Course: Digital Literacy Teaching Assistant: Tawe Boris M.

(MSc)

MODULE TWO:

COMPUTER HARDWARE

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in

its memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce
information (output), and store the information for future use.

A computer system is made up of two components: hardware and software. Hardware refers to
the tangible components of the computer system and is made up of 4 categories – input unit,
output unit, central processing unit and storage unit. The Von Neuman architecture can best
describe how a the hardware components of computer system operate.

Figure 1: Von Neuman architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is a stored-program computer model that was designed by the
Hungarian born Mathematician, John Von Neumann. It is based on three concepts:

- Both data and instructions (programs) are stored in a single storage structure called
memory
- The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to the type of
data contained there.
- It has a single processing unit which. As such, execution occurs in a sequential fashion
from one instruction to the next.

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Programs being stored in memory ensures that by altering the stored program, the computer
can perform a different task – the reason why a computer is called a general-purpose machine.
Neumann divided the computer into four functional units: input, processing, storage and output.

1. INPUT UNIT

This unit contains devices that we use to enter data into the computer. This unit is the link
between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form that
the computer can understand. Here are some of the main input devices used in a computer:

- Keyboard - Scanner - Optical Character

- Mouse - Graphic Tablet Reader (OCR)
- Joy Stick - Microphone - Bar Code Reader
- Light pen - Magnetic Ink Card - Optical Mark
- Track Ball Reader (MICR) Reader (OMR)

a. Keyboard
The keyboard is the most common and popular input device used to enter data into a
computer. The layout of the keyboard is similar to that of a traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys for extra functions. Keyboards come in two
sizes - 84 keys or 101/102 keys - but there are now 104 and 108 key keyboards
available. The keys on the keyboard include:

Keys Description
Typing Keys/ These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which
Alphanumeric generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.
keys
Numeric Keypad It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

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Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape
(Esc).
Special Purpose The keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Keys Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

b. Mouse
The mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is
a very famous pointing device that consists of a small,
palm-sized box with a trackball at the bottom that
senses the movement of the mouse and sends signals
to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. It
usually has two buttons, called the left and right
buttons, and a wheel between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position
of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
- Easy to use
- Not very expensive
- Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard

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c. Joystick
A joystick is also a pointing device used to move the cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick with a ball at the
top and bottom. The lower ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of
the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
computer-aided design (CAD) and computer games.

d. Light pen
The light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is
used to select a displayed menu item or to draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system in a small tube. When the tip of a light
pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensor element detects
the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

e. Trackball
A trackball is an input device that is usually used in place of a mouse in a notebook or
laptop computer. It is a ball that is half inserted, and by moving your fingers on the ball,
you can move the pointer. Because the whole device is not moved, a trackball takes up
less space than a mouse. A trackball comes in different shapes, such as a ball, a button
or a square.

f. Scanner
A scanner is an input device that works more like a
photocopier. It is used when some information is
available on paper and needs to be transferred to the
computer's hard drive for further manipulation. The
scanner captures images of the source, which are then
converted into a digital form that can be stored on the
hard drive. These images can be edited before being
printed.

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g. Microphone
A microphone is an input device used to record sound, which is then stored in digital
form. The microphone is used for various applications, such as adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or mixing music.

h. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input devices are commonly used in banks, where large numbers of cheques are
processed each day. The bank code number and the cheque number are printed on the
cheques using a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that can
be read by machines. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less prone to
error.

i. Bar Code Readers

A barcode reader is a device used to read barcode data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Barcode data is generally used for labelling goods, numbering books, etc.
It can be a handheld scanner or embedded in a fixed scanner. A bar code reader scans a
bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, and then sends this value to the
computer to which the bar code reader is connected.

2. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. The CPU performs all types
of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (programme).
It controls the operation of all parts of the computer. The CPU itself consists of the following
three components.

- Control unit (CU):

The control unit acts like a watchdog, making sure things are done the way they should
be. It locates and retrieves programme instructions from memory, interprets them and
ensures that they are executed in the correct order. It also ensures that data is selected
from memory as required and that information is stored correctly.

- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

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The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations. It contains
arithmetic circuits that perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, and logic circuits that perform comparisons such as equal,
less than, greater than, greater than or equal to, and less than or equal to.

- Registers:
Registers are special storage areas within the CPU that offer a speed advantage. They
work under the control of the controller to receive and hold data that is being processed.
Because the CPU uses registers to process data, the number of registers in a CPU and
the size of each register affect the performance and speed of the CPU.

3. OUTPUT UNIT

The output device is the device we use to get information from the computer. It is the link
between the computer and the user. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form
that users can understand. Here are some of the main output devices used in a computer.

- Monitors - Printer
- Graphic Plotter

i. Monitors
Monitors, commonly called visual display units (VDUs), are the main output devices
of a computer. They create images from tiny dots called pixels, which are arranged in a
rectangular shape. The sharpness of the image depends on the number of pixels. The
size of a monitor refers to the diagonal size of the screen. The resolution of a monitor
refers to the number of pixels on the screen. For example, a 24-inch screen is
1920x1200 (width by length) and a 22-inch screen is 1680x1050. Nowadays, monitors
can accept inputs from cables other than the computer. They may also have USB ports.
NB: High resolution gives better picture quality and a more enjoyable gaming
experience.
There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors.

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a. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT):

The CRT screen is made up of pixels. The smaller the size of the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a complete
character, such as the letter 'e' in the word help. A limited number of characters can be
displayed on a screen at one time. The screen can be divided into several character
boxes - fixed locations on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most
screens can display 80 characters horizontally and 25 lines vertically. CRTs are large
and have a high-power consumption.

b. Flat-panel Display Monitor:

Flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that
have reduced size, weight and power consumption
compared to cathode ray tubes. They can be hung on walls
or worn on the wrist. Current uses of flat panel displays
include calculators, video games, monitors, laptops and
graphics displays. Flat panel displays can be divided into two categories:

- Emissive displays: These are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Examples
include plasma screens and LEDs (light-emitting diodes).
- Non-emissive displays: Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from other sources into graphic patterns. For example, LCD (liquid crystal
device).

ii. Printers

A printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper. There are two
types of printers:

a. Impact Printers:

Impact printers print characters by hitting the ribbon, which is then pressed onto the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers include:

- Physical contact with the paper to produce an image
- Very low consumable costs

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- Very noisy
- Useful for high-volume printing due to low cost

These printers are of two types − Character printers and Line printers

• Character Printers

Character printers are printers that print one character at a time. These are further divided into
two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

• Daisy wheel

o Dot Matrix Printer

A dot-matrix printer or impact-matrix printer is a type of computer printer with a print
head that moves back and forth across the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-
soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, similar to a typewriter. Unlike a typewriter or
daisy wheel printer, the characters are drawn from a dot matrix, allowing a variety of
fonts and graphics to be produced. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called
a "wire" or "pin", which is advanced by the force of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid,
either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and paper is a small
guide plate with holes to guide the pins. The moving part of the printer is called the
print head, and when the printer is working as a general text device, it usually prints
one line of text at a time.
Most dot-matrix printers have a single vertical line of dot-producing devices on their
print heads; others have a few interlaced lines to improve dot density. These machines
can be very durable, but will eventually wear out. Ink penetrates the print head's guide
plate, causing grit to stick to it; this grit slowly causes the channels in the guide plate to
wear from circles to ovals or slots, providing less and less accurate guidance for the
print wires.

