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Introduction to C

●​ C is a general-purpose, procedural programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie

at Bell Laboratories.
●​ It is known for its efficiency, low-level memory access, and structured language design, which
makes it ideal for system programming, embedded systems, and hardware-level programming.

Basic Structure of a C Program

A C program follows a specific structure that consists of various components
#include <stdio.h> // Preprocessor Directive

int main() { // Main function, starting point of any C program

printf("Hello, World!"); // Output function
return 0; // Return statement
}

●​ Header Files: These contain function declarations and macro definitions (e.g., <stdio.h> for
standard input/output).
●​ Main Function: The entry point of any C program (int main()).
●​ Statements: Program instructions (e.g., printf() to display output).
●​ Return 0: Indicates successful program termination.

Data Types
C provides several built-in data types
●​ int: Integer (e.g., int a = 5;)
●​ float: Floating-point numbers (e.g., float b = 5.75;)
●​ char: Characters (e.g., char c = 'A';)
●​ double: Double-precision floating-point numbers (e.g., double d = 5.6789;)

Variables and Constants

●​ Variables: Storage locations with a name and data type (e.g., int marks = 15;).
●​ Constants: Fixed values that cannot be altered during execution (e.g., const int days_in_Month =
30;).

Operators
●​ Arithmetic Operators: +, -, *, /, %
●​ Relational Operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
●​ Logical Operators: &&, ||, !
●​ Assignment Operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /=

Control Structures
Control structures determine the flow of execution in a C program
if-else: Used for decision-making.​
if (condition) {
// code block if condition is true
} else {
// code block if condition is false}
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Switch Statement: For selecting one of many blocks of code based on the value of a variable.​
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
// code block
break;
case constant2:
// code block
break;
default:
// default code block
}

Loops
Loops execute a block of code multiple times based on a condition:
for loop: Iterates a specific number of times.​
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d", i);
}

while loop: Executes while a condition is true.​

while (condition) {
// code
}

do-while loop: Executes the code block at least once.​

do {
// code
} while (condition);
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Fundamentals of C++
C++ is a powerful, general-purpose programming language that builds on C by adding object-oriented
features. It is widely used for system software, game development, embedded systems, and applications
requiring high performance.
Key Concepts of C++ Fundamentals
1.​ Basic Syntax
○​ Header Files: Essential for including libraries (e.g., <iostream> for input-output
operations).
○​ Main Function: Every C++ program begins execution from the main() function.
○​ Statements: C++ statements are executed sequentially and must end with a semicolon
(;).

2.​ Variables and Data Types

○​ Variables are used to store data, and each variable must have a data type.
○​ Common data types include:
■​ int: Integer values.
■​ float: Single-precision floating-point numbers.
■​ double: Double-precision floating-point numbers.
■​ char: Single characters.
■​ bool: Boolean (true/false) values.​

3.​ Input/Output (I/O)

○​ Use cin to take user input and cout to output data.
Example​
int age;
a)​ cout << "Enter your age: ";
b)​ cin >> age;
c)​ cout << "Your age is: " << age << endl;

4.​ Control Structures

○​ If-else statements are used for conditional execution.
○​ Loops (for, while, do-while) allow repetitive execution of a block of code.

5.​ Functions
○​ A function is a block of code designed to perform a specific task.
○​ Functions can return values or may not return any value (denoted by void).

6.​ Classes and Objects (OOP)

○​ C++ is an object-oriented programming language, which means you can create
classes that define properties and behaviors.
○​ A class is a blueprint for creating objects

Operators in C++
Operators in C++ allow you to perform different operations, from arithmetic to logical decisions.
Types of Operators
1.​ Arithmetic Operators
○​ These are used to perform basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and modulus.
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○​ Operators: +, -, *, /, %

2.​ Relational Operators

○​ Used to compare two values.
○​ Operators: == (equal to), != (not equal to), > (greater than), < (less than), >= (greater than
or equal to), <= (less than or equal to)

3.​ Logical Operators

○​ Used to combine conditional statements.
○​ Operators: && (logical AND), || (logical OR), ! (logical NOT)

4.​ Assignment Operators

○​ Used to assign values to variables.
○​ Operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=

5.​ Increment and Decrement Operators

○​ Increment (++) increases a variable's value by 1, while decrement (--) decreases it by 1.

6.​ Bitwise Operators

○​ These operators perform operations on individual bits of numbers.
○​ Operators: & (AND), | (OR), ^ (XOR), ~ (NOT), << (left shift), >> (right shift)

7.​ Ternary Operator

○​ A shorthand for an if-else statement.
○​ Syntax: condition ? expression_if_true : expression_if_false;
Example​
int age = 18;
string result = (age >= 18) ? "Adult" : "Minor";

8.​ Pointer Operators

○​ &: Returns the address of a variable.
○​ *: Dereferences a pointer, i.e., accesses the value stored at the pointer's address.

