lOMoARcPSD|29640686

lOMoARcPSD|29640686

Meaning of Research

• Scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.

• Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical

proposition about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

• Research is an art of scientific investigation whose aim is to get more information.

Needs of Research

• To discover the truth, which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet; •
To discover the solution of a problem;

• To expand the scope of theoretical knowledge;

• To discover the new application for old knowledge;

• To understand, analyze and explore the phenomena;

• To know the cause effect relationship;

• To improve the level of living in society;

• For professional and intellectual development of the researcher by gaining

knowledge;
• To obtain prestige and respect by a person or by the institution;
• To obtain a research degree;

• As a means of livelihood by way of obtaining the source of finance.

Research Requirements for Academic Degree

1. Dissertation

✓ It is a long essay on a particular subject, especially one written as a

requirement for the doctor of philosophy degree.
2. Thesis

✓ It is a statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or

proved.

✓ It is also a long essay involving personal research, written by a candidate for a

college or master’s degree.
3. Feasibility Study

✓ It is an analysis that takes all of a project’s relevant factors into account-

including economic, technical, legal, and scheduling considerations to
ascertain the likelihood of completing the project successfully.

✓ It is usually used for business proposal.

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KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

A. According to Purpose
1. Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the purpose of determining the
future operation of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or
redirecting such for the better
2. Directive Research – determines what should be done based on the findings
this is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition, if there is any
3. Illuminative Research – is concerned with the interaction of the components of
the variable being investigated, as for example, “interaction of the components
of educational systems and aims to show the connections among, for example,
students’ characteristics, organizational pattern and policies, and educational
consequences
B. According to Goal
1. Basic or pure Research – is done for the development of theories and
Principles.

2. Applied Research – is the application of the results of pure search. This is

testing the efficacy of theories and principles. aims to test theories and concepts
developed for verification, application, development and support and their
relationship to the existing fund of knowledge

C. According to the Level of Investigation

[Link] Research – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a
specific situation.
[Link] Research – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables.
[Link] Research – the experiment studies the effects of the variables on
each other.

D. According to the Type of Analysis

[Link] Research – the researcher attempts to identify and is isolate the
components of the research situation.
[Link] Research – begins with the total situation. Focusing attention on the
system first and then on its internal relationships.

E. According to Scope
1. Under this category is Action Research. This type of research is done on a very
limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost
problem solving.

F. According to Choice of Answers to Problems

1. Evaluation Research, all possible courses of action are specified and identified
and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
2. Developmental Research, the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable
instrument or process than has been available.

G. According to Statistical Content

1. Quantitative or statistical research – is one in which inferential statistics are

utilized to determine the results of the study. Inferential statistics such as
correlation, chi-square, analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis.
This type of research usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect
relationships, etc.
2. Non-quantitative research – This is research in which the use of the quantity
or statistics is practically happen. This is especially true in anthropological studies
where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered rather than
quantitative data.

H. According to Time Element

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1. Historical research describes what was.

2. Descriptive research describes what is.
3. Experimental research describes what will be.

Three (3) Major Research Methods

1. Historical
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental methods of research

Attributes of Good Research Problem

✓ S – Specific. Specifically stated

✓ M – Measurable. Easy to measure by using research instrument in collection of

data ✓ A – Achievable. Data are achievable using correct statistical
treatment/techniques to arrive at precise results

✓ R – Realistic. Real results are not manipulated

✓ T – Time-bound. time frame is required in every activity because the shorter

completion of the activity the better
Capsulizing Research Problem into Title
1. It should clearly and specifically stated
2. Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the
title
3. Relationship between and among variables should be indicate
4. Target population should be indicated in the title to achieve
specificity
5. It should have a maximum of twenty substantive words.
6. Function words should not be placed at the end of each line
7. Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid

Note:
Avoid redundancies like “A Review of…”, “An Analysis of…”, An Evaluation of…”, “An
Assessment….” and the like because even without those terms, the researcher will
review, evaluate, assess or analyze the problem posted in the study.

Avoid Plagiarism
Plagiarism - is an act of incorporating into one’s work the work of another without
indicating the source; the unacknowledged used of somebody else’s words or ideas;
an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas, writings, and statements of others
without giving due credit

Construction of the Main Problem and Sub-problem of the Study

- The main problem of the study may be stated by briefly pointing out the
objectives, the subject and the coverage of the study.
Ex. The study aimed to assess the acceptance of an accurate polygraph results as
evidence in court.

Specify the sub-problems of the main problem.

Ex. Specifically, it sought to answer the following sub-problems:
1. To what extent does the application of polygraph examination affect the
attainment of an accurate results to be presented as evidence in court in terms of:
1.1. examiner’s competency;
1.2. facility and instrument;

1.3. 1.3. techniques and procedures; and

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1.4. 1.4. subject’s condition?

Theoretical Framework

✓ Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.

✓ The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted in the study

Types of Theories
1. Descriptive Theory = seeks to describe a phenomenon
2. Prescriptive Theory = seeks to tell how and sometimes why one should or ought
to behave in certain ways

Guidelines in Choosing Theory

✓ Research must be well-founded on universally accepted, known and tested theory,

principles or concepts.

