Module 01

Networking Basics: Computer Network The Meaning LAN vs. WAN, Network Infrastructure,
Peer-to-Peer vs. Client-Servet Client-Server Network Architecture, Network Devices, Network
Speeds, The OSI Model, Roles of Each One of the 7 Layers, The NetworkAdministrator, Collision
and Broadcast Domains.

Networking Hardware: Host Machines [Workstations and Computers), Network Adapter

fNetwork Interface Card), Hub, Switch, Router, Modem.

IP Addressing: What is an IP address? What is the Function of an IP Address? Hexadecimal

Number System, Default Gateway, Finding Your IP Address Manually, IP Address Configuration,
DHCP, Default IP Address Classes

Network and Security Concepts: Information Assurance Fundamentals, Basic Cryptography,

Symmetric Encryption, Public Key Encryption, The Domain Name System (DNS), Firewalls.

Module01

Computer Network:

A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. In this definition, a

device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such as a large computer, desktop,
laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system. A device in this definition can also be a
connecting device such as a router, which connects the network to other networks, a switch, which
connects devices together, a modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data, and so
on. These devices in a network are connected using wired or wireless transmission media such as cable
or air. When we connect two computers at home using a plug-and-play router, we have created a
network, although very small.
 The Meaning LAN vs. WAN:

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single office,
building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and
video devices. Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely defines the host in the
LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and the destination host’s
addresses.

In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable, which meant that a
packet sent from one host to another was received by all hosts. The intended recipient kept the packet;
the others dropped the packet.

Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the destination
address of the packet and guide the packet to its destination without sending it to all other hosts. The
switch alleviates the traffic in the LAN and allows more than one pair to communicate with each other
at the same time if there is no common source and destination among them. Note that the above
definition of a LAN does not define the minimum or maximum number of hosts in a LAN. Figure 1.8
shows a LAN using either a common cable or a switch.

When LANs were used in isolation (which is rare today), they were designed to allow resources to
be shared between the hosts. As we will see shortly, LANs today are connected to each other and to
WANs (discussed next) to create communication at a wider level.
 Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of communication.

However, there are some differences between a LAN and a WAN. A LAN is normally limited in size,
spanning an office, a building, or a campus;

WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the world. A
LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or
modems.

A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it; a WAN is normally created
and run by communication companies and leased by an organization that uses it. We see two distinct
examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and switched WANs.

Point-to-Point WAN

A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a trans-
mission media (cable or air). We will see examples of these WANs when we discuss how to connect the
networks to one another. Figure 1.9 shows an example of a point-to-point WAN.

Switched WAN

A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. A switched WAN, as we will see shortly,
is used in the backbone of global communication today. We can say that a switched WAN is a
combination of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches. Figure 1.10 shows an
example of a switched WAN.
 Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to one another. When
two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or internet.

As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the other on
the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate with each
other. To make the communication between employees at different offices possible, the management
leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service provider, such as a telephone company, and
connects the two LANs. Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet (with lowercase i).
Communication between offices is now possible. Figure 1.11 shows this internet.

Network Infrastructure:
 Network infrastructure refers to the physical devices and components that make up a computer
network. This includes routers, switches, firewalls, and other networking equipment. It also consists
of the cabling and wiring connecting all these devices. So let us first understand network
infrastructure in detail.

Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a
smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects two or more computers
that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may
serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).

MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in
terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
 The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are
Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.

Peer-to-Peer vs. Client-Server

What is a Client-Server Network?

This model are broadly used network model. In the Client-Server Network, Clients and servers
are differentiated, and Specific servers and clients are present. In Client-Server Network, a
Centralized server is used to store the data because its management is centralized. In Client-Server
Network, the Server responds to the services which is requested by the Client.
 What is Peer-to-Peer Network?

This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers; In this each and every node is itself
client and server. In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can do both request and respond for
the services.
 Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network

Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
differentiated, Specific server and clients are present. differentiated.

Client-Server Network focuses on information While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on

sharing. connectivity.