9.​ Size of Operator

○​ The sizeof() operator returns the size, in bytes, of a data type or variable.

File Handling
C provides functions to handle files for reading and writing:
●​ Opening a file: fopen()
●​ Reading from a file: fscanf(), fgets()
●​ Writing to a file: fprintf(), fputs()
●​ Closing a file: fclose()

Dynamic Memory Allocation

●​ malloc(): Allocates memory dynamically.
●​ free(): Deallocates the dynamically allocated memory.
int *ptr = (int*)malloc(sizeof(int) * 5); // Allocating memory for 5 integers
free(ptr); // Deallocating memory.
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Functions:
function in C can perform a particular task, and supports the concept of modularity.
Syntax of Function:
return_data_type function_name (data_type variable1, data_type variable2, ...)
{
function body
}

Parameter passing :-
Call by value: sum (a, b); → value of a, b is passed.
Call by reference: sum (&a, &b); → address of a, b is passed.

Operator Precedence:

Associativity
() Parenthesis Left-to-right
[] Brackets (array subscript)
. Member selection via object
→ Member selection via pointer
++-- Post increment/decrement
++-- Pre increment/decrement Right-to-left
+- Unary plus/minus
!~ Logical negation/bitwise complement
(type) Type casting
* Dereference
& Address of
Size of Determines size
*/% Multiplication/division/module Left-to-right
+- Addition/subtraction
≪≫ Bitwise shift left, bitwise shift right
< <= Relational less than or equal to
> >= Relational greater than or equal to
==!= Relational is equal/is not equal Left-to-right
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
| Bitwise inclusive OR
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
?: Ternary conditional
= Assignment Right-to-left
+=-= Addition/subtraction assignment
*=/= Multiplication/division assignment
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Pointers:
A variable that stores memory address.

Printf (“%d”, a*b) – error (no operator in between a and *b)

Printf (“%U”, *c) – 1000
Printf (“%d”, a**b) – 400
Note:

Note:
1.​ Scanf (“%d”, b) here ‘b’ gives the address of variable ‘a’.
2.​ NULL Pointers: Uninitialized pointers start out with random unknown values.
3.​ ‘&’ =Address of operator.
4.​ ‘*’ = indirection operator (returns value at given address).
5.​ &i returns the address of the variable i.
6.​ *(&i) return the value stored at a particular address.

Array:
Collection of same data type elements
int a [5] = {23, 25, 27, 29, 31};
0 1 2 3 4 ← index value
23 25 27 29 31
1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 ← Memory address

Note:
1)​ a is a constant pointer which contains the base address of an array.
2)​ Pointer arithmetic
a)​ a + 1 → pointer move to next block(1000 + 2 = 1002)
b)​ b + 1 → pointer move to second 1 –D array(2000 + 4 × 2 = 2008)
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8
c)​ 1008 − 𝑃2 1000 𝑃1 = 2
= 4 (No. of element from P1 to P2)
3)​ array index expansion
a)​ a[i] = *(a + i) = i[a]
b)​ a[i][j] = *(*(a + i) + j)
4)​ a = a + 3 → error (a is constant pointer)
5)​ few points
a)​ a = 1000
b)​ &a = 1000
c)​ a + 1 = 1002
d)​ &a + 1 = 1010 → Skip the whole array.
e)​ b + 1 → skip ‘1’ 1 – D array
f)​ &b + 1 → skip the whole 2 – D array.

String:
String is stored as array of character along with “\O” at end.
char a [] = “Testbook”
1000 1001 1002 1003 - - - - 1008
T E s t b o o k \O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑓 (%𝑠, 𝑎) 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑓 (%𝑠, 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘) 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑓 (%𝑠, 1000) }𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘

Printf (“%s”, a + 3) – tbook
Printf (“%c”, a [1]) – e
Printf (“%c”, *(a + 3)) – t
Printf (“%c”, a + 3) – error
Printf (“%s”, *(a + 3)) – error.

Structure and Union:

used to encapsulate different data in one object.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 { 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎; 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑏; 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 𝑐; } ]𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
Struct node d = {10, 20.5, ‘X’}; → memory created
Struct node *e = &d
d.c = ‘x’
(*e).c = ‘x’
e → c = ‘x’

Note:
1.​ Union is the same to structure except in case of union memory of only one data type is created which
is maximum.
2.​ only one of all data types is used.
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3.​ malloc → used to create memory at runtime with garbage value (malloc (size)).
4.​ Calloc → used to create memory at runtime with clear memory (calloc (size)).

