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Module-3
QUANTUM COMPUTING
QUANTUM COMPUTING
Module-3

QUANTUM COMPUTING:
Moore’s law - limitation of VLSI, Classical vs Quantum Computation, bit,
Qubit and its properties, Bloch Sphere, Dirac notation, Brief discussion
on types of qubits, Superconducting qubits, Charge qubit, Matrix
representation of qubits, Pauli matrices, Inner product, Quantum Gates
– Pauli Gates, Phase gate (S, T), Hadamard Gate, two qubit gates –
CNOT gate, C-Z gate, Toffolli Gate, Predicting the outputs of various
combinations of single and multiple qubit gates. Numerical Problems.

Syllabus
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Objectives

Course Learning objectives:

The purpose of the course is to facilitate the learner to:
• Learn the principles of quantum mechanics and its applications in quantum
computing.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
After successfully completing the course, the student will be able to:
Discuss the basic principles of Quantum Mechanics and their application in Quantum
Computing.

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Quantum Computing
What is Quantum Computing?
• Quantum Computing is an emerging field in computer technology.
• It is based on Quantum Physics, which studies the behavior of matter and
energy at atomic and subatomic levels.
• Unlike classical computing, it uses quantum mechanics for processing
information.
The Quantum Principle
• Elementary particles (like electrons and protons) can exist in multiple states
simultaneously.
• This phenomenon is known as superposition.
• Quantum computers utilize this to process information more efficiently than
classical computers.
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Quantum Computing
Quantum Bits (Qubits)
• Classical computers use bits (0 or 1).
• Quantum computers use qubits, which can be:
• 0
• 1
• Or both 0 and 1 at the same time (superposition)
• This allows parallel computation and faster problem-solving for certain tasks.

The Impact of Quantum Computing

• Quantum computers won’t replace classical computers entirely.
• But they are expected to transform industries like cryptography, optimization,
drug discovery, etc.
• They redefine how we approach complex computational problems.

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Quantum Computing
Brief History of Quantum Computing
• 1981: Paul Benioff proposed the concept of a computer that operates based on
quantum mechanical principles at Argonne National Labs.
• 1984: David Deutsch (Oxford University) introduced the idea of a computer that
operates purely using quantum rules, laying the foundation for quantum computing
research.
Essential Elements of Quantum Theory
• Discrete Energy Levels: Energy values exist in quantized (discrete) units.
• Wave-Particle Duality: Particles like electrons can behave as both particles and
waves.
• Quantum Uncertainty: The behavior of elementary particles is inherently
random and unpredictable.
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
• Precise measurement of one property (e.g., position) causes uncertainty in
the other (e.g., momentum).
• Measuring both simultaneously with high accuracy is not possible.
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 Introduction to VLSI
(Very Large Scale Integration)
VLSI, or Very Large Scale Integration, represents one of the
most transformative technologies in modern electronics. It
refers to the process of integrating millions—or even
billions—of transistors onto a single silicon chip, enabling
unprecedented computational power in remarkably compact
form factors.
 Introduction to Integrated Circuits (ICs)

• An Integrated Circuit (IC) is a collection of a large number of interconnected

transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors fabricated on a single silicon chip.
• The IC miniaturizes all these components into a part of a tiny semiconductor
substrate.
• The interconnections are made internally using metallic interconnects during
fabrication.

Integration allows circuits to process information rapidly and efficiently on a

miniature scale. This process is called integration.

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 Classification of Integrated Circuits
Depending on the number of components fabricated on a chip:
Number of Components Classification Abbreviation
≤ 10 Small Scale Integration SSI
10 < N ≤ 100 Medium Scale Integration MSI
100 < N ≤ 1000 Large Scale Integration LSI
> 1000 Very Large Scale Integration VLSI
Advantages over Conventional Circuits:
1. Require very small space
2. Highly reliable with minimal failure rate
3. Low manufacturing cost
4. Lightweight and compact
5. Low power consumption
6. Operate efficiently at high temperatures
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 Key Benefits of Integration

Faster Operation Smaller Size Lower Cost

Shorter interconnects reduce Miniaturisation allows compact Mass production and increased
signal propagation delays, enabling devices with greater functionality. yield drive down per-unit
higher clock frequencies and manufacturing costs significantly.
improved performance.

As integration density increases, we achieve exponential improvements in speed, size, and cost-effectiveness.