Advantages
- Inexpensive
- Widely Used
- Other language characters can be printed

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Disadvantages
- Slow Speed
- Poor Quality
• Line Printers

Line printers are printers that print one line at a time. Examples include drum printers and chain
printers.

b. Non-Impact Printers Impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time; thus, they are also called Page Printers. These printers are of two types
− Laser Printers, Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers • Supports many fonts and different

character size
• They are not noisy

• High quality

o Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser light to create the dots that make up
the characters printed on a page. A laser printer uses a beam of light to print. This laser
light changes the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits, because as the paper
passes through the printer, the laser beam hits the surface of the drum, which is called
a photoreceptor. By changing the charge on the drum, the laser beam can print patterns
on the photoreceptor. Once the pattern is created on the drum, it is coated with toner
from a toner cartridge. In most cartridges, the toner is black, but laser printers also use
coloured toner.
Laser printers work by depositing a series of tiny, evenly spaced dots of "ink" onto the
paper. The dots are so small, and they blend together so seamlessly, that text looks
almost as clean as what you get from a traditional typewriter. Yes, there are little jagged
edges along curved lines, but they're hard to see. Graphics sometimes don't come out
quite as sharp, but they're still bright enough to look professional in many situations.

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The quality you get from your laser printer mainly depends on the resolution, or the
fineness of the dots it uses to print images. Resolution is measured in dots per inch
(dpi), which is how many dots it can write along with a line, either vertically or
horizontally. Most laser printers have a resolution of 300 dpi.

Advantages Disadvantages
- Very high speed - Expensive
- Very high-quality output - Cannot be used to produce multiple
- Good graphics quality copies of a document in a single
- Supports many fonts and different printing
character sizes.

o Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce
high-quality output with presentable features. They make less noise because no
hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Colour
printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of
printing also.

Advantages Disadvantages
- High-quality printing - Expensive as the cost per page is
- More reliable high
- Slow as compared to laser printer

Difference between Impact and Non-Impact Printers

Impact Non-Impact
Produces text and images when tiny wire Produces text and graphics on paper without
pins on the print head strike the ribbon by actually striking the paper (no physical
physically contacting the paper contact with the paper)
Uses ink ribbon Uses ink spray

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Lower print quality on some types High quality output, capable of printing fine
and smooth details
Low print speed Faster print speed
Generally noisy due to striking activity Low noise as there is no striking

4. STORAGE UNIT

This unit stores instructions, data and intermediate results. It provides information to other
parts of the computer when needed.

i. Primary storage/ Memory:

- Primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU.
- It holds the programs and data that the CPU is currently working with.
- Memory consists of random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM) and
cache memory.

o RAM:
▪ It is the temporary memory into which a computer loads programs and
user data when it is running. In other words, it is the computer's working
space.
▪ It is read/write, meaning that data can be read from it and written to it.
RAM is also volatile, which means that anything stored in it is lost when
the power is turned off.
▪ There are two types of RAM;
• Static RAM: (SRAM) consists of circuits that retain their charge
over time. SRAM is faster and more expensive than dynamic
RAM and does not need to be refreshed like DRAM. Because of
its cost, it is not used as main memory, but rather as cache
memory.
• Dynamic RAM: (DRAM) is made up of capacitors that slowly
lose their charge over time. They therefore need to be refreshed
every few milliseconds to prevent data loss. DRAM is cheap
memory because of its simple design.

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o ROM:
▪ It is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer.
Data found in ROM is written by the manufacturer and cannot be
modified by the user.
▪ ROM is useful for holding data that never changes like the “boot” or
start-up program which is run when the computer is switched on.
▪ ROM is non-volatile meaning that its content is preserved even without
power.
▪ Assignment: List and explain the different types of ROM

o Cache Memory:
▪ It is a smaller and faster memory located between the CPU and main
memory.
▪ The purpose of cache is to speed up access by storing recently used data
closer to the CPU instead of storing it in main memory.

ii. Secondary storage/ Auxiliary storage:

- is not directly accessible to the CPU. It is used to store programs and data for backup
purposes (future use).
- It could be placed within the computer or connected externally.
- Programs and data from secondary storage must be transferred to main memory for
processing.
- Secondary storage is also called secondary memory, mass storage, backing storage or
external storage.
- It can be divided into magnetic storage, optical storage and solid-state storage.

A. Magnetic Storage:

Magnetic storage devices store data as electromagnetic charges on the magnetic surfaces of the
storage units. Examples are floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tape.

