has Alpha (within community), Beta (between communities),
richness + evenness components Gamma (landscape)

Ecosystem diversity Variety of niches, trophic levels, interactions, Forest vs wheat field; India's 10 biogeographic zones
processes within/across ecosystems

INDIA'S 10 BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES

Zone % India Key feature

1. Trans-Himalaya 5.6% High-altitude cold desert; <350mm rain; wild yak, snow leopard, black-necked crane

2. Himalaya 6.41% Longest altitudinal gradient on Earth; diverse ecosystems 0–8850m

3. Indian Desert 6.5% Thar + Rann of Kutch; wild ass (Little Rann); flamingos (Great Rann)

4. Semi-Arid 16.6% Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, E Rajasthan; Aravalli hills; blackbuck, nilgai

5. Western Ghats — UNESCO World Heritage; 27% of India plants; one of 8 hottest hotspots; 1800 endemic plant spp

6. Deccan Peninsula 42% LARGEST zone; dry deciduous forests; tiger, chital, sambar, gharial

7. Gangetic Plain 10.8% Most fertile; Sal forests along Himalayan foothills; rice-wheat rotation

8. Coasts 2.5% 7516.6 km coastline; mangroves, coral, sandy beaches

9. North-East India 5.2% Richest in endemism; Khasi Hills = richest biodiversity in Asia; orchids, rhododendrons

10. Islands 0.3% Andaman & Nicobar + Lakshadweep; tropical rain forests; high endemism

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
→ Term coined by Norman Myers (1988): area with ≥1,500 endemic vascular plants AND ≤30% original vegetation
→ 36 hotspots globally = only 2.4% of land, but >50% of world endemic plant species and ~43% of endemic vertebrates
→ 4 hotspots in India: (1) Himalaya (2) Indo-Burma (NE India excl. Assam + Andamans) (3) Sundalands (Nicobar Islands)
(4) Western Ghats & Sri Lanka

IUCN RED LIST CATEGORIES (IN ORDER)

Category Description

Least Concern Abundant; not at risk

Near Threatened Does not qualify for threat categories yet; may in future

Vulnerable Declining population; may become endangered

Endangered High risk of extinction; facing habitat loss, poaching

Critically Endangered Extremely high extinction risk (e.g. Great Indian Bustard, Indian Vulture)

Extinct in Wild Survives only in captivity or cultivation

Extinct No individuals found anywhere

Lesson 9 Biodiversity Conservation Strategies

IN-SITU VS EX-SITU CONSERVATION

In-situ (in natural habitat) Ex-situ (outside natural habitat)

National Parks — complete legal protection; core (no humans) + Zoos — artificial enclosures; education + breeding
buffer zones

Wildlife Sanctuaries — protects specific species; limited tourism + Gene Banks — NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic
fuelwood/honey collection in buffer Resources)

Biosphere Reserves — humans included in conservation; Seed Banks — IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Delhi)
MAB-UNESCO concept; multiple uses in periphery

Examples: Jim Corbett NP (Uttarakhand); Rajaji NP; Chilka Bird Biosphere Reserves: Nandadevi (UK), Nilgiri (South India)
Sanctuary (Odisha)

KEY SPECIES TERMS

Term Definition Example

Umbrella species Very important for ecosystem health; top predator maintains Tiger (forest)
balance

Keystone species Absence causes ecosystem collapse; requires large area + Elephant
food

Flagship species Culturally/emotionally significant; rallies public conservation Tiger, Panda

support

Indicator species Sensitive to environmental change; signals ecosystem health Lichen, Frogs

MAJOR CONSERVATION PROJECTS

Project Year Key facts

Project Tiger 1973 50 tiger reserves; 2967 tigers in 2019 estimate; tiger = Endangered; Sariska re-introduction
(Indira from Ranthambore
Gandhi)

Project Elephant 1992 32 elephant reserves; MIKE (Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants) programme; reduces
human-elephant conflict

Project Crocodile 1975 (UND 16 rehab centres; Gharial = critically endangered (river pollution); Mugger = vulnerable;
P+FAO) Saltwater croc near extinct in Kerala/TN

Project Vulture 2006 Diclofenac banned for veterinary use; 4 breeding centres: Guwahati (Assam), Pinjore
(Haryana), Buxa (W Bengal), Bhopal (MP)

Project Great Indian 2013 Heaviest flying bird (15–18 kg); population <200 (was 1260 in 1969); critically endangered;
Bustard now only in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka

PEOPLE'S MOVEMENTS

Movement When Key facts

Silent Valley Movement 1978 Opposed dam on Kunthi river, Kerala; biodiversity hotspot; dam rejected; Silent Valley
NP created 1984; Madhav Gadgil among key voices

Save Western Ghats Movement 1986 March along Western Ghats protesting development (dams, power stations); Western
Ghats Development Programme by Govt of India (1981)

REINTRODUCTION VS TRANSLOCATION
→ Reintroduction: returning species to its historical range from which it was extirpated (IUCN definition); minimal long-term
management
→ Translocation: deliberate movement from one part of range to another; e.g. Rhino from Kaziranga → Manas NP

Exam tip: Quick recall: Tiger = Umbrella + Flagship. Elephant = Keystone. Lichen/Frog = Indicator. Panda = Flagship. In-situ =
NP/Sanctuary/Biosphere. Ex-situ = Zoo/Gene Bank/Seed Bank.

Environmental Science AECC · School of Open Learning · University of Delhi · Lessons 1–9