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 Physical Limitations of VLSI

Physical Challenges:

• Quantum Tunneling: Thin gate oxides cause leakage currents.

• Heat Dissipation: Power density increases → excessive heating.

• Variability: Atomic-scale defects cause unpredictable behavior.

• Fabrication Limits: Lithography cannot reliably define sub-2 nm features.

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Moore’s Law
 Moore’s Law
• 1965: Gordon E. Moore, co-founder of Intel, observed a key trend:
“The number of transistors that can be packed into a given unit of space will double
about every eighteen months.”
• He didn’t initially name it Moore’s Law or intend it as a law.
• It was based on emerging trends in semiconductor manufacturing.
Moore’s Law – Significance & Impact
• Became a guiding principle for the tech industry.
• Predicted:
• Smaller computing devices
• Faster processing power
• Cheaper and more accessible computers
• Enabled rapid advancements in:
• Consumer electronics
• Data processing
• Communication technologies
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Moore’s Law – Significance & Impact

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 Is Moore’s Law Coming to an End?
Growth of Classical Computing
• The electronics industry has grown with shrinking integrated circuit sizes.
• Smaller circuits mean more computational power (FLOPS) [floating-point
operations per second].
• 1950s computers: ~103 FLOPS
• Modern supercomputers: >1013 FLOPS
Moore’s Law
• Moore’s Law: Transistors on a chip double every 18–24 months.
• Currently:
• ~108 transistors per chip
• Circuit sizes ~100 nm — approaching atomic scale
• At this scale, quantum effects become significant.

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 Is Moore’s Law Coming to an End?
The Quantum Shift – A New Era of Computing
Why Moore’s Law Is Reaching Its Limit
• Further miniaturization is limited by:
• Physical constraints
• Quantum interference
• Energy dissipation and heat
The Alternative: Quantum Computing
• Uses quantum bits (qubits) instead of classical bits.
• Uses quantum principles:
• Superposition – qubit can be in multiple states simultaneously
• Entanglement – qubits can be correlated even at a distance
• Quantum computers offer solutions beyond classical limitations, marking a
potential paradigm shift in computing.

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 Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing
Comparison Key Classical Computer Quantum Computer

Large-scale multipurpose computing based High-speed computing based on quantum

Basis of Computing
on classical physics mechanics

Qubit-based storage using electron spin or

Information Storage Bit-based storage using voltage/charge
polarization

Bit Values Bits are either 0 or 1 at any instant Qubits can be 0, 1, or both (superposition)

Infinite combinations of 0 and 1 (complex

Number of States Only 2 possible states: 0 or 1
coefficients)

Output Deterministic (same input gives same output) Probabilistic (outcome may vary on measurement)

Gates Used Logic gates: AND, OR, NOT Quantum gates: X, Y, Z, H, CNOT, etc.

Based on linear algebra (unitary operations /

Operations Based on Boolean algebra
matrices)

Circuit Implementation Macroscopic (e.g., CMOS) – fast and scalable Microscopic (e.g., NMR) – delicate and slower
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Concept of Qubit and its Properties
From Bits to Qubits
Bit (Classical):
• A digital computer uses bits: either 0 or 1
• A bit can represent two distinct physical configurations:
• Light bulb: on/off
• Coin: heads/tails
• Electrical signal: absence/presence (0 or 1)
Qubit (Quantum):
• A qubit is the quantum version of a bit
• It is the physical carrier of quantum information
• Can exist as |0⟩, |1⟩, or both at the same time (superposition)
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Dirac Representation
Concept of Qubit and its Properties
Dirac Notation and Qubit States
Dirac Notation:
• Ket → | ⟩ (e.g., |0⟩, |1⟩): represents a column vector
• Brac → ⟨ |: represents a row vector
• Combined: Brac–Ket notation
1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0 1 
Superposition and Qubit Properties
Qubit Superposition:
• A qubit can exist in a linear combination of both |0⟩ and |1⟩
|   =  | 0 +  |1, where |  |2 + |  |2 = 1
• α and β are complex numbers
• Probability of outcome is determined by the magnitude squared: |α|² and |β|²
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Matrix Representation of Qubit States

• Ket Notation (Column Vectors):

1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0 1 
• Brac Notation (Row Vectors):

0 |= 1 0 , 1|= 0 1

• An arbitrary qubit state:

 
|   =   or |   =  | 0 +  |1
 
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Concept of Qubit and its Properties

Excited level

|0⟩ |1⟩

Ground level
Qubit represented by two electronic levels in an atom

Real Qubits in Quantum Computers

• This is the abstract notion of a qubit
• Actual quantum computers use physical types of qubits
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 Superposition of Two States
• Unlike classical bits (which are either 0 or 1), a qubit can exist in a superposition of the
two basis states:
0 and 1
• A general qubit state is written as:
ψ =α 0 +β 1
where α and β are complex numbers called probability amplitudes.