In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its
used to store the data. own data.

In Client-Server Network, Server respond the While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every
services which is request by Client. node can do both request and respond for the services.

Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-to- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
Peer Network. Client-Server Network.

Client-Server Network ar––e more stable than While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if
Peer-to-Peer Network. number of peer is increase.

Client-Server Network is used for both small and While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
large networks. small networks with fewer than 10 computers.

Client-Server Network Architecture

 How Does the Client-Server Model Work?

In this article, we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at how
the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help us have a solid WEB foundation and help
us easily work with WEB technologies.

Client: When we say the word Client, it means to talk of a person or an organization using a
particular service. Similarly in the digital world, a Client is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of
receiving information or using a particular service from the service providers (Servers).

Servers: Similarly, when we talk about the word Servers, It means a person or medium that
serves something. Similarly in this digital world, a Server is a remote computer that provides
information (data) or access to particular services.

So, it is the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as it is in the database.

Browser Interacts With the Servers?

There are a few steps to follow to interacts with the servers of a client.

 User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then
requests the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.
 DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.
 The DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.
 The Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to the WEB Server’s IP (provided by
the DNS server).
  The Server sends over the necessary files for the website.

The Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done with the
help of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter, and JS Engine collectively
known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.

Advantages of Client-Server Model

 Centralized system with all data in a single place.

 Cost efficient requires less maintenance cost and Data recovery is possible.
 The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.
 Disadvantages of Client-Server Model
 Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans, and worms if present in the Server or uploaded into
the Server.
 Servers are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
 Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.
 Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are
common and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.

Network Devices:

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
 Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses

Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data, and thus play
a very important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below are some common network
devices used in modern networks:

 Access Point
 Modems
 Firewalls
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 NIC

Access Point:

An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices
communicate with the internet or other devices on the network. Access points are used to extend the
range of a network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found in
homes, offices, and public places to provide wireless internet access.

Modems

Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to

convert digital signal into analog signals of different frequencies and transmits these signals to a
modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable systems,
telephone lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also used to convert an analog
signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to access the internet by customers of
an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Types of Modems

There are four main types of modems:

 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower compared to
other types.

Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.

Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby Wi-Fi signals.

Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular network not Wi-Fi
or fixed cables.

Firewalls

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between your
computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized access while
allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help protect your network from hackers, viruses, and
other online threats by filtering traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical devices
(hardware), programs (software), or even cloud-based services, which can be offered as SaaS,
through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.

Repeater

A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length
to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they
copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original
strength. It is a 2-port device.

Hub

A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path
for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used
to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t
be used to extend the distance between nodes.

Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They
also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

Bridge

A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It typically connects multiple network
segments and each port is connected to different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two
ports, it can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern multi-
port bridges are often called Layer 2 switches because they perform similar functions.

Types of Bridges

Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.

Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operations is performed by the source station
and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special
frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths
to the destination.

Switch

A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its efficiency(a large number
of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other
words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer
advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a
larger network.

Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs, QoS,
and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized
management.

Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically
easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.

Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.

Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route
data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are
often used in larger, more complex networks.

PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to
supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.

Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.

Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and are
suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.

Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.

Modular Switches: These switches have modular design that allows for easy expansion or
customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

Router

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.
The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Gateway
 A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.

Brouter

It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable
of routing packets across networks and working as a bridge, it is capable of filtering local area
network traffic.

NIC

NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique ID that is written on the
chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the
computer and the router or modem. NIC is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the
physical and data link layers of the network model.

What is Speed?

Every family, student, and company needs the internet nowadays. Almost everyone is looking
forward to having access to what is known as high-speed internet. This is due to the fact that high-
speed cable, satellite, and wireless connections may all be used to transport data. They can manage
numerous internet activities at the same time, such as gaming, streaming, downloading, and many
more.

