Digestive system

Dr Geethu Krishna C.G

Introduction to Digestive System
DIGESTION :
• Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into
simple chemical substances that can be absorbed and used as
nutrients by the body
The GI Tract
Primary Digestive Organs

[Link]

ii. Pharynx

iii. Esophagus

iv. Stomach

v. Small intestine

vi. Large intestine

Accessory Digestive Organs
i. Teeth

ii. Tongue

iii. Salivary glands

iv. Exocrine part of pancreas

v. Liver

vi. Gallbladder.
The functions of digestive system include:

1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances

2. Breaking them into small particles

3. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract

4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion

5. Digestion of the food particles

6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)

7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body.

WALL OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

• In general, wall of the GI tract is formed by four layers which are

from inside out:
1. Mucus layer

2. Sub mucus layer

3. Muscular layer

4. Serous or fibrous layer.

• The epithelium which lines the lumen of the gut is thrown into series
of small finger like projections called villi→site through which the end
products of digestion are absorbed → they increase the surface area
of the intestine → increases absorption
• 2 types of smooth muscles in the gut
• inner circular - Circular muscle encircles the gut ,important for
function of sphincters in the gut
➢ lower esophageal sphincter
➢ pyloric sphincter
➢ anal sphincter

• Outer longitudinal –responsible for peristalsis of gut

Innervation of gut

Intrinsic nervous
Extrinsic
system /enteric
nervous system
nervous system
Intrinsic nervous system/enteric nervous
system
• Forms the local innervation of gut

1. Auerbach’s plexus of nerves /myenteric plexus

2. Meissner’s plexus
Auerbach’s plexus/myenteric plexus

• Located in between longitudinal

and muscular layers of the gut

• Regulate tone of the gut &

motility
Meissner’s plexus

• Lies in the submucous layer of

the gut

• Controls intestinal secretions

and absorption
Extrinsic nervous system /autonomic nervous
system
• Sympathetic ns-inhibit motility of gut ,increases contraction of
sphincters

• Parasympathetic NS→ increases gut secretions and gut motility

Secretions of the gastrointestinal
tract
SALIVARY GLANDS
• In humans, the saliva is secreted by three pairs of major (larger)
salivary glands and some minor (small) salivary glands.

MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS

1. Parotid glands
2. Submaxillary or submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands.
PROPERTIES OF SALIVA
• Volume: 1000 mL of saliva is secreted per day
Functions of saliva

1. It keeps the mouth moist and helps in lubrication →Formation of

bolus ,speech

2. It helps in digestion through the action of salivary amylase

3. saliva is protective –it destroy viruses ,bacteria ,fungi

4. because of high bicarbonate content it acts as buffer

NERVE SUPPLY TO SALIVARY GLAND

• Salivary glands are supplied by both parasympathetic and sympathetic

divisions of autonomic nervous system

• Stimulation of parasympathetic fibers of salivary glands causes secretion

of saliva with large quantity of water

• Stimulation of sympathetic fibers causes secretion of saliva, which is thick

and rich in organic constituents
REFLEX REGULATION OF SALIVARY SECRETION

• Salivary secretion is regulated by nervous mechanism through

reflex action.
• Salivary reflexes are of two types:
• 1. Unconditioned reflex.

• 2. Conditioned reflex.
REFLEX REGULATION OF SALIVARY SECRETION

• Unconditioned reflex is the inborn reflex that is present since birth.

• This reflex induces salivary secretion when any substance is placed in the
mouth.

• Conditioned reflex is the one that is acquired by experience and it needs

previous experience

• The stimuli for this reflex are the sight, smell, hearing or thought of food
• Xerostomia
Xerostomia means dry mouth
Gastric juice secretion
Source
• Stomach secretes about 1.5-2L of gastric juice every day
• Secreted from gastric glands which mainly consists of 3 types
of cells
1. mucous neck cell
2. peptic cell/chief cell
3. parietal cell/OXYNTICcell

4. Enterochromaffin (EC) cells or Kulchitsky cells

5. 5. Enterochromaffin like (ECL) cells.
Gastric glands
Secretory function of cells in gastric gland
Components of gastric juice

• Water

• HCl-parietal cell

• Pepsin –chief cell

• Mucous –mucous neck cell

• IF –parietal cell
Functions of gastric juice

• large volumes of gastric juice allows the food to be mixed in stomach.

• Food gets converted into a semifluid consistency which is acidic in

nature → k/a acidic chyme

1. Digestive function

2. Hemopoietic function

3. Protective functioin
• HCL: the acid secreted by the parietal cells of the gastric glands
1. it helps to kill bacteria and other microorganisms
2. it converts pepsinogen to its active form ,pepsin
3. it provide acidic Ph at which pepsin can act

• pepsinogen: proteolytic function –it digest protiens partly into

peptides
• gastric lipase :it acts in an acidic environment
digestion of lipids
• Mucus:
Mucus, secreted by mucus neck cells of the gastric glands protects
the stomach wall from irritation or mechanical injury
Protects the gastric mucosa from hydrochloric acid and pepsin
digestion
HEMOPOIETIC FUNCTION:-IF
• Intrinsic factor of Castle, secreted by parietal cells of gastric glands
plays an important role in erythropoiesis.

