Protection and Switchgear 21EE63

Module 2: Overcurrent Protection

2.1 Introduction
Protection against excess current was naturally the earliest protection systems to evolve.
From this basic principle has been evolved the graded over current system, a discriminate fault
protection. “Over current” protection is different from “over load protection”. Overload
protection makes use of relays that operate in a time related in some degree to the thermal
capability of the plant to be protected. Over current protection, on the other hand, is directed
entirely to the clearance of the faults, although with the settings usually adopted some measure
of overload protection is obtained. In terms of the general torque equation the over current relay
has both constants K2 and K3 equal to zero. Therefore, the equation becomes
𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 + 𝐾4

2.2 Types of over current relays

Based on the relay operating characteristics, overcurrent relays can be classified into three
groups – Definite current or instantaneous – Definite time – Inverse time.
1. Definite current or instantaneous relays
This type of relay operates instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value.

2. Definite time Relays

This type of relay operates after a definite time when the current reaches a pre- determined
value.

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3. Inverse time Relays

The fundamental property of these relays is that they operate in a time that is inversely
proportional to the fault current. Inverse time relays are generally classified in accordance with
their characteristic curve that indicates the speed of operation. Inverse-time relays are also
referred as inverse definite minimum time or IDMT over current relays.

2.3 Setting the parameters of time delay overcurrent relay

Pick-up setting
The pick-up setting, or plug setting, is used to define the pick-up current of the relay,
and fault currents seen by the relay are expressed as multiples of plug setting. Plug setting
multiplier (PSM) is defined as the ratio of the fault current in secondary Amps to the relay plug
setting. For phase relays the pick-up setting is determined by allowing a margin for overload
above the nominal current, as in the following expression
Pick-up setting = (OLF x I nom) / CTR
Where, OLF = Overload factor that depends on the element being protected.
I nom = Nominal circuit current rating, and
CTR = CT Ratio

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Time dial setting

The time-dial setting adjusts the time –delay before the relay operates whenever the
fault current reaches a value equal to, or greater than the relay setting. The time-dial setting is
also referred to as time multiplier setting (TMS)

Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays controlling
the CBs in a power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault location opens first.
A simple radial distribution system is considered to illustrate this principle.

A radial distribution system with time-discrimination: The main disadvantage of this method
of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest
to the power source, where the fault level is highest.

Discrimination by current
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the position
of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values between the source and the fault.
The relays controlling CBs are set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay
nearest the fault trips its circuit breaker.

It is possible to determine whether the impedance of the line up to the point of fault is
greater than or less than the predetermined reach point impedance. Inverse time over current
relay characteristic is evolved to overcome the limitations imposed by the independent use of
either time or over current coordination.
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2.4 Directional Over Current Relays

When fault current can flow in both the directions through the relay, at its location.
Therefore, it is necessary to make the relay respond for a particular defined direction, so that
proper discrimination is possible. This can be achieved by introduction of directional control
elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which the system voltage is used as
a reference for establishing the relative phase of the fault current. Basically, an AC directional
relay can recognize certain difference in phase angle between two quantities, just as a D.C.
directional relay recognize difference in polarity.

2.4.1 The polarizing quantity of a directional relay

It is the reference against which the phase angle of the other quantity is compared.
Consequently the phase angle of the polarizing quantity must remain fixed when other quantity
suffers wide change in phase angle. The voltage is chosen as the “polarizing” quantity in the
current-voltage induction type directional relay. Four pole induction cup construction is
normally used.

2.5 Protection of feeders: over current and earth fault protection

It is customary to have two elements of over current and one element of earth fault
protection system in the most elementary form of protection of three phase feeders. Different
types of feeders employ the over current protection along with the directional relay so that
proper discrimination of an internal fault is possible.

2.5.1 Application of directional relays to parallel feeders

It may be seen from the below given parallel feeders that the relays placed at the load
side of both the lines use directional element which respond to a direction away from the bus
bars. Similarly, the relays placed at the source side do not require any directional element.

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2.5.2 Application of directional relays to ring mains

A similar concept of discrimination is also utilized in the below given ring main feeder
and a feeder fed from both the sides. It can be observed that relays placed near the bus
connecting the sources, don not have any directional feature, whereas the rest of the buses,
respond to a direction always away from the source. It is good practice to locate a fault
anywhere among different sections of the feeders and check whether that particular section
only is isolated without disrupting the power flow in other sections.

2.5.3 Over current protection radial system

2.6 Pilot wire schemes for feeder protection

In differential protection scheme, the current entering at one end of the line and leaving
from other end of the line is compared. The pilot wires are used to connect the relays. Under
normal working condition, the two currents at both ends are equal and pilot wires do not carry

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any current, keeping relays inoperative. Under an internal fault condition, the two currents at
both the ends are no longer same, this causes circulating current flow through pilot wires and
makes the relay to trip.
The various schemes used with this method of protection are,
1. Merz-Price Voltage Balance System
2. Translay Scheme

2.6.1 Merz-Price Voltage Balance System

The figure below shows Merz-Price voltage balance system used for the three phase feeders.

