PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

Class XII (CBSE)

Student Name: __________________

Roll Number: __________________

School Name: __________________

Session: 2025–26
Certificate
This is to certify that the student has successfully completed this investigatory project on
Alternating Current under the guidance of the Physics Department.
Acknowledgement
I express my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher, school administration, and my parents
for their support in completing this project.
Declaration
I hereby declare that this project is my original work and has been completed for academic
purposes.
Abstract
Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses direction. This
project studies the generation, characteristics, mathematical analysis, applications, and
importance of AC in modern electrical systems.
Objectives
To understand AC, study its waveform, derive important relations, analyze AC circuits,
investigate resonance and power factor, and explore practical applications.
Index
Sr. No. Topic Page No.

1 Introduction ____

2 Historical Background ____

3 Theory of AC ____

4 Waveform Characteristics ____

5 RMS & Peak Values ____

6 Frequency & Time Period ____

7 AC Generator ____

8 Phasor Diagrams ____

9 RLC Circuits ____

10 Reactance & Impedance ____

11 Resonance ____

12 Power Factor ____

13 Experimental Investigation ____

14 Applications ____

15 Viva Questions ____

16 Conclusion ____
Introduction to Alternating Current
Alternating current is a form of electric current in which the magnitude and direction
change periodically. It is the standard form of electricity supplied to homes, schools,
industries, and commercial establishments. The major advantage of AC is that it can be
transmitted over long distances with minimal power loss using transformers. The current
varies sinusoidally with time and is represented mathematically by i = I₀ sin(ωt).

Alternating current is a form of electric current in which the magnitude and direction
change periodically. It is the standard form of electricity supplied to homes, schools,
industries, and commercial establishments. The major advantage of AC is that it can be
transmitted over long distances with minimal power loss using transformers. The current
varies sinusoidally with time and is represented mathematically by i = I₀ sin(ωt).

Alternating current is a form of electric current in which the magnitude and direction
change periodically. It is the standard form of electricity supplied to homes, schools,
industries, and commercial establishments. The major advantage of AC is that it can be
transmitted over long distances with minimal power loss using transformers. The current
varies sinusoidally with time and is represented mathematically by i = I₀ sin(ωt).

Alternating current is a form of electric current in which the magnitude and direction
change periodically. It is the standard form of electricity supplied to homes, schools,
industries, and commercial establishments. The major advantage of AC is that it can be
transmitted over long distances with minimal power loss using transformers. The current
varies sinusoidally with time and is represented mathematically by i = I₀ sin(ωt).
Historical Background
The development of alternating current systems is associated with pioneers such as Nikola
Tesla and George Westinghouse. AC became the preferred method of electrical power
transmission due to its efficiency and ability to be transformed into different voltage levels.
The widespread adoption of AC revolutionized electrical engineering and modern society.

The development of alternating current systems is associated with pioneers such as Nikola
Tesla and George Westinghouse. AC became the preferred method of electrical power
transmission due to its efficiency and ability to be transformed into different voltage levels.
The widespread adoption of AC revolutionized electrical engineering and modern society.

The development of alternating current systems is associated with pioneers such as Nikola
Tesla and George Westinghouse. AC became the preferred method of electrical power
transmission due to its efficiency and ability to be transformed into different voltage levels.
The widespread adoption of AC revolutionized electrical engineering and modern society.

The development of alternating current systems is associated with pioneers such as Nikola
Tesla and George Westinghouse. AC became the preferred method of electrical power
transmission due to its efficiency and ability to be transformed into different voltage levels.
The widespread adoption of AC revolutionized electrical engineering and modern society.
Theory of AC
In AC circuits, voltage and current vary continuously with time. A sinusoidal AC signal is
characterized by amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, phase, and time period. AC
analysis uses trigonometric functions and phasor representation for simplified calculations.

In AC circuits, voltage and current vary continuously with time. A sinusoidal AC signal is
characterized by amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, phase, and time period. AC
analysis uses trigonometric functions and phasor representation for simplified calculations.

In AC circuits, voltage and current vary continuously with time. A sinusoidal AC signal is
characterized by amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, phase, and time period. AC
analysis uses trigonometric functions and phasor representation for simplified calculations.

In AC circuits, voltage and current vary continuously with time. A sinusoidal AC signal is
characterized by amplitude, frequency, angular frequency, phase, and time period. AC
analysis uses trigonometric functions and phasor representation for simplified calculations.
Waveform and Characteristics
The AC waveform is generally sinusoidal. Important characteristics include amplitude, peak
value, RMS value, frequency, and phase angle. A graph of AC voltage versus time forms a
sine wave oscillating above and below the zero axis.