✓ Research may be anchored on several theories available.

Presentation of Theoretical Framework

Ex. The framework of the study is anchored on …………..……………

Conceptual Framework

✓ an illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical

framework of the study

✓ it may be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or personally

conceptualized by the researcher
Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm
The research paradigm must clearly show the major impact of the cited theory on
the variables (dependent and independent variables) of the study.
An existing theory may be capsulized in a research paradigm which may be adopted
with some modifications.
There must be textual explanations of the variables in the paradigm. Textual
explanations should come before the figure or paradigm.

Assumption and Hypothesis

Assumption - self-evident truth which is based upon known fact or phenomenon. it
is not usually answered or proven because it is assumed true or correct which are
beyond the control of the researcher.
Note: In historical and descriptive researches, it is often times not explicitly
expressed but left implicit, that is, unwritten

Hypothesis - tentative conclusion or answer to specific question raised at the

beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific
question.
Types of Hypothesis
1. Descriptive Hypothesis - use to answer descriptive
questions Ex. Sub-problem:
1. What is the profile of the polygraph examiners of law enforcement agencies in
terms of: 1.1. age;
1.2. marital status;
1.3. educational attainment; and
1.4. Length of Service
Ex. Hypothesis. “Majority of the respondents belong to the age bracket of 30 to 40,
male, college graduate and about 20 years in service.”
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2. Statistical Hypothesis - use to answer questions on the relationship or

differences of data obtained in descriptive questions.

Forms of Statistical Hypothesis

1. Null Form - always the first temporary solution to a problem;
basis of the action of acceptance or rejection; the word null in
mathematics means empty zero; asserts that there is no significant
difference or relationship between the variable; stated in negative
Ex. There is no significant difference between.

2. Operational/Alternative (Ha) - stated in affirmative

Three forms of alternative hypothesis:
1. Non-directional Hypothesis – indicates that the researcher is not interested on
whether one variable is greater or lesser than the other, but only in the
difference.
Ex. Drug A and Drug B have significant effects on the cure of
fever. Ha: A = B
2. Positive Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug A is more effective than Drug B on the treatment of
fever. Ha: A > B
3. Negative Directional Hypothesis
Ex. Drug B is more effective that Drug A on the treatment of
fever. Ha: A < B

Formulating Hypothesis
A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature
study has been concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of
the theoretical and empirical background of the problem.

Guidelines in the Formulation of Explicit Hypothesis

✓ In experimental investigations, comparative and correlational studies, hypothesis

has to be explicit or expressed.
✓ In descriptive and historical investigations, hypothesis are seldom expressed if not
entirely absent. The specific questions serve as the hypothesis.

✓ Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is
easier than a hypothesis in the operational form.

✓ Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are
based.

Ex. of Statistical Hypothesis Sub-

problem:
Is there any significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents
with regards to the extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment
to be accurate results to be presented as evidence in court in terms of examiner’s
competency, facility and instrument, techniques and procedures, and subject’s
condition?

Hypothesis:
The is no significant difference on the assessment of the groups of respondents with
regards to the extent of application of polygraph examination in the attainment of
accurate results to be presented as evidence in court in terms of examiner’s
competency, facility and instrument, techniques and procedures, and subject’s
condition.
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RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative Research Design

Involves in depth analysis of the problems. Its focused is to provide accurate
description of problems w/o attempting to treat or employ sophisticated statistical
tools or describe problems.
Types of Qualitative Research
1. Historical - systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using
the critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts, which are
applicable to current issues and problems.
2. Ethnographic - aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. Data are gathered
through observation, interview and participation
3. Case Study - intensive investigation of a particular individual, institution,
community or any group considered as a unit which includes the development,
adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that suitably follow diagnosis of
the causes of maladjustment or of favorable development.

Quantitative Research Design

-Its focused is to describe problems descriptively and numerically. It utilizes more
statistical tests to explain the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences
of variables.
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Descriptive - describes and interprets WHAT is. It is concerned with conditions or
relationship that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going
on, effects that are being felt or trends that are developing.
Sub-types of Descriptive Research
a. Descriptive-Survey - involves collection of information on people, events
and other topics of interest to the researcher.
b. Descriptive-Documentary - involves content analysis because the
documentary technique includes analysis of content. It is used when data
cannot be obtained through questionnaire or observation.