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• Floppy Disk: It consists of a round, flexible plastic disc

coated with a magnetic substance and protected by a plastic
cover lined with a soft material that wipes the disc clean as
it spins. The disc consists of two recordable surfaces divided
into a number of circular paths called tracks. The number of
tracks per surface varies depending on the type of disc. Each
track is in turn divided into a number of smaller units called
sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on the disc and has a capacity of 512 bytes.

• Hard Disk:

A hard drive is made up of several metal platters that store data. Each platter has two sides and
is divided into a number of rings called tracks. The tracks on a platter are numbered from 0 on
the outside and usually go up to 1023. Each track is divided into sectors. A sector is the basic
unit of storage on a disc and has a capacity of 512 bytes. Sectors are grouped together to form
clusters. A cluster is the smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a
file. A cylinder is the sum of all tracks on all platters that have the same track value. Factors
that determine hard drive performance are seek time and drive rotational speed.

- The seek time is the time it takes for the read/write head to move over the correct track
and sector.
- The rotational speed of the drive is the total number of revolutions of the platters per
minute. Higher rotational speed results in higher transfer rate.

• Magnetic Tape:

A magnetic tape is a magnetically coated strip on which data is stored. Data is stored on
magnetic tape in chronological or sequential order. This means that each piece of data is always
stored in the next available space on the tape. To access data, the tape drive must pass through
all the previous data before it can access the desired data. This type of access is known as
sequential access. Tapes are less sensitive to environmental conditions and are suitable for long-
term storage and backup.

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B. Optical Storage:

Optical storage devices store data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disc surface.
Examples include compact discs, digital versatile discs and Blu-ray discs. Less susceptible to
environmental damage.

• Compact Disc (CD):

A CD is a round disc with a metal surface on which data can be stored and accessed using laser
technology. To store or access data on a CD, the CD drive focuses a laser beam onto the surface
of the disc. There are several variations of the CD: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW.

A CD can store between 650MB and 700MB of data.

- CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory. CD-ROMs can only be read
by the user's computer, but not recorded. Their content is determined during
manufacture.
- CD-R stands for Compact Disc Recordable. This is a type of CD that can be recorded
by the user. Once the user has recorded on the CD, the content is fixed and cannot be
changed. CD-Rs can be read by CD-ROM drives, but you need a CD-R drive to write
to them.
- CD-RW stands for rewritable compact disc. It is a type of CD that can be recorded,
erased, and reused by the user. CD-RW cannot be read by a CD-ROM and CD-R drives.
CD-RW drives are required to read and write them.

• Digital Versatile Disc (DVD):

A DVD is similar in size and thickness to a CD, but has a higher storage capacity than a CD.
DVDs use a laser beam with a shorter wavelength than CDs. This allows for smaller
indentations and increased storage capacity. As with the CD, there are different types of DVD:

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DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. A DVD can hold up to 17GB of data. Common DVD
storage capacities are:

- DVD-5 Single-sided, Single-layer 4.7GB

- DVD-9 Single-side, Dual-layer 8.5GB
- DVD-10 Double-side, Single-layer 9.4GB
- DVD-18 Double-side, Dual-layer 17.1GB

• Blu-Ray Disc:

It is an optical disc read and written with a blue or violet laser whose shorter wavelength allows
for higher data density. Blu-ray discs can hold 25GB for single layer or 50GB for double layer.

C. Solid-State Storage:

The term solid-state essentially means no moving parts. Solid-state storage devices are based
on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels, no spinning disks). They store data using
a special type of memory called flash memory. Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that can
only be erased in blocks; it cannot be erased one byte at a time. In this regard it resembles a
disk that is divided into sectors. Flash memory is usually used for storing larger amounts of
data while EEPROM is used for small amounts of data, such as machine configuration.
Examples of solid-state devices are USB memory sticks, memory cards and secure digital card

• USB Flash Drive:

A flash drive is a small, keychain-sized flash memory device with a USB interface, treated by
the computer as if it were a disk drive. A flash drive is also called thumb drive, jump drive or
memory stick’s flash drives have practically replaced diskettes as a handy way to transport data.
They can be carried in one’s pocket and plugged into any computer for immediate access.