Normalization Condition
• The qubit must satisfy the normalization condition:
α2+ β2=1
• Here:
• α 2 is the probability of measuring the qubit in state ∣0⟩
• β 2 is the probability of measuring the qubit in state ∣1⟩
• Measurement always gives either ‘0’ or ‘1’, probabilistically based on the above values.
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Superposition of Two States
Example of Superposition
• Consider the state:
1 1
ψ = 0 + 1
2 2
Then:
1 1
α= , β=
2 2
2 2
1
α = β =
2

• The qubit has a 50% probability of being measured in either state ∣0⟩ or ∣1⟩.

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 Concept of Qubit and its Properties

Basis vs Space States

• The states ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ are called basis states.

• Any superposition like ψ = α 0 + β 1 is referred to as a space state or

superposed state.

• Qubit’s power lies in being able to hold such superposed states until measured.

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Properties of Qubits
 Properties of Qubits
1. Physical Basis of Qubits
• Qubits utilize discrete energy state particles such as electrons and photons
to store and process information.
2. Superposition
• A qubit exists in:
0 , 1 , or a superposition: ψ = α 0 + β 1
• Superposition allows a qubit to represent multiple states simultaneously
• This gives exponential parallelism, which classical bits cannot achieve.
3. Power of Quantum Registers
• A classical 4-bit register can store one number from 0 to 15 (since 24 = 16)
• A 4-qubit register can exist in a superposition of all 16 numbers
simultaneously

Definition: Register
A register is a group of flip-flops used to hold information in a digital system for processing by logic
units.
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Properties of Qubits
4. Measurement Collapse
• On measurement, a qubit collapses to one of the basis states:
∣0⟩ or ∣1⟩
• The outcome is probabilistic, depending on the values of α 2 and β 2

5. Unique Quantum Properties

• Quantum Entanglement: Correlated behavior of qubits over distance
• Quantum Tunneling: Ability to transition through energy barriers

6. Bloch Sphere Representation

• Qubit state can be visualized as a point on the surface of a unit sphere
• Bloch sphere shows how the qubit state evolves in time under operations

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 Quantum Entanglement and Tunneling
Quantum Entanglement
Quantum entanglement is when two particles become linked in such a way that the state of one
particle instantly affects the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are.
Analogy:
Imagine you have a pair of magic gloves—one red and one blue. You put them in two boxes and send
one to the Moon and keep one on Earth. When you open your box and see a red glove, you instantly
Extra information

know the other box has the blue one—even if it's far away. That’s kind of how entangled particles
behave.

Quantum Tunneling
Quantum tunneling is when a particle passes through a barrier that it shouldn't be able to cross if
we followed classical physics.
Analogy:
Imagine you're a small ball trapped in a valley between two hills. In classical physics, you need
enough energy to roll over the hill. But in quantum mechanics, there's a small chance the ball can
magically appear on the other side of the hill—without ever going over it! This is quantum
tunneling.

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 Bloch sphere

Why Do We Use the Bloch Sphere?

• A qubit is not just 0 or 1 — it can be in a superposition of both.
• To visualize all possible qubit states, physicists use a 3D model called the Bloch
sphere.
 Bloch Sphere

• Bloch Sphere is an imaginary unit sphere used to z

∣0⟩ North Pole
represent pure single-qubit states.
𝛙
• Radius = 1 𝛉

• The poles of the sphere represent basis states: y

• North Pole → ∣0⟩ (Spin-up ↑) 𝛟
• South Pole → ∣1⟩ (Spin-down ↓) x
• All other points on the sphere represent superposed
∣1⟩ South Pole
states.
Simulator
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Bloch Sphere
Bloch Sphere – Coordinate System
• A qubit state ψ is visualized as a point on the surface.
• It is represented using spherical coordinates:
• r=1 (unit radius)
• θ → polar angle from z-axis
• ϕ → azimuthal angle from x-axis
• Range of angles:
0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π
Qubit state in general form:
ψ =α 0 +β 1
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Bloch Sphere
Bloch Sphere – Mathematical Expression
• The qubit state on Bloch sphere is expressed as:
θ θ
ψ = cos 0 +𝑒 𝑖ϕ
sin 1 (1)
2 2