2. Correlational - it measures the extent or magnitude of association between

two variables; measures the existing relationship of variables; also known as
Associational Research

3. Experimental - the researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or

independent variables to see the effects on the dependent variables; most
commonly used methods to advanced scientific knowledge

Sampling Designs
A. Scientific Sampling - each member of the population is given the chance of
being included in the sample.
Population - specific aggregation of the elements. Also known
as universe Sample - representative portion of a whole. Subset
of a population

Types of Scientific Sampling

1. Restricted Random - applicable only when the population being investigated is
homogenous.
2. Unrestricted Random - the best random sampling design because no restriction
is imposed and every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample
3. Stratified Random - it divides first the population into two or more strata. For
each stratum, the sample items were drawn at random
4. Systematic - a design which all individual in the population are arranged in a
methodical manner, i.e. alphabetical or chronological (age, experience) and the
name may be selected in the construction of the sample
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5. Multistage - done in several stage, it can be two-stage, three, four or five stage,
etc…, depending on the number of stages of sampling to be used.
6. Cluster Sampling - population is group into clusters or small units, for instance,
block or districts, and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling.
Advantageous when individuals in the districts or blocks belong to the
heterogeneous group

B. Non-Scientific Sampling - in this sampling there is subjectivity on the on the

part of the researcher because not all the individual in a population are given an
equal chance of being included in the sample

Types of Non-Scientific Sampling

[Link] - based on choosing individuals as sample according to the purposes
of the researcher
[Link] - a design applied to those samples which are takes because they are
most valuable. the researcher simply takes the nearest individual as subjects of
the study until the sample reaches the desired size
[Link] Sampling - popular in the field of opinion research due to the fact that it
is done by merely looking for individuals with requisite characteristics.

[Link] Instrument - a device designed or adopted by researcher for data

gathering

Classification of Research Instrument

[Link] Instrument - the researcher obtains information or data himself
with little or no direct involvement of the other people
[Link] Instrument - the information is collected directly from the respondents
3. Informant Instrument - the information or data is collected from those
knowledgeable of the subject matter

Commonly Used Instruments

1. Questionnaire - written or printed form containing the questions to be asked on
the respondents.
Types of Questionnaire
[Link]-Ended - respondents are forced to answer the questions asked in the
questionnaire.
Best suited to a qualitative research study
[Link]-Ended - also referred as guided response type, closed form or restricted;
respondents are guided in answering questions; options may be provided like in
multiple choice test while answers are based on the rating scales provided

2. Interview - involves face to face contact between the interviewee and the
interviewer
Types of Interview
a. Structured Interview / Standardized= there is a set of carefully prepared
questions and their expected answers are provided
b. Unstructured Interview / Unstandardized = respondents are free to
express their opinions. Also termed as non-directive or informal
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3. Observation - may be defined as perceiving data through the sense: sight,

hearing, taste, touch and smell. Sense of sight is the most important and most
used. Most direct way and most widely used in studying behavior.
Types of Observation
a. Formal Observation - researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible
responses may also be outlined
b. Informal Observation - needs critical evaluation of the observation made to
avoid biased results. Recommended for qualitative research

Recording of Results of Observation

✓ Checklist = contains the items to be observed

✓ Rating scale = used in observing behavior

✓ Anecdotal Forms = provides for the fewer breakdowns of dimensions or

factors

✓ Mechanical Record = use of motion or still pictures, sound recording

✓ Stenographic Recording

Qualities of Good Research Instrument

1. Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to
measure

Types of Validity
a. Content-Related Validity - refers to content and format of the instrument
which must answer the following criteria: appropriateness; logical; adequate;
and, proper format; expert judgment ; table of specification
b. Criterion-Related Validity - refers to the relationship between scores
obtained using one or more instruments or measures.
c. Construct-Related Validity - refers to the nature of psychological
construction or characteristics being measured by the instrument

2. Reliability - extent to which the instrument is dependable, self-consistent and

stable; consistency of responses from moment to moment; even a person takes
the same test twice, the test yields the same results; reliable test may not
always be valid

3. Usability - otherwise known as Practicability

Degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used. It may be

determined thru: a. ease of administration
b. ease of scoring
c. ease of interpretation
d. low cost
e. proper mechanical make up

Statistics = science which deals with the systematic process of collecting,

organizing, classifying, presenting, interpreting and analyzing data
Types of Statistics
A. Descriptive Statistics = it is used to determine the nature of variables without
any attempt to critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with
other variables
Tools of Descriptive Statistics
1. Frequency Counting/Distribution
2. Percentage
3. Ranking
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4. Measures of Centralities
a. Mean
b. Median
c. Mode
d. Measures of Variability

B. Correlational Statistics - used to determine the degree or magnitude of

association between two variables. Treats bivariate and multivariate problems

✓ Specific Measures of Correlational

✓ Pearson Product Moment Coefficient (Pearson r)

✓ Spearman Rank-Order Coefficient of Correlation (Spearman rho)

✓ Kendall’s Tau Coefficient of Correlation

✓ Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W

✓ Point Biserial Coefficient of Correlation

✓ Phi Coefficient of Correlation

C. Inferential Statistics - Used when in making inferences on the magnitude of

differences of the samples from a large universe; Used in testing hypothesis like
differences bet. two or more variables; Treats bivariate and multivariate problems

Types of Inferential Statistics

1. Parametric Test - applicable when the data measured is in interval or
ratio scales Types of Parametric
a. T-Test and Z-Test - used to determine two variable means which differ
significantly b. F-test (Analysis of Variance – ANNOVA) used to determine significant
differences between three or more variables