The speed at which data or information flows from the World Wide Web to your home
computer, tablet, or smartphone is referred to as Internet speed. It is measured in megabits per
second (Mb/s) or megabits per second (Mbps), with 1 megabit equaling 1,024 kilobits. There are
three types of internet speed testing. The download speed, upload speed, and latency are the three
factors. Each of these groups serves a distinct purpose and performs a different function.

Advantages of High Speed

Quick Loading Times: The need for higher speed is that; websites, videos, and even online
applications take lesser time to load as they have to use less bandwidth.
 Better Online Gaming: Hen fast speeds are used there is less delay or lag in the game and thus
making the game even more enjoyable.

Efficient Video Conferencing: Faster internet connection leads to a much better experience in
terms of the frequency and duration of disruptions during an ongoing video call.

Disadvantages of High Speed

Depends on Bandwidth: Also, even if the speed is high, but the bandwidth is low, then even
browsing can be displeasing.

Susceptible to Throttling: There are cases where the ISPs limit some internet speed during some
hours of the day hence water down the gains of having a high internet speed.

Network Speeds

What is Speed?

The speed at which data or information flows from the World Wide Web to your home
computer, tablet, or smartphone is referred to as Internet speed. It is measured in megabits per
second (Mb/s) or megabits per second (Mbps), with 1 megabit equaling 1,024 kilobits. There are
three types of internet speed testing. The download speed, upload speed, and latency are the three
factors. Each of these groups serves a distinct purpose and performs a different function.

Advantages of High Speed

Quick Loading Times: The need for higher speed is that; websites, videos, and even online
applications take lesser time to load as they have to use less bandwidth.

Better Online Gaming: Hen fast speeds are used there is less delay or lag in the game and thus
making the game even more enjoyable.

Efficient Video Conferencing: Faster internet connection leads to a much better experience in
terms of the frequency and duration of disruptions during an ongoing video call.

Disadvantages of High Speed

Depends on Bandwidth: Also, even if the speed is high, but the bandwidth is low, then even
browsing can be displeasing.
 Susceptible to Throttling: There are cases where the ISPs limit some internet speed during
some hours of the day hence water down the gains of having a high internet speed.

The OSI Model, Roles of Each One of the 7 Layers

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can
be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.

4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.

5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together
in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy
 Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All the
layers are mentioned below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.

Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.

Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and
Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)
 The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC
address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its
MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.

Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus,
flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC
sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a
given time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit
the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in
the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet. Network
layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-
to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of
the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in
Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.

Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because
this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.

At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying
this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
 Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.

Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the
data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is
avoided.

Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed,
optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be
transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols
used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value
is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the Application
layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access files
in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

The Network Administrator

A Network Administrator is an individual, who is responsible for configuring, commissioning and

maintenance of network infrastructure and services. It also includes the computer hardware and
software systems that make up a data network. In an organization, Network Administrator generally
don’t typically get involved directly with users, instead focus upon configuring, monitoring and
maintenance of network components within organization’s LAN/WAN infrastructure. Depending on the
organization and its size, the Network Administrator may also involve in design and deployment of
computer networks.

The roles of a Network Administrator include activities and tasks to be performed such as
configuring, commissioning and maintenance of various network devicesrouters, switches, VPN
gateways, security devices-Firewall and IDS/IPS , creation of De Militarized Zones (DMZ) , IP
addresses allocation & management. It also includes configuring and commissioning of various network
services/protocolsDHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, NFS, etc. Apart from roles, the Network Administrator is
also responsible to • Ensure data network connectivity • Network monitoring and management • Testing
the network for breaches, if any • Keeping an eye out for needed updates • Update Access Control Lists
(ACLs) time to time to regulate network traffic • Security controls enforcement • Preparing and
implementation of security policy and standards

Collision and Broadcast Domains:

Collision Domain –
A Collision Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a message to the network, al l
other devices which are included in its collision domain have to pay attention to it, no matter if it
was destined for them or not. This causes a problem because, in a situation where two devices send
out their messages simultaneously, a collision will occur leading them to wait and re-transmit their
respective messages, one at a time. Remember, it happens only in the case of a half-duplex mode.