• This shows the position of the qubit on the Bloch sphere for any angle θ and ϕ.
Case 1:
𝛉 = 𝟎, 𝛟= 𝟎
ψ = cos 0 0 + 𝑒 𝑖0 sin 0 1 = 0
Case 2:
𝛉 = 𝛑, 𝛟= 𝟎
π 𝑖0
π
ψ = cos 0 + 𝑒 sin 1 = 1
2 2
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Bloch Sphere – Superposition Examples

𝛑
Case 3: 𝛉= , 𝛟=𝟎
𝟐
π 𝑖0
π
ψ = cos 0 + 𝑒 sin 1
4 4
1 1 |0⟩ + |1⟩
ψ = 0 + 1 =
2 2 2
𝛑
Case 4: 𝛉= , 𝛟=𝛑
𝟐
π 𝑖π
π
ψ = cos 0 + 𝑒 sin 1 𝑒 𝑖π = −1
4 4
1 1 |0⟩ − |1⟩
ψ = 0 − 1 =
2 2 2

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Multiple Qubits
Multiple Qubits

Multiple Qubits
• Single qubits are fundamental units but do not provide computational advantage
by themselves.
• Power of quantum computing arises when multiple qubits are used together.
• Qubits can interact, and their joint states are represented using a tensor product.

Two-Qubit System – Basis States

Two qubits have four basis states:
00 , 01 , 10 , 11
Each qubit is a 2×1 column vector:

1  0 
|0 =   , |1 =  
0  1 
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Multiple Qubits
Tensor Product of Two Column Vectors
Let:
 x1   x2 
U =  , V =  
 y1   y2 
Then the tensor product 𝑈 ⊗ 𝑉 is:
 x1 x2 
x y 
U V =  1 2 
 y1 x2 
 
 y1 y2 
This creates a 4×1 column vector from two 2×1 vectors.

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 Multiple Qubits

Tensor Product Examples of Qubit States

1 
0 
   
1 1
|00 =|0|0 =      =  
0  0  0 
0 
 

0  0  0 
     
1   0  1   0  1  0  0  0  0 
|01 =      = |10 =      = |11 =      =
 0  1   0  1   0  1  1  1  0 
0     
  0  1 

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Multiple Qubits

Two-Qubit Superposition

The general two-qubit state is:

Ψ = α00 00 + α01 01 + α10 10 + α11 11

Normalization condition:

α00 2 + α01 2 + α10 2 + α11 2 =1

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Operators and Matrix Operations
Operators and Matrices
Definition of an Operator
• An operator is a mathematical rule that transforms one function into another.
• In quantum mechanics, operators act on quantum states (vectors) and return new
quantum states.
Classical Examples of Operators
1. Square Root Operator
is an operator such that 4=2
2. Differentiation Operator
𝑑
෡=
𝐷 is an operator such that 𝐷 ෡ 2𝑥 3 = 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Quantum Mechanical Operator Example
Let 𝐴መ be an operator acting on a vector 𝑎 , transforming it into another vector 𝑏 :
𝐴መ 𝑎 = 𝑏

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Identity Operator 𝐼መ

• The identity operator 𝐼መ is an operator which, when applied to a quantum state,

leaves it unchanged.
𝐼መ 𝑎 = 𝑎

• Matrix Representation
• The identity operator is represented as a 2×2 identity matrix:

ˆI = 
1 0
0 1 
 

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Identity Operator 𝐼መ
Action on Basis States
i. Operating on ∣0⟩:
ˆI | 0 = 
1 0  1  1 
0 1  0  = 0  = | 0
    

ii. Operating on ∣1⟩:

ˆI |1 = 
1 0 0 0
0 1  1  = 1  = |1
    
• Acts like multiplying by 1 in regular arithmetic.
• It is always a square matrix.
• It plays a neutral role in quantum operations: does not change the quantum state.
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Numerical Problem
What is an identity operator? Explain the matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states and apply
identity operator 𝐼መ to |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.
Basis States:
1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0  1 
Identity Operator:

ˆI = 
1 0
0 1 
 
Applying Identity on |0⟩:
1 0  1  1 1 + 0  0  1 
Iˆ | 0 =     =  =   =| 0
0 1  0  0 1 + 1  0  0 