2. Non-Parametric = used in ordinal or rank or nominal data

Types of Non-parametric
Chi-Square Test (X2) - used to compare the frequencies obtained in categorized
variables. Used to determine the difference between three or more variables
 Mann-Whitney U-Test
 Sign Test
 Lambda
 Kruskall-Wallis
 Friedman Analysis of
Variance
 McNemar Test
Data Analysis - an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research
questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures
Types of Data Analysis
1. Univariate - tests a single variable to determine whether the sample is similar to
the population from which it has been drawn
2. Bivariate - it tests two variables on how they differ from each other
3. Multivariate - it tests three or more independent variables at a time on the
degree of relationship with dependent variables
4. Normative - the results of the study is compared with the norm
5. Status - stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of subjects
chosen for study
6. Descriptive - describes the characteristics, compositions, structures that occur
as units within the larger structure
7. Classification - analysis which is usually employed in natural science subjects
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8. Evaluative - it appraises carefully the worthiness of the current study

9. Comparative - the researcher considers at least two entities and establishes a
formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can
compare and conclude
which of the two is better
10. Cost-Effective - applicable in comparing the cost between two or more
variables and to determine which of the variable is most effective

Interpretation of Data - an act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is

done to give meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the
problems raised in the study

Levels of Interpretation

✓ Table Reading

✓ Implications or Meaning of Data

✓ Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results are to be compared with

the existing knowledge or finished studies

Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)

1. Determining (recognizing) the problem
2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Doing the library search
4. Designing the study
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data
6. Collecting the date
7. Analyzing the data
8. Determining implications and conclusions fro the findings
9. Making recommendations for further research.

Standard format of Thesis Writing

1. The Problem and the Setting
2. Related Literature and Studies
3. Methods of Research and Procedures
4. Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data
5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

Principles of the Scientific Method

✓ Rigid control – is the manipulation of the research variables.

✓ Objectivity – is that there should be no bias or partiality in treating the result of

inquiry. ✓ Systematic organization – refers to proper and accurate tabulation of
data as well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.

✓ Rigorous standards – refers to the setting up of standards or principles which

serve as Basis for the evaluating the findings of a study. This also refers to the
accurate statistical computation and interpretation of qualified data.
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THESIS FORMAT

Preliminary Pages
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Acknowledgment
d. Dedication
e. Table of Contents
f. List of Tables
g. List of Figures
h. Abstract

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction. Discussion of the problem. What the problem is all about; May
include supporting articles to justify the study ; Discussion of the rational and
objectives for conducting the study

Background of the Study. Historical background of the present study; Locality of

the study
(Place where the study is to be conducted); Basis or justification for conducting the

study Theoretical Framework. Citing theories, articles or policy that would support

the present study. Conceptual Framework. Illustration and discussion on the

conceptual foundation of the study.

Statement of the Problem. General and specific statement of the problem

determined in the study

Assumption or Hypothesis. Self-evident truth based upon known fact or

phenomenon
(Assumption); Tentative conclusion or answer to specific questions (Hypothesis)

Significance of the Study. Contribution of the result of the study to individuals,

institutions, administrators, society, etc…

Scope and Limitation of the Study. Boundaries in terms of the subject of the
study, time, sample respondents, and location (Scope); Weakness of the study
beyond the control of the researcher (Limitation)

Definition of Terms. It can be lexical or operational definition or a combination

thereof of different terms used in the study which are arranged alphabetically

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Foreign Literature. Published articles from foreign countries

Local Literature. Locally published articles

Foreign Studies. Foreign unpublished articles

Local Studies. Locally unpublished articles

Synthesis. Relevance of literature and studies to the present research

Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research Method. Brief description and justification of the research method used
in the study Population and Sampling Scheme. Brief presentation of the entire
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population of the study and the type of sampling techniques used in selecting
sample respondents

Description of the Respondents. Contains detailed description of the

respondents as to age, sex, marital status, nature of employment, etc…

Research Instrument. Explanation on how the instrument used in gathering data

was develop as well as its detailed description.

Validation of Instrument. States brief discussion on how the instrument was

validated; Instrument is tested on individuals who are knowledgeable of the subject
matter but are not part of the respondents of the study

Procedures in Gathering Data. Contains the step by step procedures used by the
researcher in reaching the respondents in order to gather data

Statistical Treatment. Contains discussion on the statistics used in consonance

with the specific problem and hypothesis to be tested

Chapter 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Contains the answers to all the sub-problems of the study

Answers to the problems are stated one by one according to the arrangement of
sub-problems for clarity and understanding
Answers are presented in textual and tabular forms. Textual explanations come after
the tables

Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The introductory paragraph should contain the summary of statement of the

problem, hypothesis as well as research design.

Summary of Findings. Contains the specific findings/results of the study;

Presented as they were organized and categorized in the sub-problems of the
study; Written in past tense

Conclusions. Written in present tense; Should be based on the findings of the

study; Logical and valid outgrowth of the findings; Should not contain any numerals
from the findings; Organized and categorized according to the sub-problems

Recommendations. An appeal to people or institutions concerned to solve the

problems discovered in the study; No recommendations that will be made for
problems that were not discovered in the study; Practical and attainable

APPENDICES Curriculum Vitae Survey Questionnaire Letter of Request/s

Citation. Citations help readers locate your sources. They help to continue the
scholarly conversation. To learn more about how citations can help you avoid
plagiarism, view this interactive tutorial
APA (AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION) FORMAT

APA style is used in a variety of disciplines including nursing, business, social work,
education, and other behavioral and social sciences. APA values currency of work
and thus cites by author(s) and year (as opposed to MLA, which values authorship
and cites by author and page number). Writers using APA must inform readers not
only of authors they are using, but how current/timely the sources are.

