PHYSICS MASTER NOTES

NLM • Circular Motion • Rotational Motion • Fluid Mechanics

Source: Rahul Jain Sir (ALLEN) | NEET 2026

CHAPTER 1 — NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION (NLM)

1.1 Newton's First Law — Law of Inertia
Inertia = Ability of a body to OPPOSE change in its state (of rest / motion / direction)
Inertia ∝ Mass
• Inertia of Rest — opposes change from rest
• Inertia of Motion — opposes change from uniform motion
• Inertia of Direction — opposes change in direction
⚠ NEET TRAP: Inertia is NOT a force. It is a property.

1.2 Momentum & Newton's Second Law

Momentum = quantity of motion possessed by a body
p⃗ = mv⃗ (vector quantity)
Unit: kg m/s | 1 N = 10⁵ dyne | 1 kgwt = 10 N

Newton's Second Law

F⃗ = dp⃗ /dt = d(mv⃗ )/dt = ma⃗ (instantaneous form)
F_avg = Δp⃗ / Δt
• Slope of p–t graph → Force
• Area under F–t graph → Change in momentum (Impulse)

Force on Wall (Mass flow)

When a fluid jet of density ρ, area A, velocity v hits a wall and stops:
F = ρAv²
★ KEY: F = ρAv² is used for: water jet on wall, air hitting wall, etc.

1.3 Impulse
When a LARGE force acts for a VERY SHORT time — we use impulse (Jor ka Jhatka, Jaldi-Jaldi!)
I⃗ = ∫F dt = Δp⃗ = p_f − p_i
Unit: N·s or kg·m/s
• If F(t) given → I = ∫F dt (integrate)
• If F-t graph given → I = Area under graph
• From momentum: I = Δp = p_f − p_i

1.4 Newton's Third Law

F_action = −F_reaction (equal & opposite)
• No time gap between action & reaction
• Both forces are of the SAME nature (both contact, both gravitational, etc.)
• Action-reaction act on DIFFERENT bodies — they NEVER cancel
• Applicable even without physical contact (gravitational, electrostatic forces)
⚠ NEET TRAP: Action & Reaction act on different bodies → they CANNOT cancel each other!

1.5 Rocket Propulsion

Thrust force on rocket (Newton's 3rd law — gases ejected backward, rocket goes forward):
F_thrust = v_rel · (dm/dt)
Net force on rocket (against gravity):
F_net = v_rel · (dm/dt) − Mg = Ma
⟹ v_rel · (dm/dt) = M(g + a)
★ KEY: In gravity-free space: F_net = v_rel · (dm/dt) → a = v_rel · (dm/dt) / M

1.6 Gun-Bullet Problems

Force on N bullets fired per second:
F_recoil = N · m_bullet · v_bullet / t = (dm/dt) · v_bullet
By conservation of momentum (gun + man system, initially at rest):
0 = N · m · v_bullet + M_gun+man · V_recoil

1.7 Steps to Solve NLM Problems (FBD Method)

1. Identify the system
2. Identify ALL forces acting on the system
3. Draw Free Body Diagram (FBD)
4. Predict direction of acceleration
5. Resolve forces in suitable direction
6. Apply ΣF = ma, solve equations

1.8 Normal Reaction

N always acts PERPENDICULAR to the surface of contact.

Apparent Weight in a Lift

At rest or uniform velocity (a=0): N = mg (Wapp = mg)
Lift accelerating UP: N = m(g + a) (feels heavier)
Lift accelerating DOWN: N = m(g − a) (feels lighter)
Free fall (a = g): N = 0 (WEIGHTLESSNESS)
a > g (downward): N = −ve → man sticks to ceiling
⚠ NEET TRAP: At uniform velocity (even 4 m/s downward), a = 0, so N = mg — NOT less than
mg!

1.9 Tension Force

For a block M pulled by rope of mass m with force F:
Acceleration: a = F / (M + m)
Tension at midpoint of rope: T = F · [M + m/2] / (M + m)
★ KEY: For massless string: tension is same throughout.