Broadcast Domain –
A Broadcast Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a broadcast message, all the
devices present in its broadcast domain have to pay attention to it. This creates a lot of congestion in
the network, commonly called LAN congestion, which affects the bandwidth of the users present in
that network.
 From this, we can realize that the more the number of collision domains and the more the
number of broadcast domains, the more efficient is the network providing better bandwidth to all its
users.

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Networking Hardware: Host Machines [Workstations and Computers),

What is a Server?

The server is either hardware or software which responds to the services requested by the clients.
It is an internet-based operation. This Graphics User Interface can be pre-install or not because it is
optional to the server. A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services, or
programs to other computers known as clients over a network. Servers are typically powerful
machines designed to handle multiple tasks and manage large amounts of data simultaneously.

What is a Workstation?

A workstation is a computer that requests access to the LAN and switches services to respond to
the requests via a switch to perform the dedicated tasks with enhanced features. In the workstation,
Operations are in the form of Business, engineering, etc., and also In this Graphics User Interface is
pre-install because it is not optional to the workstation.

Difference between Server and Workstation

Server Workstation

The device which respond the services for the Perform dedicated task with having
client’s request is called server. enhanced features.

In workstation, Operations are in forms of

On server, Operations are internet based.
Business, engineering etc.

The example of server are: FTP server, web The example of workstation are: Video
 Server Workstation

servers etc. workstations, audio workstations etc.

Operating system used in server are: Linux, Operating system used in workstation are:
Solaris server and windows. Unix, Linux or Windows NT.

In server, Graphics User Interface (GUI) is In workstation, Graphics User Interface

optional. (GUI) is installed.

A server can not be a workstation. Whereas a workstation can be a server.

(Network Adapter for Network Interface Card), Hub, Switch, Router, Modem.

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type
of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the
wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC:

o NIC stands for network interface card.

o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network

o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.

There are two types of NIC:

 Wired NIC

Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data. Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the
connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub: A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through
cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request will be dropped.

Switch: A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A
Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides
where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on
physical address present in the incoming message.

Repeater –
 A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do no
amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at
the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

Important features of a repeater are as follows:

• A repeater connects different segments of a LAN

• A repeater forwards every frame it receives

• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier

• It can be used to create a single extended LAN

Router:

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is
used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.

o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.

o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.

o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Modem:

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the
existing telephone line.
 o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found
on the motherboard.

o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the
telephone lines.

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IP Addressing:

What is an IP address?

What is an IP Address?

IP address stands for internet protocol address which is a combination of numbers used as the
address of a device on a computer network. It is likened to a home address that facilitates routing in
sending data and exchanging messages.

What is the Function of an IP Address?

IP Address Function

The function of IP address is to be used as a means of identifying hosts or network interfaces.

Website owners usually use the IP address to access their site.

In a communication process, the IP address is analogous to a home address so that the packet (data)
sent can reach the right destination (device). Based on this analogy, it can be seen that the function of
the IP address is as a data transmission address to ensure that each device can establish communication.
 Hexadecimal Number System

The Hexadecimal Number System The base 16 hexadecimal has 16 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
A, B, C, D, E and F). Note that the single hexadecimal symbol A is equivalent to the decimal number
10, the single symbol B is equivalent to the decimal number 11, and so forth, with the symbol F being
equivalent to the decimal number 15. For example, consider the hexadecimal number 1A9B. Indicating
the values associated with the positions of the symbols, this number is illustrated as:

Default Gateway:

Default Gateway:

The default gateway is the node that forwards the packet from the source to other networks when
there is no routing information about the destination i.e. host (or router) does not know where the
destination is present.

A default gateway is a route to which information is passed when the device does not know
where the destination is present.

It is used when there is no routing information available about the destination.

It is a node that allows the communication of computers on different networks.

‘Default’ here means the default route which is to be taken when the host does not know where
the destination is.

It is most commonly used for webpage access.