APA requires FOUR ELEMENTS of every citation:

Who- Author of content
When- Date content was published
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What- Title of content

Where- Publication information. This can be the website you got it from or the
journal or book's publication information.

General formatting rules are as follows:

✓ Do not put page breaks in between the introduction, method, results, and
discussion sections.

✓ The title page, abstract, references, table(s), and figure(s) should be on their
own pages. ✓ The entire paper should be written in the past tense, in a 12-point
font, double-spaced, and with one-inch margins all around.

Title page
Title should be between 10-12 words and should reflect content of paper (e.g., IV
and DV). Title, your name, and Hamilton College are all double-spaced (no extra
spaces) Create a page header using the “View header” function in MS Word. On the
title page, the header should include the following:
Flush left: Running head: THE RUNNING HEAD SHOULD BE IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS.
The running head is a short title that appears at the top of pages of published
articles. It should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation and spacing.
(Note: on the title page, you actually write the words “Running head,” but these
words do not appear on subsequent pages; just the actual running head does. If you
make a section break between the title page and the rest of the paper you can
make the header different for those two parts of the manuscript). Flush right, on
same line: page number. Use the toolbox to insert a page number, so it will
automatically number each page.

Abstract (labeled, centered, not bold)

No more than 120 words, one paragraph, block format (i.e., don’t indent),
double-spaced. State topic, preferably in one sentence. Provide overview of
method, results, and discussion.

Introduction
(Do not label as “Introduction.” Title of paper goes at the top of the page—not bold)
The introduction of an APA-style paper is the most difficult to write. A good
introduction will summarize, integrate, and critically evaluate the empirical
knowledge in the relevant area(s) in a way that sets the stage for your study and
why you conducted it. The introduction starts out broad (but not too broad!) and
gets more focused toward the end. Here are some guidelines for constructing a good
introduction:
Don’t put your readers to sleep by beginning your paper with the time-worn
sentence, “Past research has shown (blah blah blah)” They’ll be snoring within a
paragraph! Try to draw your reader in by saying something interesting or thought-
provoking right off the bat. Take a look at articles you’ve read. Which ones captured
your attention right away? How did the authors accomplish this task? Which ones
didn’t? Why not? See if you can use articles you liked as a model. One way to begin
(but not the only way) is to provide an example or anecdote illustrative of your
topic area.
Although you won’t go into the details of your study and hypotheses until the end of
the intro, you should foreshadow your study a bit at the end of the first paragraph
by stating your purpose briefly, to give your reader a schema for all the information
you will present next. Your intro should be a logical flow of ideas that leads up to
your hypothesis. Try to organize it in terms of the ideas rather than who did what
when. In other words, your intro shouldn’t read like a story
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of “Schmirdley did such-and-such in 1991. Then Gurglehoff did something-or-other in

1993. Then....(etc.)” First, brainstorm all of the ideas you think are necessary to
include in your paper. Next, decide which ideas make sense to present first, second,
third, and so forth, and think about how you want to transition between ideas. When
an idea is complex, don’t be afraid to use a real-life example to clarify it for your
reader. The introduction will end with a brief overview of your study and, finally, your
specific hypotheses. The hypotheses should flow logically out of everything that’s
been presented, so that the reader has the sense of, “Of course. This hypothesis
makes complete sense, given all the other research that was presented.”
When incorporating references into your intro, you do not necessarily need to
describe every single study in complete detail, particularly if different studies use
similar methodologies. Certainly you want to summarize briefly key articles, though,
and point out differences in methods or findings of relevant studies when necessary.
Don’t make one mistake typical of a novice APA
paper writer by stating overtly why you’re including a particular article (e.g., “This
article is relevant to my study because…”). It should be obvious to the reader why
you’re including a reference without your explicitly saying so. DO NOT quote from
the articles, instead paraphrase by putting the information in your own words.
Be careful about citing your sources (see APA manual). Make sure there is a one-to-
one correspondence between the articles you’ve cited in your intro and the articles
listed in your reference section.
Remember that your audience is the broader scientific community, not the other
students in your class or your professor. Therefore, you should assume they have a
basic understanding of psychology, but you need to provide them with the complete
information necessary for them to understand the research you are presenting.

Method (labeled, centered, bold)

The Method section of an APA-style paper is the most straightforward to write, but
requires precision. Your goal is to describe the details of your study in such a way
that another researcher could duplicate your methods exactly.
The Method section typically includes Participants, Materials and/or Apparatus, and
Procedure sections. If the design is particularly complicated (multiple IVs in a
factorial experiment, for example), you might also include a separate Design
subsection or have a “Design and Procedure” section.
Note that in some studies (e.g., questionnaire studies in which there are many
measures to describe but the procedure is brief), it may be more useful to present
the Procedure section prior to the Materials section rather than after it.