The AC waveform is generally sinusoidal. Important characteristics include amplitude, peak

value, RMS value, frequency, and phase angle. A graph of AC voltage versus time forms a
sine wave oscillating above and below the zero axis.

The AC waveform is generally sinusoidal. Important characteristics include amplitude, peak

value, RMS value, frequency, and phase angle. A graph of AC voltage versus time forms a
sine wave oscillating above and below the zero axis.

The AC waveform is generally sinusoidal. Important characteristics include amplitude, peak

value, RMS value, frequency, and phase angle. A graph of AC voltage versus time forms a
sine wave oscillating above and below the zero axis.
RMS, Mean and Peak Values
Peak value is the maximum value attained by current or voltage. RMS value represents the
equivalent DC value producing the same heating effect. Vrms = V0/√2 and Irms = I0/√2.
RMS values are used in practical electrical systems.

Peak value is the maximum value attained by current or voltage. RMS value represents the
equivalent DC value producing the same heating effect. Vrms = V0/√2 and Irms = I0/√2.
RMS values are used in practical electrical systems.

Peak value is the maximum value attained by current or voltage. RMS value represents the
equivalent DC value producing the same heating effect. Vrms = V0/√2 and Irms = I0/√2.
RMS values are used in practical electrical systems.

Peak value is the maximum value attained by current or voltage. RMS value represents the
equivalent DC value producing the same heating effect. Vrms = V0/√2 and Irms = I0/√2.
RMS values are used in practical electrical systems.
Frequency and Time Period
Frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second and is measured in hertz (Hz).
The time period is the time taken for one complete cycle. The relation is f = 1/T. In India, AC
mains frequency is 50 Hz.

Frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second and is measured in hertz (Hz).
The time period is the time taken for one complete cycle. The relation is f = 1/T. In India, AC
mains frequency is 50 Hz.

Frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second and is measured in hertz (Hz).
The time period is the time taken for one complete cycle. The relation is f = 1/T. In India, AC
mains frequency is 50 Hz.

Frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second and is measured in hertz (Hz).
The time period is the time taken for one complete cycle. The relation is f = 1/T. In India, AC
mains frequency is 50 Hz.
AC Generator
An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on
electromagnetic induction. It consists of a rotating coil, magnetic field, slip rings, and
brushes. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux changes and induces an alternating emf.

An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on

electromagnetic induction. It consists of a rotating coil, magnetic field, slip rings, and
brushes. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux changes and induces an alternating emf.

An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on

electromagnetic induction. It consists of a rotating coil, magnetic field, slip rings, and
brushes. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux changes and induces an alternating emf.

An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy based on

electromagnetic induction. It consists of a rotating coil, magnetic field, slip rings, and
brushes. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux changes and induces an alternating emf.
Phasor Diagrams
Phasor diagrams are graphical representations of sinusoidal quantities. They help visualize
phase differences between voltage and current in AC circuits containing resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.

Phasor diagrams are graphical representations of sinusoidal quantities. They help visualize
phase differences between voltage and current in AC circuits containing resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.

Phasor diagrams are graphical representations of sinusoidal quantities. They help visualize
phase differences between voltage and current in AC circuits containing resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.

Phasor diagrams are graphical representations of sinusoidal quantities. They help visualize
phase differences between voltage and current in AC circuits containing resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in AC Circuits
A resistor opposes current without phase difference. An inductor causes current to lag
voltage by 90 degrees, while a capacitor causes current to lead voltage by 90 degrees. These
phase relationships are fundamental in AC analysis.

A resistor opposes current without phase difference. An inductor causes current to lag
voltage by 90 degrees, while a capacitor causes current to lead voltage by 90 degrees. These
phase relationships are fundamental in AC analysis.

A resistor opposes current without phase difference. An inductor causes current to lag
voltage by 90 degrees, while a capacitor causes current to lead voltage by 90 degrees. These
phase relationships are fundamental in AC analysis.

A resistor opposes current without phase difference. An inductor causes current to lag
voltage by 90 degrees, while a capacitor causes current to lead voltage by 90 degrees. These
phase relationships are fundamental in AC analysis.
Reactance and Impedance
Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL and capacitive reactance XC = 1/(2πfC). Impedance combines
resistance and reactance and is given by Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²).

Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL and capacitive reactance XC = 1/(2πfC). Impedance combines

resistance and reactance and is given by Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²).

Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL and capacitive reactance XC = 1/(2πfC). Impedance combines

resistance and reactance and is given by Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²).

Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL and capacitive reactance XC = 1/(2πfC). Impedance combines

resistance and reactance and is given by Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²).
Resonance
Resonance occurs when XL equals XC. Under resonance, impedance becomes minimum and
current becomes maximum. Resonance has important applications in tuning circuits and
communication systems.