1.10 Pulley System (Atwood Machine)

Two masses m₁ > m₂ over frictionless pulley:
Acceleration: a = (m₁ − m₂)g / (m₁ + m₂)
Tension: T = 2m₁m₂g / (m₁ + m₂)

Mechanical Advantage
MA = Load / Effort = Output force / Input force

1.11 Equilibrium
For a body in equilibrium: ΣF = 0 (all components)
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0
Hanging chain at same horizontal level — tension at lowest point:
T = mg / (2·sinθ) [θ = angle with horizontal at endpoints]

1.12 Spring Force

F_spring = −kx (restoring force)
k = spring constant (N/m) | k · L = constant (for same spring)
If spring is cut into ratio n₁ : n₂ → k₁ = k(n₁+n₂)/n₁, k₂ =
k(n₁+n₂)/n₂

Important — Spring cut / string cut problems

BEFORE cutting: Fsp = T + lower block weights (spring stores force)
AFTER cutting string:
Block B (lower): a = g (spring force still acts instantly → tension =
0, spring force unchanged)
Block A (upper): a = g/2 (for equal mass case with spring connecting
to fixed ceiling)
⚠ NEET TRAP: Spring force does NOT change instantaneously when STRING is cut. Only the
tension changes.

1.13 Reference Frame & Pseudo Force

• Inertial Frame: a = 0 w.r.t. ground → Newton's laws valid
• Non-Inertial Frame: accelerating → Newton's laws NOT valid directly

Pseudo Force
F_pseudo = −m·a_frame (opposite to frame acceleration)
Pendulum in accelerating train (acceleration a):
tan θ = a/g → θ = tan⁻¹(a/g)
Tension T = m√(a² + g²)
Block on accelerating wedge (to keep block stationary on wedge):
a_wedge = g·tanθ

1.14 Friction Force

Types of Friction
• Static Friction (fs): self-adjusting, 0 ≤ fs ≤ μs·N
• Limiting Friction (f_lim = μs·N): maximum static friction, just before sliding
• Kinetic/Sliding Friction (fk = μk·N): while sliding, μk < μs
• Rolling Friction: while rolling (very small, usually neglected)

f_static ≤ μs·N
f_limiting = μs·N (just before sliding)
f_kinetic = μk·N (while sliding, μk < μs)
★ KEY: When F < f_lim: body is stationary, f = F (self-adjusting). When F > f_lim: body slides, f =
μk·N
⚠ NEET TRAP: μk < μs always. Once block starts sliding, friction REDUCES from f_lim to μk·N

Block on Rough Surface — Formulas

Block of mass m, initial velocity v₀, rough surface (μ):
Retardation: a = −μg
Time to stop: t = v₀/(μg)
Stopping distance: s = v₀²/(2μg)

Angle of Friction (λ)

tan λ = fk / N = μk → λ = tan⁻¹(μ)
Resultant of N and f makes angle λ with normal.

Angle of Repose / Angle of Sliding (α)

Maximum angle of incline on which block stays at rest:
tan α = μs → α = tan⁻¹(μs)
★ KEY: Angle of friction = Angle of repose numerically (both = tan ⁻¹μ)

Block on Inclined Plane

Normal N = mg·cosθ
Friction f = μ·mg·cosθ
Down the incline: a = g(sinθ − μcosθ)
Up the incline (projected): a = g(sinθ + μcosθ) [decelerates]
⚠ NEET TRAP: On rough incline: if sinθ < μcosθ (i.e. θ < α), block WON'T slide even if pushed
gently!

Hanging Chain on Table

Maximum length 'x' hanging without sliding (table length L, coefficient μ):
x_max = μL / (1 + μ)

Two-Block Problem
Block A on Block B, external force on A (or B). μ between A-B, smooth floor:
Step 1: Check if both move together (a = F/(mA+mB))
Step 2: Find friction needed = mA·a. If this > μ·mA·g → they slip.
If slipping: fAB = μ·mA·g (friction between blocks)
★ KEY: Friction on bottom block from top block is FORWARD; on top block from bottom is
BACKWARD.
CHAPTER 2 — CIRCULAR MOTION
2.1 Definition
A particle moves such that its distance from a fixed point remains constant = Circular Motion.
Distance from centre = radius (r) = constant