Participants (labeled, flush left, bold)

Total number of participants (# women, # men), age range, mean and SD for age,
racial/ethnic composition (if applicable), population type (e.g., college students).
Remember to write numbers out when they begin a sentence.
How were the participants recruited? (Don’t say “randomly” if it wasn’t random!)
Were they compensated for their time in any way? (e.g., money, extra credit points)
Write for a broad audience. Thus, do not write, “Students in Psych. 280...” Rather,
write (for instance), “Students in a psychological statistics and research methods
course at a small liberal arts college….” Try to avoid short, choppy sentences.
Combine information into a longer sentence when possible.

Materials (labeled, flush left, bold)

Carefully describe any stimuli, questionnaires, and so forth. It is unnecessary to
mention things such as the paper and pencil used to record the responses, the data
recording sheet, the computer that ran the data analysis, the color of the computer,
and so forth. If you included a questionnaire, you should describe it in detail. For
instance, note how many items were on the questionnaire, what the response
format was (e.g., a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree)), how many items were reverse-scored, whether the measure had
subscales, and so forth. Provide a sample item or two for your reader. If you have
created a new instrument, you should attach it as an Appendix. If you presented
participants with various word lists to remember or stimuli to judge, you should
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describe those in detail here. Use subheadings to separate different types of stimuli
if needed. If you are only describing questionnaires, you may call this section
“Measures.”

Apparatus (labeled, flush left, bold)

Include an apparatus section if you used specialized equipment for your study (e.g.,
the eye tracking machine) and need to describe it in detail.

Procedure (labeled, flush left, bold)

What did participants do, and in what order? When you list a control variable (e.g.,
“Participants all sat two feet from the experimenter.”), explain WHY you did what you
did. In other words, what nuisance variable were you controlling for? Your procedure
should be as brief and concise as possible. Read through it. Did you repeat yourself
anywhere? If so, how can you rearrange things to avoid redundancy? You may either
write the instructions to the participants verbatim or paraphrase, whichever you
deem more appropriate. Don’t forget to include brief statements about informed
consent and debriefing.

Results (labeled, centered, bold)

In this section, describe how you analyzed the data and what you found. If your data
analyses were complex, feel free to break this section down into labeled subsections,
perhaps one section for each hypothesis.
Include a section for descriptive statistics
List what type of analysis or test you conducted to test each hypothesis.
Refer to your Statistics textbook for the proper way to report results in APA style. A t-
test, for example, is reported in the following format: t (18) = 3.57, p < .001, where
18 is the number of degrees of freedom (N – 2 for an independent-groups t test). For
a correlation: r (32) = -.52, p < .001, where 32 is the number of degrees of freedom
(N – 2 for a correlation). For a one-way
ANOVA: F (2, 18) = 7.00, p < .001, where 2 represents the between and 18
represents df within Remember that if a finding has a p value greater than .05, it is
“nonsignificant,” not “insignificant.” For nonsignificant findings, still provide the
exact p values. For correlations, be sure to report the r2 value as an assessment of
the strength of the finding, to show what proportion of variability is shared by the
two variables you’re correlating. For t- tests and ANOVAs, report eta2.
Report exact p values to two or three decimal places (e.g., p = .042; see p. 114 of
APA manual). However, for p-values less than .001, simply put p < .001.
Following the presentation of all the statistics and numbers, be sure to state the
nature of your finding(s) in words and whether or not they support your hypothesis
(e.g., “As predicted …”). This information can typically be presented in a sentence or
two following the numbers (within the same paragraph). Also, be sure to include the
relevant means and SDs.
It may be useful to include a table or figure to represent your results visually. Be sure
to refer to these in your paper (e.g., “As illustrated in Figure 1…”). Remember that
you may present a set of findings either as a table or as a figure, but not as both.
Make sure that your text is not redundant with your tables/figures. For instance, if
you present a table of means and standard deviations, you do not need to also
report these in the text. However, if you use a figure to represent your results, you
may wish to report means and standard deviations in the text, as these may not
always be precisely ascertained by examining the figure. Do describe the trends
shown in the figure.
Do not spend any time interpreting or explaining the results; save that for the
Discussion section.

Discussion (labeled, centered, bold)

The goal of the discussion section is to interpret your findings and place them in the
broader context of the literature in the area. A discussion section is like the reverse
of the introduction, in that you begin with the specifics and work toward the more
general (funnel out). Some points to consider:
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Begin with a brief restatement of your main findings (using words, not numbers). Did
they support the hypothesis or not? If not, why not, do you think? Were there any
surprising or interesting findings? How do your findings tie into the existing
literature on the topic, or extend previous research? What do the results say about
the broader behavior under investigation? Bring back some of the literature you
discussed in the Introduction, and show how your results fit in (or don’t fit in, as the
case may be). If you have surprising findings, you might discuss other theories that
can help to explain the findings. Begin with the assumption that your results are
valid, and explain why they might differ from others in the literature.
What are the limitations of the study? If your findings differ from those of other
researchers, or if you did not get statistically significant results, don’t spend pages
and pages detailing what

