BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

Module-4
Synchronous Generators (Salient Pole): Effects of saliency, two-reaction theory, Parallel
operation of generators and load sharing. Methods of Synchronization, Synchronizing power.
Performance of Synchronous Generators: Power angle characteristic (salient and non-
salient pole), power angle diagram, reluctance power, and Capability curve for large turbo
generators. Hunting and damper windings. Numerical.

Synchronous Generators (Salient Pole)

Effect of Saliency: Saliency in synchronous machines refers to the variation in the
reluctance of the magnetic path for the rotor as it rotates. This variation can affect the
performance of the machine, especially in terms of its ability to produce torque.
The reactance measured at the terminals of a salient-pole synchronous machine as opposed to
a cylindrical rotor machine (with uniform air gap) varies as a function of the rotor position.
The effects of saliency are taken into account by the two-reactance theory, in which the
armature current ¯Ia is resolved into two components: Id in the direct or field axis, and Iq in

.IN
the quadrature or interpolar axis. Iq will be in the time phase with the excitation speed voltage
¯Ef, whereas Id will be in the time quadrature with Ef . Direct- and quadrature-axis reactances
(Xd and Xq) are then introduced to model the machine in two axes. While this involved
C
method of analysis is not pursued here any further, the steady-state power-angle characteristic
of a salient-pole synchronous machine (with negligible armature resistance) is shown in
N
Figure. The resulting power has two terms: one due to field excitation and the other due to
saliency. The maximum torque that can be developed is somewhat greater because of the
SY

contribution due to saliency.

U
VT

1
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

Two Reaction Theory was proposed by Andre Blondel. The theory proposes to resolve the
given armature MMFs into two mutually perpendicular components, with one located along
the axis of the rotor of the salient pole. It is known as the direct axis or d axis component. The
other component is located perpendicular to the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is known as
the quadrature axis or q axis component.
The d axis component of the armature MMF, Fa is denoted by Fd, and the q axis component
by Fq. The component Fd is either magnetizing or demagnetizing. The component Fq results
in a cross-magnetizing effect. If Ψ is the angle between the armature current Ia and the
excitation voltage Ef and Fa is the amplitude

of the armature MMF, then

Salient Pole Synchronous Machine Two Rection Theory

.IN
C
In the cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air gap is uniform. The pole structure of the
N
rotor of a salient pole machine makes the air gap highly non-uniform. Consider a 2 pole,
salient pole rotor rotating in the anticlockwise direction within a 2 pole stator as shown in the
SY

figure below:
U
VT

The axis along the axis of the rotor is called the direct or the d axis. The axis perpendicular
to the d axis is known as the quadrature or q axis. The direct axis flux path involves two
small air gaps and is the path of the minimum reluctance. The path shown in the above
figure by ϕq has two large air gaps and is the path of the maximum reluctance.
The rotor flux BR is shown vertically upwards as shown in the figure below:

2
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

The rotor flux induces a voltage Ef in the stator. The stator armature current Ia will flow
through the synchronous motor when a lagging power factor load is connected to it. This
stator armature current Ia lags behind the generated voltage Ef by an angle Ψ.

.IN
The armature current produces stator magnetomotive force Fs. This MMF lags behind Ia by
angle 90 degrees. The MMF FS produces stator magnetic field BS long the direction of Fs.
The stator MMF is resolved into two components, namely the direct axis component Fd and
C
the quadrature axis component Fq.
If,
N
• ϕd is the direct axis flux
SY

• Φq is the quadrature axis flux

• Rd is the reluctance of the direct axis flux path
U
VT

As, Rd < Rq, the direct axis component of MMF Fd produces more flux than the quadrature
axis component of the MMF. The fluxes of the direct and quadrature axis produce a voltage
in the windings of the stator by armature reaction.
Let,

• Ead be the direct axis component of the armature reaction voltage.