2.2 Kinematics of Circular Motion

Basic Terms
Angular displacement: Δθ = θ_f − θ_i (rad)
Time Period: T = 2π/ω = 1/f
Frequency: f = 1/T (Hz) | n revolutions/sec
Angular velocity: ω = dθ/dt = 2π/T = 2πf (rad/s) [axial vector]
Linear velocity: v = ω × r⃗ | |v| = ωr
v⊥ω⊥r⃗ [v, ω, r are mutually perpendicular]

Avg angular velocity: ω_avg = Δθ / Δt

Instantaneous: ω = dθ/dt

Angular Acceleration
α = dω/dt (rad/s²) [axial vector]
• α = 0 → Uniform circular motion
• α ≠ 0 → Non-uniform circular motion
• If speed increasing: α same direction as ω
• If speed decreasing: α opposite to ω

Equations of Motion (if α = constant)

(i) ω = ω₀ + αt
(ii) θ = ω₀t + ½αt²
(iii) ω² = ω₀² + 2αθ
(iv) θ = (ω + ω₀)/2 · t
(v) θ_nth = ω₀ + α/2 · (2n−1)
⚠ NEET TRAP: These equations ONLY apply when α is constant, just like v = u + at for linear
motion.

Relation: Angular ↔ Linear Acceleration

Net acceleration: a⃗ = aT + aC
Tangential acceleration: aT = αr (changes speed)
Centripetal acceleration: aC = ω²r = v²/r = ωv (changes direction)
|a_net| = √(aT² + aC²)
aT ⊥ aC always
★ KEY: In UNIFORM circular motion: aT = 0, a = aC = v²/r = ω²r
★ KEY: Angular acceleration α is along AXIS of rotation (right-hand thumb rule)

2.3 Dynamics of Circular Motion

Centripetal Force (FC)
Force responsible for changing DIRECTION (provides centripetal acceleration):
FC = mv²/r = mω²r = m(4π²f²)r
FC is NOT a separate force — it is provided BY: tension, normal, friction, gravity, etc.

Tangential Force (FT)

Force responsible for changing SPEED:
FT = maT = mαr

Uniform vs Non-Uniform Circular Motion

UNIFORM: |v| = const, ω = const, aT = 0, α = 0, FT = 0, KE = const, |p| = const (but direction varies)
NON-UNIFORM: |v| ≠ const, aT ≠ 0, α ≠ 0, FT ≠ 0, KE varies, |p| varies

2.4 Circular Turning on Roads

Case 1: Friction Only (No Banking)
FC = mv²/r = f = μmg
v_max = √(μrg)
★ KEY: v_max = √(μrg) for flat road with friction

Case 2: Banking Only (No Friction)

Nsinθ = mv²/r and Ncosθ = mg
⟹ tanθ = v²/(rg)
Ideal banking speed: v_ideal = √(rg·tanθ)
Banking angle: θ = tan⁻¹(v²/rg) = tan⁻¹(h/b) [h = height, b = width]

Case 3: Friction + Banking (Both)

v_max = √[rg · (tanθ + μ) / (1 − μ·tanθ)]
v_min = √[rg · (tanθ − μ) / (1 + μ·tanθ)]
Safe speed range: v_min ≤ v ≤ v_max
At v = v_ideal = √(rg·tanθ) → friction = 0
⚠ NEET TRAP: v_min exists because on banked road car can also skid INWARD if going too
slow!

2.5 Death Well / Rotor

Person pressed against wall of vertical cylinder (radius r, rotating):
Normal N provides centripetal force. Friction (vertical) balances weight.
N = mv²/r (centripetal)
f = μN = μmv²/r ≥ mg (to not fall)
v_min = √(rg/μ)
★ KEY: v_min = √(rg/μ) for Death Well / Rotor

2.6 Vertical Circular Motion

Energy Conservation
Using COME to find speed at any point if speed at one point is known:
v₁² = v₂² + 2gh (h = height difference between points)

Tension at Any Point (String — particle at angle θ from bottom)

At angle θ from the LOWEST point:
T − mg·cosα = mv²/L (α = angle from vertical at that point)

Tension at 5 Key Points (String of length L)