TCU_CCJ_SY2022-2023S1_CIP1_CRIMINOLOGY7-8 Page 15 of 19
might have gone wrong with your study, but do provide one or two suggestions.
Perhaps these
could be incorporated into the future research section, below.
What additional questions were generated from this study? What further research
should be conducted on the topic? What gaps are there in the current body of
research? Whenever you present an idea for a future research study, be sure to
explain why you think that particular study should be conducted. What new
knowledge would be gained from it? Don’t just say, “I think it would be interesting to
re-run the study on a different college campus” or “It would be better to run the
study again with more participants.” Really put some thought into what extensions of
the research might be interesting/informative, and why.
What are the theoretical and/or practical implications of your findings? How do these
results relate to larger issues of human thoughts, feelings, and behavior? Give your
readers “the big picture.” Try to answer the question, “So what?
Final paragraph: Be sure to sum up your paper with a final concluding statement.
Don’t just trail off with an idea for a future study. End on a positive note by reminding
your reader why your study was important and what it added to the literature.

References (labeled, centered, not bold)

Provide an alphabetical listing of the references (alphabetize by last name of first
author). Double space all, with no extra spaces between references. The second line
of each reference should be indented (this is called a hanging indent and is easily
accomplished using the ruler in Microsoft Word). See the APA manual for how to
format references correctly.
Examples of references to journal articles start on p. 198 of the manual, and
examples of references to books and book chapters start on pp. 202. Digital object
identifiers (DOIs) are now included for electronic sources (see pp. 187-192 of APA
manual to learn more).

Journal article example:

[Note that only the first letter of the first word of the article title is capitalized; the
journal name and volume are italicized. If the journal name had multiple words, each
of the major words would be capitalized.]
Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Trull, T. J. (2009). Ecological momentary assessment of mood
disorders and mood dysregulation. Psychological Assessment, 21, 463-475.
doi:10.1037/a0017075

Book chapter example:

[Note that only the first letter of the first word of both the chapter title and book title
are capitalized.]
Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The
handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random
House.

Book example:
Gray, P. (2010). Psychology (6th ed.). New York: Worth
 lOMoARcPSD|29640686

Table
There are various formats for tables, depending upon the information you wish to
include. See the APA manual. Be sure to provide a table number and table title (the
latter is italicized). Tables can be single or double-spaced.

Figure
If you have more than one figure, each one gets its own page. Use a sans serif font,
such as Helvetica, for any text within your figure. Be sure to label your x- and y-axes
clearly, and make sure you’ve noted the units of measurement of the DV.
Underneath the figure provide a label and brief caption (e.g., “Figure 1. Mean
evaluation of job applicant qualifications as a function of applicant attractiveness
level”). The figure caption typically includes the IVs/predictor variables and the DV.
Include error bars in your bar graphs, and note what the bars represent in the figure
caption: Error bars represent one standard error above and below the mean.

In-Text Citations:
(see pp. 174-179 of APA manual)
When citing sources in your paper, you need to include the authors’ names and
publication date.

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You should use the following formats:
When including the citation as part of the sentence, use AND: “According to Jones
and Smith (2003), the…”
When the citation appears in parentheses, use “&”: “Studies have shown that
priming can affect actual motor behavior (Jones & Smith, 2003; Klein, Bailey, &
Hammer, 1999).” The studies appearing in parentheses should be ordered
alphabetically by the first author’s last name, and should be separated by
semicolons.
If you are quoting directly (which you should avoid), you also need to include the
page number. For sources with three or more authors, once you have listed all the
authors’ names, you may write “et al.” on subsequent mentions. For example: “Klein
et al. (1999) found that….” For sources with two authors, both authors must be
included every time the source is cited. When a source has six or more authors, the
first author’s last name and “et al.” are used every time the source is cited
(including the first time).

Secondary Sources
“Secondary source” is the term used to describe material that is cited in another
source. If in his article entitled “Behavioral Study of Obedience” (1963), Stanley
Milgram makes reference to the ideas of Snow (presented above), Snow (1961) is the
primary source, and Milgram (1963) is the secondary source.
Try to avoid using secondary sources in your papers; in other words, try to find the
primary source and read it before citing it in your own work. If you must use a
secondary source, however, you should cite it in the following way:
Snow (as cited in Milgram, 1963) argued that, historically, the cause of most criminal
acts... The reference for the Milgram article (but not the Snow reference) should then
appear in the reference list at the end of your paper.