Under normal condition, current entering the line at one end is equal to current leaving
from the other end. Therefore, equal and opposite voltages are induced in the secondaries of
C.T.s. at the two ends resulting in no current flow, through the relay. Under fault condition,
two currents at the two ends are different. Thus the secondary voltages of both the end C.T.s
differ from each other. This circulates a circulating current through the pilot wires and the
relays. Thus the relays trip the circuit breakers to isolate the faulty section.

The advantages of this method are as follows

1. It can be used for parallel as well as ring main system.
2. It provides instantaneous protection to ground faults.

The limitations of this method are as follows

1. The C.T.s used must match accurately.
2. The pilot wires must be healthy without discontinuity.
3. Economically not suitable as the cost is high due to long pilot wires.

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4. Due to long pilot wires, capacitive effects adversely bias the operation of the relays.
5. The large voltage drop in the pilot wires requiring better insulation.

2.6.2 Translay Scheme

The translay relay is another type of differential relay. The arrangement is similar to
overcurrent relay but the secondary winding is not closed on itself. Additionally copper ring or
copper shading bands are provided on the central limb as shown in the figure below.

In this scheme, two such relays are employed at the two ends of feeder as shown in the figure
below.

The secondaries of the two relays are connected to each other using pilot wires. The
connection is such that the voltages induced in the two secondaries oppose each other. The
copper coils are used to compensate the effect of pilot wire capacitance currents and unbalance
between two currents transformers.

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Under normal operating conditions, the current at the two ends of the feeder is same.
The primaries of the two relays carry the same currents inducing the same voltage in the
secondaries. As these two voltages are in opposition, no current flows through the two
secondaries circuits and no torque is exerted on the discs of both the relays.
When the fault occurs, the currents at the two ends of the feeder are different. Hence
unequal voltages are induced in the secondaries. Hence the circulating current flows in the
secondary circuit causing torque to be exerted on the disc of each relay. But as the secondaries
are in opposition, hence torque in one relay operates so as to close the trip circuit while in other
relay the torque restricts the operation. Care must be taken so that, at least one relay operates
under the fault condition.

Role of copper ring: Mainly relays may operate because of unbalance in the current
transformers. The copper rings are so adjusted that the torque due to current induced in the
copper ring due to primary winding of relay is restraining and do not allow the disc to rotate.
It is adjusted just to neutralize the effect of unbalance existing between the current
transformers. The copper rings also neutralize the effect of pilot capacitive currents. Though
the feeder current is same at two ends, a capacitive current may flow in the pilots. This current
leads the secondary voltage by 900. The copper rings are adjusted such that no torque is exerted
on the disc, due to such capacitive pilot currents. Therefore in this scheme the demerits of pilot
relaying scheme is somewhat taken care of.

The advantages of this scheme are,

1. Only two pilot wires are required.
2. The cost is very low.
3. The current transformers with normal design can be employed.
4. The capacitive effects of pilot wire currents do not affect the operation of the relays.

2.7 Carrier Current unit protection system

Schematic diagram of the carrier current scheme is shown below. Different basic components
of the same are discussed below.

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1. The Coupling capacitor

These coupling capacitors (CU) which offer low reactance to the higher frequency carrier
signal and high reactance to the power frequency signal. Therefore, it filters out the low (power)
frequency and allows the high frequency carrier waves to the carrier current equipments. A low
inductance is connected to the CU, to form a resonant circuit.

2. Wave Traps
The Wave traps (also known as Line Trap) are inserted between the busbar and the
connection of the CU. These traps are L and C elements connected in parallel, and they are
tuned in such a manner that they offer low reactance to the power frequency signals and high
reactance to the carrier waves. They ensure that neither of these different frequency signals get
mixed up before being received at the bus bar. Both the CU and the Wave traps are protected
from switching and lightening surges, with the help suitably designed Spark Gaps or Varistors.

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3. Frequency spacing
Different frequencies are used in adjacent lines and the wave traps ensure that carrier
signals of other lines do not enter a particular line section. Therefore, proper choice of
frequency bands for different lines are adopted.

4. Transmitter Unit
In a Transmitter unit, the carrier frequency in the range of 50 to 500 KHz of constant
magnitude is generated in the oscillator, which is fed to an amplifier. Amplification is required
to overcome any loss in the coupling equipments, weather conditions, Tee connections in the
lines of different size and length. The amplifier and the oscillators are constantly energized and
a connection is made between the two with the help of a control unit.

5. Receiver Unit
The Receiver unit consists of an attenuator and a Band pass filter, which restricts the
acceptance of any unwanted signals. The unit also has matching transformer to match the line
impedance and that of the receiver unit.