This is an important part of networking for routing the data and finding the corresponding
destination which is in another network.
 Finding Your IP Address Manually:

Finding Your Public IP Address Using a Browser

An easy way to find your public IP address is by using a web browser. Several websites can
instantly identify and display your public IP address.

You can visit these sites on any device—whether it’s your mobile or computer.

Google Search: Simply search for “My IP” on Google, and your public IP address will appear at
the top of the results.

WhatIsMyIP: Visit WhatIsMyIP to view your public IP address.

WhatIsMyIPAddress: Another reliable site is WhatIsMyIPAddress, which provides your public

IP along with additional information

How to Find Your IP Address on Windows?

Step 1 – Click Start or click in the search box and type cmd.

Step 2 – Click on the Command Prompt. In the Windows cmd type “ipconfig” and press enter.
 You can find your IP Address after ipconfig command output as respectively.

If you’re connected to the internet by an Ethernet, then the IP Address will appear in
the Ethernet adapter Ethernet Section.

If you’re connected through Wi-Fi to the internet, then the IP Address will appear in
the Wireless LAN adapter Wi-Fi section.

If you’re connected to both networks simultaneously, then both IP addresses are displayed.

IP Address Configuration, DHCP:

IP address configuration methods

Static IP addressing:

Static IP addressing involves manually assigning a fixed IP address to a device. This method
ensures consistency in addressing, making it easier to manage and troubleshoot specific devices within
the network. It is commonly used for servers, printers, and network infrastructure components.

For instance, consider an organization has a critical server that hosts a database accessed by
multiple departments. To ensure seamless access and stability, the network administrator assigns a static
IP address (e.g., [Link]) to the server. With this, the server's IP address remains constant,
simplifying configuration and access control.

Dynamic IP addressing (DHCP):

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) automates the IP address assignment process by
dynamically allocating IP addresses to devices when they join the network. DHCP servers manage a
pool of available addresses and lease them to devices for a specific duration. This method is efficient for
large networks with numerous devices requiring IP connectivity.

In a corporate office, employees connect their laptops to the network. Instead of manually
configuring each device with a unique IP address, the organization employs DHCP. When a laptop joins
the network, the DHCP server assigns an available IP address and ensures seamless connectivity
without manual intervention.

Automatic private IP addressing (APIPA):

Automatic private IP addressing (APIPA) is a feature in Windows operating systems that allows
devices to self-assign IP addresses when DHCP is unavailable. Devices configured with APIPA select
an IP address from the reserved range of [Link] to [Link]. While APIPA enables basic
communication on a local network, it does not provide connectivity beyond the immediate subnet.

Assume, an employee brings a personal device to a coffee shop with Wi-Fi but without DHCP
services. The device, unable to obtain an IP address from a DHCP server, automatically configures itself
with an APIPA address. This allows the device to communicate with other devices on the same subnet,
such as the coffee shop's router.

Default IP Address Classes:

Classes of IP Addressing

The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are given below:

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

Class E

Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for
multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determines the
classes of the IP address.

The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns an IP address to each device that is connected to its network.
 Class A

IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.

The network ID is 8 bits long.

The host ID is 24 bits long.

Class B

IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-
sized networks.

The network ID is 16 bits long.

The host ID is 16 bits long.

Class C

IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.

The network ID is 24 bits long.

The host ID is 8 bits long.

Class D
 IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting. The higher-order bits of the first
octet of IP addresses belonging to class D is always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the
address that interested hosts recognize.

Class E

IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E range from [Link] – [Link].

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Network and Security Concepts: Information Assurance Fundamentals,

The security model is multidimensional model based on four dimensions :

Information States –
Information is referred to as interpretation of data which can be found in three states stored,
processed, or transmitted.

Security Services –
It is fundamental pillar of the model which provides security to system and consists of five services
namely availability, integrity, confidentiality, authentication, and non-repudiation.

Security Countermeasures –
This dimension has functionalities to save system from immediate vulnerability by accounting for
technology, policy & practice, and people.