At BOTTOM (A) — critical case:
T_A − mg = mv_A²/L → T_A = mv_A²/L + mg
At SIDE (B or D) — horizontal level:
T = mv²/L
At TOP (C):
T_C + mg = mv_C²/L → T_C = mv_C²/L − mg

Critical Speed & Tension at Key Points (minimum to complete circle)

At C (top): minimum condition T_C = 0:
v_C(min) = √(gL) and T_C = 0
v_B(min) = √(3gL) and T_B = √3·mg
v_D(min) = √(3gL) and T_D = 3mg
v_A(min) = √(5gL) and T_A = 6mg
★ KEY: Min speed at bottom to complete circle (string): u ≥ √(5gL)
★ KEY: Min speed at top (string): v_min = √(gL), T = 0

T_max − T_min Relation

T_max − T_min = 6mg
T_A − T_C = 6mg (always, for complete circle)
⚠ NEET TRAP: T_max - T_min = 6mg is a DIRECT formula — don't derive in exam, just apply!

3 Cases for Vertical Circle (String)

• u < √(2gL): particle oscillates in lower half
• √(2gL) < u < √(5gL): particle reaches upper half but leaves circle
 • u ≥ √(5gL): particle completes full circle

Rigid Rod — Completing Circle

For rigid rod, top point can have v = 0 (rod pushes, never slacks):
Minimum speed at bottom: u ≥ √(4gL) [rod, not string!]
⚠ NEET TRAP: String: u_min at bottom = √(5gL). Rigid Rod: u_min = √(4gL). Remember this
difference!

Motion on Circular Surface (Track) — Ball/Bead

At any point on inner surface of circle (radius R), θ from bottom:
N − mg·cosα = mv²/R (inner surface at bottom region)
At top: N_min = 0 → v_min = √(gR)
Min speed at bottom: u ≥ √(5gR) [to maintain contact throughout]
★ KEY: Condition to complete loop on circular TRACK: u ≥ √(5gR) at bottom
Min height to complete loop: h = 5R/2 (from ground, released from
rest)
CHAPTER 3 — ROTATIONAL MOTION
3.1 Translational ↔ Rotational Analogy
Every translational quantity has a rotational counterpart:

TRANSLATIONAL ROTATIONAL
x, v, a θ, ω, α
Mass (m) Moment of Inertia (I)
F = dp/dt = ma τ = dL/dt = Iα
p = mv L = Iω
KE = ½mv² = p²/2m KE = ½Iω² = L²/2I
Work = ∫F dx Work = ∫τ dθ
Power = F·v Power = τ·ω
Impulse J = ∫F dt = Δp Angular Impulse = ∫τ dt = ΔL

3.2 Moment of Inertia (MI)

MI = property of rigid body to oppose change in angular velocity (rotational inertia)
Discrete: I = Σmᵢrᵢ² [rᵢ = perpendicular distance from axis]
Continuous: I = ∫r² dm
• I always calculated w.r.t. a specific axis
• I depends on axis chosen — same body can have different I for different axes
• I plays role of 'mass' in rotation
⚠ NEET TRAP: r in I = Σmr² is the PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE from the AXIS, NOT the
coordinate!

3.3 Standard Moment of Inertia Table

Body Axis MI (I) K (radius of gyration)

Thin Rod (M, L) Through centre ⊥ ML²/12 L/√12
length
Thin Rod (M, L) Through one end ⊥ ML²/3 L/√3
length
Circular Ring (M, ⊥ plane through MR² R
R) centre
Circular Ring (M, Diameter MR²/2 R/√2
R)
Circular Disc (M, ⊥ plane through MR²/2 R/√2
R) centre
Circular Disc (M, Diameter MR²/4 R/2
R)
Hollow Sphere (M, Diameter 2MR²/3 √(2/3) R
 R)
Hollow Sphere (M, Tangent 5MR²/3 √(5/3) R
R)
Solid Sphere (M, Diameter 2MR²/5 √(2/5) R
R)
Solid Sphere (M, Tangent 7MR²/5 √(7/5) R
R)
Hollow Cylinder Geometric axis MR² R
(M, R, L) (along length)
Hollow Cylinder ⊥ length through MR²/2 + ML²/12 √(R²/2 + L²/12)
(M, R, L) CM
Solid Cylinder Geometric axis MR²/2 R/√2
(M, R, L) (along length)
Solid Cylinder Tangent parallel 3MR²/2 √(3/2) R
(M, R, L) to axis
Solid Cylinder ⊥ length through MR²/4 + ML²/12 √(R²/4 + L²/12)
(M, R, L) CM
Rect. Plate (M, ⊥ side b through Mb²/12 b/√12
a, b) CM (along a)
Rect. Plate (M, ⊥ side a through Ma²/12 a/√12
a, b) CM (along b)
Rect. Plate (M, ⊥ plane through M(a²+b²)/12 √((a²+b²)/12)
a, b) CM