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• Secure Digital Cards/ SD Cards:

A secure digital (SD) card is a type of flash-memory card that incorporates a cryptographic
security system to prevent copyright violations, often used in digital music players and digital
cameras.

THE INSTRUCTION CYCLE

The instruction cycle describes how programme instructions are repeatedly fetched,
decoded and executed, one instruction at a time, until a HALT instruction is encountered.
Before an instruction can be fetched, it must be placed in memory along with associated data
from an input or secondary storage device. Once the necessary data and instructions are in
memory, the central processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:

1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e., determines what they mean, and directs
that the necessary data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is
given control and performs the actual operation on the data.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.

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- The CPU has a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock that controls the
timing of all computer operations. The system clock generates regular electronic pulses,
or ticks, that set the operating speed of the components of the system unit.
- Each tick is called a clock cycle, and the speed of the system clock is called clock speed.

Clock speed refers to the number of clock cycles per second at which the CPU
operates.
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per
second.

- Clock speed is measured in megahertz (Mhz) or gigahertz (Ghz). Mega and Giga stand
for million and billion respectively, while Hertz means cycles per second. So 1Ghz is
one billion cycles per second. A computer running at 3 Ghz has 3 billion (giga) cycles
per second (hertz).
- The system clock speed does not affect devices such as a printer or disc drive. The speed
of your system clock is only one factor that affects the performance of your computer.
Other factors include the type of processor chip, the amount of cache, memory access
time, bus width and bus clock speed.

THE MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard is the main printed circuit board in the computer, containing the
chipset and other electronic components that make the computer work. The motherboard is
essential to the computer and provides the main computing capability.

The form factor of a motherboard determines

the specifications for its general shape and size. It also
specifies what type of case and power supply will be
supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the
physical layout and organization of the board. The
most common form factors found in modern PCs are:
Advanced Technology (AT), Advanced Technology
Extended (ATX), Low Profile Extension (LPX), New
Low profile Extended (NLPX)

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THE SYSTEM BUS

A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various components inside the
computer, allowing the exchange of data between them.

Definition: It refers to the path between computer components through which data and
instructions are transferred.

The width or size of a bus is determined by the number of lines it has. The system bus is made
up of three different busses: the data bus, the address bus and the control bus.

- The Data Bus: carries data between the CPU and main memory or peripherals. During
a write operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation, data is
carried into the CPU. This means that the data bus is bidirectional. The size of the data
bus determines how much data can be transferred in a single operation.
- The Address Bus: carries address information from the CPU to main memory or
peripherals. It is unidirectional. The CPU uses the address bus to send the address of
the memory location to be written to or read from. Also, when the CPU reads data from
or writes to a port, it sends the port address out on the address bus. The size of the
address bus determines the maximum amount of main memory (RAM) that can be
addressed. A computer with a 32-bit bus size can address a maximum RAM of 232 bits
= 4GB.
- The Control Bus: is used by the CPU to send out signals to enable the outputs of
addressed memory devices or port devices. Typical control bus signals are memory
read, memory write, I/O read and I/O write. When the CPU wants to read data from a
memory location, it sends out the memory address of the desired data on the address
bus and then sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The memory read
signal enables the addressed memory device to output the data onto the data bus. The
data from the memory travels along the data bus to the CPU.

INPUT/OUTPUT INTERFACES

The CPU communicates with I/O devices through bus interfaces connected to the system bus.
These bus interfaces also called expansion buses are then connected to ports which allow the
exchange of data and information between the computer and external (peripheral) devices.

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Input/Output Ports

A port is a pathway for data and information to go into and out of the computer from external
devices such as keyboards, monitors and printers. There are many standard ports as well as
custom electronic ports designed for special purposes. Examples of ports are:

- PS/2 ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse

- VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) port for connecting the monitor
- RJ45 port for connection to an Ethernet network
- RJ14 for connection to the Internet via phone line
- USB port for connecting USB devices like Flash drives, printers, keyboards and mice
- Serial ports for connecting serial devices like Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs)
- Parallel port connecting parallel devices like printers

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