Extra Points:
1. Post increment/decrement: Increment or decrement is done after the value evaluated in expression
E.g., {𝑖 = 5 𝑥 = 𝑖 ++ ⇒ 𝑖 = 6 𝑥 = 5
2. Pre increment/decrement: Increment or decrement is done before the value is evaluated in expression.
E.g., {𝑖 = 5 𝑥 =++ 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑖 = 6 𝑥 = 6
3. Format specifiers of C language.
a)​ %c – character
b)​ %d – signed integer
c)​ %f – float values
d)​ %s – string
e)​ %u – unsigned integer
f)​ %L – long
g)​ %if – double.
[Link] = (cast-type*) malloc (byte-size)
ptr = (int *) malloc (size of (int))
d)​ malloc create memory of given size & return its address
e)​ address is stored in pointer & cast type used to give certain data type whatever required.
f)​ If space is not available it returns a NULL pointer.
g)​ The default pointer return type is void.

Linked Lists
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Stack(FIFO)

●​ Push (Adding an element):​

O(1)
●​ Pop (Removing an element):​
O(1)
●​ Top/Peek (Accessing the top element):​
O(1)

Queue (FIFO)

●​ Enqueue (Adding an element at the rear):​

O(1)
●​ Dequeue (Removing an element from the front):​
O(1)
●​ Front/Peek (Accessing the front element):​
O(1)
●​ Circular Queue Formulas:
○​ Front pointer update:​
Front=(Front+1)mod Queue Size
○​ Rear pointer update:​
Rear=(Rear+1)mod Queue Size
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Tree

Sorting Algorithms:
●​ Bubble Sort:​
Time Complexity: O(n^2)
●​ Selection Sort:​
Time Complexity: O(n^2)
●​ Insertion Sort:​
Time Complexity: O(n^2)
●​ Merge Sort:​
Time Complexity: O(n log⁡n)
●​ Quick Sort:
○​ Best and Average Case: O(nlog⁡n)
○​ Worst Case:O(n^2)
Searching Algorithms:
●​ Linear Search:​
Time Complexity: O(n)
●​ Binary Search (for sorted arrays):​
Time Complexity: O(log⁡n)
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Introduction to DBMS
●​ Definition: A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software that allows users to store,
modify, and retrieve data efficiently while ensuring security, consistency, and availability of the
data.
●​ Components:
○​ Database: Collection of related data.
○​ DBMS Software: Manages the database (e.g., MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server).
○​ SQL: Structured Query Language used to interact with the database.

2. Data Models
●​ Hierarchical Model: Data is organized into a tree-like structure.
●​ Network Model: Data is represented as a graph, allowing multiple parent-child relationships.
●​ Relational Model: Data is stored in tables (relations), which consist of rows (tuples) and columns
(attributes).
●​ Entity-Relationship (ER) Model: A diagrammatic way to represent entities, attributes, and
relationships.

3. Keys in DBMS
●​ Primary Key: A unique identifier for each record in a table. It cannot contain NULL values.
●​ Candidate Key: A minimal set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple.
●​ Foreign Key: An attribute in one table that references the primary key of another table.
●​ Composite Key: A key that consists of two or more attributes to uniquely identify a tuple.
●​ Super Key: A set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify a record.

4. Relational Algebra Operations

●​ Selection (σ): Selects rows based on a specified condition

●​Union (∪): Combines rows from two relations.

●​Intersection (∩): Returns common rows between two relations.
●​Difference (-): Returns rows from one relation that are not present in another.
●​Cartesian Product (×): Combines every tuple of one relation with every tuple of another
relation.
●​ Join (⨝): Combines tuples from two relations based on a condition.
SQL (Structured Query Language)
●​ DDL (Data Definition Language):
○​ CREATE TABLE table_name (column_name datatype, ...);
○​ ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
○​ DROP TABLE table_name;
●​ DML (Data Manipulation Language):
○​ SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition;
○​ INSERT INTO table_name (columns) VALUES (values);
○​ UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value WHERE condition;
○​ DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
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●​ DCL (Data Control Language):

○​ GRANT permission TO user;
○​ REVOKE permission FROM user;

ER Model (Entity-Relationship Model)

●​ Entity: An object that can be distinctly identified (e.g., Student, Teacher).
●​ Attributes: Characteristics or properties of an entity (e.g., Name, Age).
●​ Relationships: Describes how two entities are related (e.g., A student enrolls in a course).

E-R Components:
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●​ Types of Relationships:
○​ One-to-One (1:1): Each entity in set A is related to at most one entity in set B.
○​ One-to-Many: One entity in set A is related to multiple entities in set B.
○​ Many-to-Many: Entities in set A can be related to multiple entities in set B and vice
versa.

●​ Atomicity: Ensures that the transaction is either fully completed or not at all.
●​ Consistency: Ensures the database remains in a consistent state before and after a transaction.
●​ Isolation: Ensures that transactions are executed in isolation from one another.
●​ Durability: Once a transaction is committed, it remains permanent, even in the event of a system
failure.

Indexes
●​ Definition: Indexes improve the speed of data retrieval operations.
●​ Types of Indexes:
○​ B-tree Index: Suitable for range queries and sorted data.
○​ Hash Index: Suitable for equality queries.
●​ Indexing Formula:​
Index Size=Number of Entries × Index Entry Size