• Eaq be the quadrature axis component of the armature reaction voltage.
Since each armature reaction voltage is directly proportional to its stator current and lags
behind by 90 degrees angles. Therefore, armature reaction voltages can be written as shown
below:

3
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

Where,

• Xad is the armature reaction reactance in the direct axis per phase.
• Xaq is the armature reaction reactance in the quadrature axis per phase.
The value of Xad is always greater than Xaq. As the EMF induced by a given MMF acting
on the direct axis is smaller than for the quadrature axis due to its higher reluctance.

The total voltage induced in the stator is the sum of EMF induced by the field excitation.
The equations are

.IN
C
The voltage E’ is equal to the sum of the terminal voltage V and the voltage drops in the
resistance and leakage reactance of the armature. The equation is written as:
N
SY

The armature current is divided into two components; one is the phase with the excitation
voltage Ef and the other is in phase quadrature to it.
U

If
VT

• Iq is the axis component of Ia in phase with Ef.

• Id is the d axis Ia lagging Ef by 90 degrees.

4
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

.IN
C
N
SY

Parallel operation of generators:

U
VT

In a generating station, two or more alternators are connected in parallel (as shown in Figure).
Also, in an interconnected system forming a grid the alternators are located at different places
and they are connected in parallel by means of transformers and transmission lines. Under
normal operating conditions, all the alternators in an interconnected system operate in
synchronism with each other. The parallel operation of alternators ensures greater security of
supply and enables overall economic generation.

Advantages of Parallel operation of Synchronous Generators:

• Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.

5
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

• One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus, the
remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.
• When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and
inspection, the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
• If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.
• A number of machines can be added without disturbing the initial installation
according to the requirement to fulfill the increasing future demand of the load.
• Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and the cost of energy
generation.
• It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic generation.

Necessary Conditions for Parallel Operation of the Alternator:

Most synchronous machines will operate in parallel with other synchronous machines. The
process of connecting one machine in parallel with another machine or with an Infinite Busbar
system is known as Synchronizing. The machine carrying the load is known as Running

.IN
Machines while the alternator which is to be connected in parallel with the system is known
as the Incoming machine.
• The phase sequence of the Busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltage must
be the same.
C
• The Busbar voltages and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in phase.
• The terminal voltage of the incoming machine and the alternator which is to be
N
connected in parallel or with the busbar voltage should be equal.
• The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine and the frequency of
SY

the voltage of the busbar should be equal.

Methods of Synchronization:
U

Different techniques are available for the synchronization of alternators. The primary
VT

purpose of these techniques is to check all four conditions discussed above. The common
methods used for synchronizing the alternators are given below:
• Three Dark Lamps Method
• Two Bright, One Dark Method
• Synchroscope Method

Three Dark Lamps Method:

The figure shows the circuit for the bright lamp method used to synchronize the alternators.
Assume that the alternator is connected to the load supplying rated voltage and frequency to
it. Now the alternator-2 is to be connected in parallel with alternator-1.
Three lamps (each of which is rated for alternator terminal voltage) are connected across the
switches of the alternator-2. From the figure, it is clear that the moment when all the
conditions of parallel operation are satisfied, the lamps should be more or less dark.

6
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime mover of the alternator-2 is driven at
speed close to the synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number of poles
of the alternator.
Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till voltage across the machine terminals
is equal to the bus bar voltage (by observing the readings on voltmeters).
If lamps go ON and OFF concurrently, indicating that the phase sequence of alternator-2
matches with bus bar. On the other hand, if they ON and OFF one after another, it resembles
the incorrect phase sequence.
By changing the connections of any two leads of alternator-2 after shutting down the machine,
the phase sequence can be changed.