DOS AND DONTS OF THE ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH WRITING

Every researcher wants to submit an excellent research paper at the termination of

their research. Your piece of writing is the only medium that conveys your hard work
to the readers. Whether you write an abstract, a research paper, research proposals
or thesis, your ways of presenting the data and your writing style all together create
a holistic picture of you. Owing to the utter significance of a research paper, here
are some tips that can ease the complicated process of writing.
The following is a list of Do’s and Don’ts to remember as you begin to pen down your
work:
 lOMoARcPSD|29640686

The Do’s:
1. Communicate your work clearly and precisely. Remember you are presenting a
novel work done; you don’t have to write stories.
2. Spotlight the ideas and methodologies involved. Discuss specific reasons to justify
your research.
3. Your innovative ideas and methodologies can be followed by future researchers,
therefore, doubly verify the accuracy and correctness of the data you present.
4. Your presented materials should give a thorough conception of the topic and all its
aspects. 5. Refer diverse sources of research for trustworthy and most up-to-date
information. 6. Do scrutinize your research stuff and information for reliability and
present it with ample analysis and logic to show how it conveys and supports your
research.
7. Provide solid evidences and sufficient supporting arguments to reinforce your
findings. 8. Fill your paper with scientific terminologies. Write your paper with only
enough detail about the research work.
9. Maintain a track of the bibliography and references. Sort data by source or
mark your notes so as to remember where individual facts came from.
10. Proof read the paper several times. Do not hesitate to take help of
yourfriends/peers/colleagues/professional editors in proof reading and fine tuning the
paper.

And the Don’ts:

1. Do not misrepresent yourself. Be honest to the readers.

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2. Don’t include anything that doesn’t answer the questions. It won’t lead to any new
conclusionabout your work.
3. Don’t lengthen your paper unnecessarily. Relevant and to the point data is
sufficient to frame your work and make your point.
4. Don’t reveal incomplete or absurd reasons for doing the research.
5. Don’t exceed the recommended word limits. This gives an impression that you
don’t know how to follow guidelines, manage within limitations or systematize
your findings. 6. Don’t make too many generalizations. A paper full of overviews
gives an impression that you do not have anything to say.
7. Don’t write in a vacuum. Make sure that each of your findings support the cause.
8. Don’t forget to reference any supporting material or related research done by
other prominent researchers’ it augments and complements the research paper.
9. Don’t cite Wikipedia. Rather find an absolutely reliable source for your citations.
10. Don’t plagiarize and always proof read your work before submission.

WRITING A GOOD RESEARCH PAPER

Before starting to write a research paper, keep a clear mind for the topic that you
have chosen. Sometimes, you might get results that may not be in conformity with
the result you are expecting. Don’t get disheartened. Because one needs utmost
sincerity while writing a research paper.

Following are the steps generally involved in writing a

research paper: Step 1: Carefully choose the topic after a
detailed study
Choose a topic that will keep you motivated and has relevance in context to the field,
for which you are planning to write. Try writing about something for which you will
remain dedicated all along during the different phases of research. Do not select a
vague topic but keep it concise and to the point.

Step 2: Select relevant and reliable sources of data

The first place where people usually find information now is the Internet. But please
be careful of the websites you visit. Do check their authenticity. Try visiting the sites
that are famous and well-known. This will reduce the chances of information being
 lOMoARcPSD|29640686

manipulated. There is a lot of print material available where you can lay your hands
on like, government publications, reports, periodicals, newspapers, university
research reports. Read the content thoroughly and scan which one will be useful for
the research. Keep a note of the various sources from where you are collecting
information. We will have to add the references as part of the research paper.

Step 3: Define your Thesis statement

A thesis idea acts as a theme on which the paper is based. The whole concept
revolves around the concept of the thesis. It should generally be stated in the
Introduction of the paper. Before writing the final thesis statement, you should
collect, organize, analyze the data and information and draw proper inferences. Do
not make too generic and confusing statements. Try keeping it original, that is, not
copying it from other places. Thesis should cover the following points:

• Explain what will be expected from the paper

• Present your opinion, which will later be validated through experiments

Step 4: Create an outline of your study.

A research paper generally, has the following structure:
1. Title Page (Includes the title of the paper, name of the author, name of university
or the current work organization and the date of publication)
2. Abstract (Brief summary of the paper – usually up to 250 words)
3. Introduction (Brief information which serves as the background on the topic;
something whichacts as an opening to the main content)
4. Manuscript Body (Usually, broken into several sections like, Methods, Experiments
Carried out, Results, Outcome, Conclusion) 5. Reference
6. Tables, figures and appendix (Optional)

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Following such an outline helps in putting the ideas into writing. Some format might
change here and there, but the essence remains the same. This will help in
understanding what has already been done and what is left to be done.

Step 5: After completing the first draft version of the paper, read it
thoroughly. Re write wherever required
Go through the paper multiple times to make sure that there are no mistakes. Ensure
that the correct figures have been quoted. Following are few checkpoints which can

be cross checked: • Is the thesis statement correct and holds valid?

• Has the correct outline been followed?

• Are results presented in the proper sequence?

• Is the thesis proved with valid inputs?

• Have all the references been quoted?

Step 6: Proofread your paper, make sure all the relevant references of data
have been included
Give a final reading to the paper ensuring that all the important information,
experiments, results and conclusion has been included. Check for any grammatical,
spelling and punctuation errors. Make sure that all the sources have been captured.
And finally try to submit your paper before the deadline so that there is no last
minute rush.
 lOMoARcPSD|29640686

References:
Saleem, A., Tabusum, S., and Sadik Batcha, M. (2014). Holistic Approach of Research
Work. Research Scholar/Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. India.
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 7.
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