Resonance occurs when XL equals XC. Under resonance, impedance becomes minimum and
current becomes maximum. Resonance has important applications in tuning circuits and
communication systems.

Resonance occurs when XL equals XC. Under resonance, impedance becomes minimum and
current becomes maximum. Resonance has important applications in tuning circuits and
communication systems.

Resonance occurs when XL equals XC. Under resonance, impedance becomes minimum and
current becomes maximum. Resonance has important applications in tuning circuits and
communication systems.
Power and Power Factor
Average power in an AC circuit is P = VI cosφ. The term cosφ is known as the power factor.
A higher power factor indicates efficient utilization of electrical power.

Average power in an AC circuit is P = VI cosφ. The term cosφ is known as the power factor.
A higher power factor indicates efficient utilization of electrical power.

Average power in an AC circuit is P = VI cosφ. The term cosφ is known as the power factor.
A higher power factor indicates efficient utilization of electrical power.

Average power in an AC circuit is P = VI cosφ. The term cosφ is known as the power factor.
A higher power factor indicates efficient utilization of electrical power.
Experimental Investigation
Aim: To study the variation of current with applied AC voltage. Apparatus: AC source,
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires. Procedure: Connect the circuit, vary voltage,
record current readings, and analyze the relationship.

Aim: To study the variation of current with applied AC voltage. Apparatus: AC source,
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires. Procedure: Connect the circuit, vary voltage,
record current readings, and analyze the relationship.

Aim: To study the variation of current with applied AC voltage. Apparatus: AC source,
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires. Procedure: Connect the circuit, vary voltage,
record current readings, and analyze the relationship.

Aim: To study the variation of current with applied AC voltage. Apparatus: AC source,
resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires. Procedure: Connect the circuit, vary voltage,
record current readings, and analyze the relationship.
Applications of Alternating Current
AC is used in domestic appliances, industrial motors, power transmission systems,
transformers, communication systems, railway electrification, and modern electronic
equipment.

AC is used in domestic appliances, industrial motors, power transmission systems,

transformers, communication systems, railway electrification, and modern electronic
equipment.

AC is used in domestic appliances, industrial motors, power transmission systems,

transformers, communication systems, railway electrification, and modern electronic
equipment.

AC is used in domestic appliances, industrial motors, power transmission systems,

transformers, communication systems, railway electrification, and modern electronic
equipment.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages include efficient transmission, easy voltage transformation, and economic
distribution. Disadvantages include reactive power losses and complexity of AC circuit
analysis.

Advantages include efficient transmission, easy voltage transformation, and economic

distribution. Disadvantages include reactive power losses and complexity of AC circuit
analysis.

Advantages include efficient transmission, easy voltage transformation, and economic

distribution. Disadvantages include reactive power losses and complexity of AC circuit
analysis.

Advantages include efficient transmission, easy voltage transformation, and economic

distribution. Disadvantages include reactive power losses and complexity of AC circuit
analysis.
Conclusion
Alternating current forms the backbone of modern electrical power systems. Its ability to be
transmitted efficiently and transformed conveniently makes it essential for domestic,
commercial, and industrial applications.

Alternating current forms the backbone of modern electrical power systems. Its ability to be
transmitted efficiently and transformed conveniently makes it essential for domestic,
commercial, and industrial applications.

Alternating current forms the backbone of modern electrical power systems. Its ability to be
transmitted efficiently and transformed conveniently makes it essential for domestic,
commercial, and industrial applications.

Alternating current forms the backbone of modern electrical power systems. Its ability to be
transmitted efficiently and transformed conveniently makes it essential for domestic,
commercial, and industrial applications.
Observation Table
[Link] Voltage (V) Current (A) Remarks

10
Sample Calculations
Given V₀ = 325 V, Vrms = 325/√2 = 230 V.

Given f = 50 Hz, T = 1/50 = 0.02 s.

For R=10Ω, XL=20Ω, XC=5Ω, Z = √(10² + 15²) = 18.03Ω.

Viva Voce Questions and Answers
Q. What is AC?
Ans. Current that changes magnitude and direction periodically.

Q. What is the frequency of AC mains in India?

Ans. 50 Hz.

Q. Define RMS value.

Ans. Equivalent DC value producing same heating effect.

Q. What is resonance?
Ans. Condition when XL = XC.

Q. What is power factor?

Ans. cosφ, ratio of true power to apparent power.
Bibliography
NCERT Physics Class XII Part-II
CBSE Laboratory Manual
Reference Physics Textbooks and Educational Resources
Teacher's Remarks
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