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6. Modulator
The Modulator modulates, the 50 Hz power signals with high frequency carrier waves
and the modulated signal is fed to an amplifier. The amplifier output is transmitted via a CU.
It takes half a cycle of power signal to produce requisite Blocks of carrier as shown in figure.

2.7.1 The Schematic of CCE

The CTs connected to the transmission line feed the Summation block which consist of
Network sequence filters. It transforms the CT output to a single phase voltage signal that is
representative of the fault condition. The voltage signal is used to control the output from the

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local transmitter unit, through the starting relay known as Starter. It therefore initiates
comparison between the local transmitter output and the signal received from the remote
receiver in the comparator. The comparator output condition then initiates the Trip relay.

The principle of Phase Comparison is one of the methods that involve decision of
tripping. As shown above, the presence of blocks of carrier signals abort any tripping and its
absence initiates the tripping. Therefore, in a section of transmission line, where CTs at both
end buses are connected 180 degree out of phase, an absence of carrier signal can only be
possible if an internal fault has occurred. However, it can be seen that such absence of carrier
blocks is not possible for an external fault.

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2.7.2 Application advantages and multiple roles of CCE

Pilot channel such are carrier current over the power line provides simultaneous tripping
of circuit-breakers at both the ends of the line in one to three cycles. Thereby high speed fault
clearing is obtained, which improves the stability of the power system. Besides there are
several other merits of carrier current relaying. There are:
1. Fast, simultaneous operating of circuit-breakers at both ends.
2. Auto-reclosing simultaneous reclosing signal is sent thereby simultaneous (1 to 3
cycles) reclosing of circuit breaker is obtained.
3. Fast clearing prevents shocks to systems.
4. Tripping due to synchronizing power surges does not occur, yet during internal fault
clearing is obtained.
5. For simultaneous faults, carrier current protection provides easy discrimination.
6. Fast (2 cycle) and auto-reclosing circuit breakers such as air blast circuit breaker
require faster relaying. Hence, the carrier current relaying is best suited for fast
relaying in conjunction with modern fast circuit breaker.
7. The carrier current equipment is used for several other application besides protection.
They are as follows
a) Station to station communication. In power station, receiving stations and sub-
stations telephones are provided. These are connected to carrier current
equipment and conversion can be carried out by means of "Current Carrier
Communication".
b) Control. Remote control of power station equipment by carrier signals.
c) Telemetering.

2.7.3 Media used for protection signalling

Power - line - carrier circuits
Pilot wires

2.8 Static Overcurrent Relay

The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such
type of relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic
circuit etc. The relay which consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called static relay

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because the static units obtain the response and the electromagnetic relay is only used for
switching operation. The component of the static relay is shown in the figure below.

The input of the current transformer is connected to the transmission line, and their
output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the
relaying measuring unit.
The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit.
The output signal from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold
value. The output of the relaying measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.
The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output
device activates the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the
output devices only when the measurand has the well-defined value. The output device is
activated and gives the tripping command to the trip circuit.
The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical
quantities like heat temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical
signal and then act as an input for the relay.

2.9 Numerical Overcurrent Relay

IDMT/ definite time/ instantaneous low-set/high-set non-directional
numerical/microprocessor based over current relay (OCR) with earth fault relay (EFR) of is
extensively used for selective over current and earth fault protection of radial feeders in solidly
earthed, resistance earthed or impedance earthed power systems. It has wide applications in
substations and industrial networks. The IDMT/definite time/instantaneous low-set/high-set
non-directional numerical/microprocessor based over current relay (OCR) with earth fault
relay (EFR) can also be used in most application where inverse time, definite time and
instantaneous relays are required.
The relay gives selective phase and earth fault protection in time graded systems for
transformers, motors, etc. if ensures reliable protective system and clears only the faulted
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section. This is intended for protection application in medium voltage networks. These
networks may have isolated or resistance impedance earthed or solidly earthed neutral points.
Definite time over current relays are both suited for isolated systems and for use as back
up to differential relays and distance relays.
Inverse time relays (over current relays with various inverse times - current
characteristics) are advantageous for interconnected systems and solidly grounded systems.
Another tool for reducing the tripping time for faults near the source is to use the added
instantaneous ( high set ) feature in the numeric relay .If the fault occurs during the setting of
relay ,the relay shall operate / trip for the previously selected / default settings. Receives the
input current signals (phase current and neutral current) via four input current transformers.
These signals are galvanically de-coupled, suitably filtered and fed to the micro-controller, for
amplitude calculation and further logical processing.
The micro-controller continuously monitors the magnitude of the phase current and the
neutral current. whenever the phase current or the earth current magnitude exceeds the present
value corresponding line / earth element will pick up and relay will trip after time interval
calculated by the selected IDMT curves. Whenever the fault level exceeds the selected high set
range, the relay will trip for high set, ignoring the selected IDMT curves. The timer logic is
processed and after comparison with set time schedules, tripping signals are issued accordingly.
There are two output relays, each output relay has two change over contacts either for
alarm or tripping. The output relays are programmable

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