Time –
This dimension can be viewed in many ways. At any given time data may be available offline or
online, information and system might be in flux thus, introducing risk of unauthorized access.
Therefore, in every phase of System Development Cycle, every aspect of Information Assurance
model must be well defined and well implemented in order to minimize risk of unauthorized access.

Basic Cryptography

Cryptography
 Cryptography is a way to protect information by turning it into secret codes. When you send a
coded message, only someone with the right key can unlock its meaning. This helps keep your data,
like passwords and credit card numbers, safe from thieves. Many online services use cryptography to
ensure your messages and transactions remain private. By securing data, cryptography supports trust,
privacy, and secure communication in the digital world.

Symmetric Encryption:

Symmetrical Key Cryptography also known as conventional or single-key encryption was the
primary method of encryption before the introduction of public key cryptography in the 1970s. In
symmetric-key algorithms, the same keys are used for data encryption and decryption. This type of
cryptography plays a crucial role in securing data because the same key is used for both encryption
and decryption.

Substitution techniques provide two significant approaches, wherein elements (letters,

characters) from the plaintext message are replaced with new elements according to the rules based
on the secret key.

Caesar Cipher: Caesar cipher has since their predictability is so complete and no complexity is
invested.

Monoalphabetic Ciphers: This is where the ciphers use one rule of substitution throughout the
message. This may involve replacing letters with numbers, symbols, or another set of letters in
another order.

Playfair Cipher: Implementation of repeated letters or letter pairs can expose patterns, and
cryptanalysis techniques exist to exploit them.

Hill Cipher: This cipher operates on blocks of letters (typically bigrams or trigrams) using a
matrix multiplication approach. The Hill ciphers have a limitation on key size and susceptibility
towards cryptanalysis for larger key sizes.
 Polyalphabetic Ciphers: This is the type of cipher where any one of the letters in the plaintext is
substituted by a different letter to keep frequency analysis challenging. For example, the Vigenère
cipher operates with a keyword that would determine the shift value for each letter in the plaintext.

One-Time Pad (OTP): It is a theoretically impossible cipher where the key is a random string of
characters that is exactly as long as the message itself. The key is used for a single encryption and
then discarded.

Public Key Encryption:

Public key cryptography provides a secure way to exchange information and authenticate users
by using pairs of keys. The public key is used for encryption and signature verification, while the
private key is used for decryption and signing. When the two parties communicate with each other to
transfer the intelligible or sensible message, referred to as plaintext, is converted into apparently
random unreadable for security purposes referred to as ciphertext.

Difference Between Encryption and Public-Key Encryption

Public-Key
Basis Encryption Encryption
 Public-Key
Basis Encryption Encryption

Same algorithm with the same One algorithm is used for encryption and a
key is used for encryption and related algorithm decryption with pair of keys,
Require decryption. one for encryption and other for decryption.
d for Work
The sender and receiver must Receiver and Sender must each have one
share the algorithm and key. of the matched pair of keys (not identical) .

Key must be kept secret. One of the two keys must be kept secret.

If the key is secret, it is very If one of the key is kept secret, it is very
Require
impossible to decipher message. impossible to decipher message.
d for
Security Knowledge of the algorithm plus Knowledge of the algorithm plus one of
samples of ciphertext must be the keys plus samples of ciphertext must be
impractical to determine the key. impractical to determine the other key.

The Domain Name System (DNS),

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
[Link]) into machine-readable IP addresses (e.g., [Link]), enabling internet
communication

It enables computers to locate and communicate with each other on the internet.

Functions as a hierarchical, distributed database.

Queries pass through multiple levels:

Root server

Top-Level Domain (TLD) server

Authoritative server (stores the specific IP address).

 Firewalls.

A firewall is a network security device either hardware or software-based which monitors all
incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules it accepts, rejects, or drops
that specific traffic. It acts like a security guard that helps keep your digital world safe from
unwanted visitors and potential threats.

Accept: allow the traffic

Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”

Drop: block the traffic with no reply