• It is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 (which is called

extrinsic factor) from GI tract into the blood. Vitamin B12 is an
important maturation factor during erythropoiesis
SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

• According to Davenport theory, hydrochloric acid secretion is an

active process that takes place in the canaliculi of parietal cells
in gastric glands.

• The energy for this process is derived from oxidation of glucose.

SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
 SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
• Carbon dioxide is derived from metabolic activities of parietal cell.
• Some amount of carbon dioxide is obtained from blood also.
• It combines with water to form carbonic acid in the presence of carbonic
anhydrase.
• This enzyme is present in high concentration in parietal cells. Carbonic
acid is the most unstable compound and immediately splits into
hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion.
• The hydrogen ion is actively pumped into the canaliculus of parietal
cell.
SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

• Simultaneously, the chloride ion is also pumped into canaliculus actively.

• The chloride is derived from sodium chloride in the blood.

• Now, the hydrogen ion combines with chloride ion to form hydrochloric
acid.

• To compensate the loss of chloride ion, the bicarbonate ion from parietal
cell enters the blood and combines with sodium to form sodium
bicarbonate.
SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

• Factors Stimulating the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid

1. Gastrin
2. Histamine
3. Vagal stimulation.
SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
• Factors Inhibiting the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid
1. Secretin
2. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide
3. Peptide YY.
Phases of gastric juice secretion
• Gastric secretion occurs in three different phases:
I. Cephalic phase

II. Gastric phase

III. Intestinal phase.

CEPHALIC PHASE :
• The thought ,sight,smell and taste of food can trigger the secretion of
gastric juice
• This phase accounts for 30 % of gastric juice secretion
• Nervous mechanism regulates cephalic phase through reflex action.
• Two types of reflexes occur:
1. Unconditioned reflex
2. Conditioned reflex.

•
Conditioned Reflex-Stages of reflex action:

i. Impulses from the special sensory organs (eye, ear and nose) pass through
afferent fibers of neural circuits to the cerebral cortex. Thinking of food
stimulates the cerebral cortex directly

ii. From cerebral cortex, the impulses pass through dorsal nucleus of vagus and
vagal efferents and reach the stomach wall

iii. Vagal nerve endings secrete acetylcholine, which stimulates the gastric
secretion.
• Gastric phase :
• this phase secretion starts once the food enters the stomach
• It accounts for 60% of gastric juice secretion

• Intestinal phase :
this phase refers to continued secretion of gastric juice even after acid
chyme has entered duodenum
Accounts for 10%gastric secretion
Nervous and hormonal control of gastric juice
secretion
• Cephalic phase: under nervous control (vagus nerve)

• gastric phase : both nervous(Local myenteric reflex&vasovagal

reflex)) and hormonal control(gastrin )

• intestinal phase : both nervous and hormonal control

Gastric mucosal barrier
• DEFINITION :The factors which tend to prevent injury to the gastric
mucosa is known as gastric mucosal barrier

• It helps to maintain a difference in electrical potential and ionic

concentration across the gastric mucosa.

• The gastric mucosal barrier protects the gastric mucosa from damage
by intraluminal HCl, i.e. autodigestion.
Components of the mucosal barrier

1. Mucus layer

Bicarbonate secretion,mucin

[Link] barrier.

[Link] mucosal blood flow.

[Link]
PEPTIC ULCER
• Ulcer means the erosion of the surface of any organ
• If peptic ulcer is found in stomach, it is called gastric ulcer and if
found in duodenum, it is called duodenal ulcer.
• Causes
• i. Increased peptic activity due to excessive secretion of pepsin in
gastric juice
• ii. Hyperacidity of gastric juice
• iii. Reduced alkalinity of duodenal content
• iv. Decreased mucin content in gastric juice
• v. Constant physical or emotional stress
PEPTIC ULCER
• Features
• Most common feature of peptic ulcer is severe burning pain in
epigastric region.
• i. Nausea
• ii. Vomiting
• iii. Hematemesis (vomiting blood)
• iv. Heartburn (burning pain in chest due to regurgitation of acid from
stomach into esophagus)
• v. Anorexia (loss of appetite)
• vi. Loss of weight.
Pancreatic secretion
Pancreas
Pancreas

• Pancreas is a dual organ having two functions, namely

endocrine function and exocrine function.

• Endocrine function is concerned with the production of

hormones-insulin and glucagon

• The exocrine function is concerned with the secretion of

digestive juice called pancreatic juice.
Composition of pancreatic juice

• Secretions from pancreas travel via pancreatic duct and open into
second part od duodenum

• Pancreatic juice contains 99.5% of water and 0.5% of solids

• Contains enzymes for digestion of carbohydrates,protiens and

lipids ,HCO3
Functions of HCO3 – in pancreatic juice

• High bicarbonate content makes the pancreatic juice highly

alkaline, so that it protects the intestinal mucosa from acid

chyme by neutralizing it.

• It makes the acid chyme into alkaline chyme

• Bicarbonate ions provide the required pH (7 to 9) for the

activation of pancreatic enzymes