.IN
C
N
SY

Depending on the frequency difference between alternator-2 voltage and bus bar voltage,
ON and OFF rate of these lamps is decided. Hence, the rate of flickering has to be reduced
U

to match the frequency. This is possible by adjusting the speed of alternator by its prime
mover control.
VT

When all these parameters are set, the lamps become dark and then the synchronizing switch
can be closed to synchronize alternator-2 with alternator-1.
The main disadvantage of this method is that rate of flickering only indicates the difference
between the alternator-2 and the bus bar. But the information of alternator frequency in
relation to bus bar frequency is not available in this method.
Suppose, if the bus bar frequency is 50Hz, the rate of flickering of lamps is same when the
frequency of the alternator is either 51 or 49 Hz, as the difference in these two cases is 1Hz.

Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method:

The connections for this method are shown in figure and it is useful in finding whether the
alternator frequency is lower or higher than the bus bar frequency.
To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime mover of the alternator-2 is driven at
speed close to the synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number of poles
of the alternator.

7
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till voltage across the machine terminals
is equal to the bus bar voltage (by observing the readings on voltmeters).
Here, the lamp L2 is connected across the pole in the middle line of synchronizing switch as
similar to the dark lamp method, whereas the lamps L1 and L3 are connected in a transposed
manner.
The voltage condition checking is similar to the previous method and after it, the lamps glow
bright and dark one after another. The lower or higher value of alternator frequency in
comparison with bus bar frequency is determined by the sequence in which the lamps become
dark and bright.

.IN
C
N
SY

The sequence of becoming bright and dark L1- L2 – L3 indicates that the incoming generator
frequency is higher than the bus bar frequency. Hence, the alternator speed has to be reduced
U

by prime mover control till the flickering rate is brought down to a small.
On the other hand, the sequence flickering L1- L3 – L2 indicates that incoming alternator
VT

frequency is less than that of bus bar.

Hence, the speed of the alternator is increased by the prime mover till the rate of flickering is
brought down to as small as possible. The synchronizing switch is then closed at the instant
when lamps L1 and L3 are equally bright and lamp L2 is dark.
The disadvantage of this method is that the correctness of phase sequence cannot be checked.
However, this requirement is unnecessary for permanently connected alternators where
checking of phase sequence is enough to be carried out for the first time of operation alone.

Synchroscope Method:
It is similar to the two bright and one dark lamp method and indicates whether the alternator
frequency is higher or lower than the bus bar frequency. A synchroscope is used for better
accuracy of synchronization and it consists of two pairs of terminals.
To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime mover of the alternator-2 is driven at
speed close to the synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number of poles
of the alternator.

8
BEE304 Module-4_Synchronous Generator Salient pole

Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till voltage across the machine terminals
is equal to the bus bar voltage (by observing the readings on voltmeters).
One pair of terminals marked as ‘existing’ has to be connected across the bus bar terminals or
to the existing alternator and other pair of terminals marked as ‘incoming’ has to be connected
across the terminals of incoming alternator.
The synchroscope has circular dial over which a pointer is hinged that is capable of rotating
in clockwise and anticlockwise directions.

.IN
C
After the voltage condition is checked, the operator has to check the synchroscope. The rate
N
at which the pointer rotates indicates the difference of frequency between the incoming
alternator and the bus bar.
SY

Also, the direction to which the pointer rotates (to either fast or slow) gives the information,
whether the incoming alternator frequency is higher or lower than the bus bar frequency and
hence the pointer moves either fast or slow.
U

The appropriate correction has to be made to control the speed of the alternator so as to
bring the rate of rotation of pointer as small as possible. Therefore, synchroscope along with
VT

voltmeters are enough for synchronization process. However, in most of the cases a set of
lights along with synchroscope is used as a double-check system.

These are the methods of synchronizing the generators. This process must be done carefully
to prevent the disturbances in the power system as well as to avoid a serious damage to the
machine. Only three lamps methods are not preferred today due to less accuracy and manual
operation.
These processes need a skilled and experienced person to handle the equipment while
synchronizing. In most cases synchroscope method with set of lamps is used as mentioned
above.