★ KEY: Memory trick — Disc = Ring/2 about same axis. Solid Sphere = 2/5 MR². Hollow Sphere =
2/3 MR².

3.4 Parallel Axis Theorem

I_P = I_CM + Md²
Where: I_CM = MI about CM axis, d = distance between parallel axes, M = total mass
★ KEY: Theorem applies ONLY to PARALLEL axes. One must pass through CM.
⚠ NEET TRAP: The parallel axis theorem cannot be used if neither axis passes through CM!

3.5 Perpendicular Axis Theorem (for lamina only)

I_z = I_x + I_y
Applicable only to 2D laminas (flat bodies). Axis z ⊥ plane of lamina, x and y in the plane.
★ KEY: Ring: I_diameter = MR²/2 (by perpendicular axis: I_z = MR², so I_x + I_y = MR², I_x = I_y =
MR²/2)

3.6 Radius of Gyration (K)

I = MK² → K = √(I/M)
K = equivalent distance from axis if all mass were concentrated at one point

3.7 Torque (τ)

τ⃗ = r⃗ × F⃗ → |τ| = r·F·sinθ = F·d (d = perpendicular distance)
τ = Iα (rotational analog of F = ma)
Unit: N·m Direction: perpendicular to plane of r and F
• Torque is an axial vector (right-hand screw rule)
• If F passes through axis → τ = 0 (no rotation)
• If F ⊥ r → τ = r·F (maximum torque)

3.8 Rotational Equilibrium

Conditions: ΣF = 0 AND Στ = 0 (about any point)
Sum of clockwise torques = Sum of anticlockwise torques
★ KEY: Take torques about any convenient point to simplify. Choose point where unknown
forces act.

3.9 Angular Momentum

L⃗ = r⃗ × p⃗ = r⃗ × mv⃗ | |L| = mvr·sinθ = mvd
For rotation: L = Iω
τ = dL/dt (torque = rate of change of angular momentum)

Angular Momentum in Projectile

At highest point (h = u²sin²θ/2g):
L = m · (ucosθ) · h = m·ucosθ · (u²sin²θ/2g)
L = mu³sinθcos²θ·sinθ / (2g) — about launch point

3.10 Conservation of Angular Momentum

If τ_ext = 0 → L = Iω = constant → I₁ω₁ = I₂ω₂
Applications:
• Disc dropped on rotating disc: I₁ω₁ = (I₁+I₂)ω_f → ω_f = I₁ω₁/(I₁+I₂)
• Spinning person extends arms: I↑ → ω↓
• Planet closer to sun: r↓ → I↓ → ω↑ → faster revolution (Kepler's 2nd law)
• Rotating sphere expands: I↑ → ω↓ → T↑
★ KEY: Conservation: I₁ω₁ = I₂ω₂. If radius doubles → I×4 → ω×(1/4) → T×4
⚠ NEET TRAP: L is conserved only when τ_ext = 0. Torque = 0 does NOT mean Force = 0!

3.11 Rolling Motion (Combined Translation + Rotation)

Condition for Pure Rolling
v_CM = ωR (no slipping)

Velocity Analysis in Pure Rolling

v_bottom (contact point) = 0
v_CM (centre) = v
v_top = 2v
v at angle θ from bottom = 2v·sin(θ/2)
★ KEY: In pure rolling: contact point velocity = 0. Top point velocity = 2v.
Kinetic Energy in Pure Rolling
KE_total = KE_translation + KE_rotation
KE_total = ½mv² + ½Iω² = ½mv²(1 + k²/R²)
KE_T / KE_total = 1 / (1 + k²/R²)
KE_R / KE_total = (k²/R²) / (1 + k²/R²)

k²/R² values and KE Ratios

Body k²/R² acm on incline Kt : (Kt+Kr)

Hollow 1 gsinθ/2 1/2 = 0.5
Cylinder /
Ring
Disc / Solid 1/2 2gsinθ/3 2/3 ≈ 0.67
Cylinder
Solid Sphere 2/5 5gsinθ/7 5/7 ≈ 0.71
Hollow Sphere 2/3 3gsinθ/5 3/5 = 0.6
(Shell)

Angular Momentum in Rolling

L about contact point = (I_CM + mR²)·ω = (7/5)mR²·(v/R) = 7mRv/5
[solid sphere]
General: L_P = (I_CM + mR²)·ω [P = contact point]

Impure Rolling
Direction of friction in impure rolling opposes relative sliding, helps achieve pure rolling.
If torque > friction limit: body slips → kinetic friction acts

Rolling on Inclined Plane

a_CM = g·sinθ / (1 + k²/R²)
f = (k²/R²)·Mg·sinθ / (1 + k²/R²) [friction needed for rolling]
v at bottom (from height h): v = √[2gh / (1 + k²/R²)]
Time: t = (1/sinθ)·√[2h(1+k²/R²)/g]
★ KEY: More k²/R² → lower acceleration → reaches bottom LATER. Hollow > Solid for same
shape.
★ KEY: Order of reaching bottom (fastest to slowest): Disc > Solid Sphere > Hollow Cylinder >
Hollow Sphere
⚠ NEET TRAP: Rolling vs Sliding on incline: Rolling is ALWAYS slower than sliding due to
rotational KE.
CHAPTER 4 — FLUID MECHANICS
4.1 Basic Definitions
Fluid = any substance that can flow or deform = liquids + gases both.
Fluid Statics (Hydrostatics): fluids at REST. Fluid Dynamics (Hydrodynamics): fluids in MOTION.

Density (ρ)
ρ = m/V (kg/m³ in SI, g/cc in CGS)
ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³ = 1 g/cc
ρ_mercury = 13600 kg/m³ = 13.6 g/cc

Relative Density / Specific Gravity

RD = ρ_substance / ρ_water (dimensionless, unitless)

Specific Weight
Specific weight = ρg (N/m³)

Density of Mixture of Liquids

Same MASS mixed (m₁ = m₂ = m):
ρ_mix = 2ρ₁ρ₂ / (ρ₁ + ρ₂) [Harmonic Mean]
Same VOLUME mixed (V₁ = V₂ = V):
ρ_mix = (ρ₁ + ρ₂) / 2 [Arithmetic Mean]
⚠ NEET TRAP: Same mass → Harmonic Mean. Same volume → Arithmetic Mean. Don't mix
them up!

4.2 Pressure
P = F/A (N/m² = Pascal = Pa)
Pressure is a SCALAR quantity (acts equally in all directions in fluid at rest).

Types of Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure (P₀): P₀ = 1.013 × 10⁵ Pa = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg =
10.33 m water
Gauge Pressure: P_gauge = P_abs − P₀
Absolute Pressure: P_abs = P₀ + P_gauge = P₀ + ρgh

Pressure Due to Liquid at Depth h

P = P₀ + ρgh (absolute)
P_gauge = ρgh
Key property: At same horizontal level in a connected liquid → pressure is equal.
★ KEY: Pressure depends on DEPTH, not shape of container. Same depth = same pressure
(connected fluid).

Pressure on Vertical Wall

Average pressure on vertical wall = ρg(H/2) [H = height of liquid]
Force on wall = ρg(H/2) · A [A = area of wall]

Barometer in Lift
Lift accelerating UP (a): h = P₀ / [ρ(g+a)] → height decreases
Lift accelerating DOWN (a): h = P₀ / [ρ(g−a)] → height increases

4.3 Pascal's Law

Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted UNCHANGED to every part of the fluid.
P₁ = P₂ → F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂ → F₂ = F₁ · (A₂/A₁)
Applications: hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes.
Hydraulic Lift: F_out = F_in · (A₂/A₁) [MA = A₂/A₁]
★ KEY: Work done by input piston = Work done on output piston (energy conservation in ideal
case)

4.4 U-Tube Problems

Key concept: In connected stationary liquid, pressure at SAME HORIZONTAL LEVEL is equal.
P_A = P_B (both at same level, same fluid)
For immiscible fluids: ρ₁h₁ = ρ₂h₂ (pressure balance at interface)
P₀ + ρ₁gh₁ = P₀ + ρ₂gh₂ → ρ₁h₁ = ρ₂gh₂
★ KEY: U-tube trick: equate absolute pressures at the lowest level of the interface.

4.5 Buoyancy & Archimedes' Principle

Buoyant Force (Thrust) = Weight of fluid DISPLACED by the body.
F_B = ρ_fluid · V_submerged · g

Floating Conditions
ρ_body > ρ_fluid → sinks, F_B < W
ρ_body = ρ_fluid → neutral equilibrium, fully submerged, F_B = W
ρ_body < ρ_fluid → floats partially, V_in/V_total = ρ_body/ρ_fluid

Fraction submerged = ρ_body / ρ_fluid

V_in/V = ρ_b/ρ_l
★ KEY: Fraction submerged = ρ_body / ρ_liquid. Simple and direct!
⚠ NEET TRAP: ICE in WATER: when ice melts, level STAYS SAME (ρ_ice/ρ_water = V_in/V_ice
exactly). Ice in SALTWATER: level decreases.
Apparent Weight in Fluid
W_apparent = W_actual − F_B = mg − ρ_f·V·g
If W_app = 0 → completely submerged in same density fluid

Relative Density Using Archimedes

RD_body = W_air / (W_air − W_water)
RD_liquid = (W_air − W_liquid) / (W_air − W_water)

4.6 Fluid Dynamics — Equation of Continuity

For ideal (incompressible, non-viscous) fluid in steady flow:
A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ = constant [Volume flux = Rate of flow = constant]
Q = Av = volume flow rate (m³/s)
★ KEY: Where pipe is wider → velocity is smaller. A↑ → v↓ and vice versa.

4.7 Bernoulli's Theorem

Conditions: ideal fluid (incompressible, non-viscous), steady flow, irrotational.
P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant [along a streamline]
P₁ + ½ρv₁² + ρgh₁ = P₂ + ½ρv₂² + ρgh₂
Where: P = pressure, ρ = density, v = velocity, h = height
★ KEY: Bernoulli = energy conservation per unit volume: Pressure E + Kinetic E + Potential E =
const
⚠ NEET TRAP: Bernoulli is valid only for IDEAL fluids (non-viscous, incompressible, steady,
irrotational)!

Application 1: Venturimeter (Flowmeter)

Device to measure flow velocity. Has a constriction (narrow part).
A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ (continuity)
P₁ − P₂ = ½ρ(v₂² − v₁²) = ½ρv₁²(A₁²/A₂² − 1)
v₁ = A₂/A₁ · √[2(P₁−P₂) / ρ(A₁²/A₂²−1)]
Rate of flow: Q = A₁v₁
★ KEY: Venturimeter works on BERNOULLI'S principle. This is a direct NEET MCQ answer.

Application 2: Speed of Efflux (Torricelli's Law)

A hole at depth h from free surface of a large container:
v_efflux = √(2gh) [same as free-fall velocity from height h]
Time of flight of jet: t = √[2(H−h)/g] [H = total liquid height]
Horizontal Range: R = 2√[h(H−h)]
Range is MAXIMUM when: h = H/2 → R_max = H
Reaction force on container: F = ρAv² = ρA·(2gh) = 2ρAgh
★ KEY: R_max = H when hole is at h = H/2 (middle of liquid column). Maximum range.
⚠ NEET TRAP: Two holes at h and (H−h) give EQUAL horizontal range! (symmetric about H/2)
★ END OF NOTES — ALL THE BEST FOR NEET 2026! ★