Applying Identity on |1⟩:

1 0  0  1  0 + 0 1 0 
ˆI |1 = 
0 1  1  = 0  0 + 1 1 = 1  =|1
      
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Conjugate Matrices
Definition
• If the elements of a matrix 𝐴 are complex numbers, then the matrix formed by
taking the complex conjugate of each element is called the conjugate matrix of 𝐴.
• It is denoted by:
𝐴∗ = Conjugate of 𝐴
Examples:

0 i 0 −i   i 2  −i 2
A=  , A =
*
 A=  , A =
*

 −i 0   i 0  i + 1 −i   −i + 1 i 

1 2i  1 −2i   1 i 1 −i 
A=  , A =
*
 A= , A =
*


 4 i + 1  4 −i + 1  −i 1  i 1 

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Transpose of a Matrix
• If rows and columns of a matrix 𝐴 are interchanged, the resulting matrix is called
the transpose of 𝐴.
• It is denoted by:
𝐴𝑇
Examples
 0 1 0 −i 
A= , A =
T

 1 0 
 −i 0 

 1 0 1 −2 
A=  , A =
T

 −2 1   0 1 

 1 2i  T  1 4i + 1
A=  , A =
 4i + 1 0   2i 0 
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Hermitian Matrix
A Hermitian matrix is a square matrix that is equal to its own conjugate transpose.

𝐴† = 𝐴∗ 𝑇 =𝐴

Let:
 4 2 + i
A= 
 2 − i 3 
Transpose
 4 2 − i
A =
T

2 + i 3 
Conjugate of Transpose
 4 2 + i
A =
†

 2 − i 3 
Since, 𝐴† = 𝐴, the above matrix is a Hermitian matrix
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
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Unitary Matrix
• A matrix 𝐴 is called unitary if it satisfies:
𝐴𝐴† = 𝐴† 𝐴 = 𝐼
• That is, the conjugate transpose is the inverse of the matrix:
𝐴† = 𝐴−1
Example
Let:

1 1 + i 1 − i 
A= 
2 1 − i 1 + i 
Then, it can be verified that:

AA† = I  A is a unitary matrix

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 Unitary Matrix
Let:
1 1 + i 1 − i 
A= 
2 1 − i 1 + i 
Then, it can be verified that: AA† = I  A is a unitary matrix
Take the conjugate transpose:
† †
 1 1 + i 1 − i   1 1 − i 1 − i  1 1 − i 1 + i 
A = 
†
  =   =  
2
  1 − i 1 + i  2 1 + i 1 − i  2 1 + i 1 − i 
 1 1 − i 1 + i   1 1 + i 1 − i   1 (1 − i )(1 + i ) + (1 + i )(1 − i ) (1 − i )(1 − i ) + (1 + i )(1 + i ) 
A A= 
†
     =  
2
  1 + i 1 − i 2
   1 − i 1 + i  4  (1 + i )(1 + i ) + (1 − i )(1 − i ) (1 + i )(1 − i ) + (1 − i )(1 + i ) 
1  4 0  1 0  (1 − i )(1 + i ) + (1 + i )(1 − i ) = (12 − i 2 ) + (12 − i 2 ) = (1 + 1) + (1 + 1) = 2 + 2 = 4
A A= 
†
 =  =I
4  0 4  0 1  (1 − i ) 2 + (1 + i ) 2 = (1 − 2i + i 2 ) + (1 + 2i + i 2 ) = (1 − 2i − 1) + (1 + 2i − 1) = −2i + 2i = 0

AA† = I  A is a unitary matrix

© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
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Inner Product
Definition
• Let
෠
𝑈 = 𝑥1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧1 𝑘,
𝑉 = 𝑥2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧2 𝑘෠
Their dot product is defined as:
𝑈 ⋅ 𝑉 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2
Special Case – Self Product
• If 𝑈 = 𝑉, then:
2
𝑈⋅𝑈 = 𝑈 = 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 𝑧12
• Magnitude of 𝑼 :
𝑈 = 𝑈⋅𝑈 = 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 𝑧12

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 Matrix Representation of Inner Product
Vectors in Matrix Form
 x1   x2 
U =  y1  , V =  y2 
   
 z1   z2 
Their dot product is defined as:
U V = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2

Matrix Form of Dot Product

 x2   x2 
U T =  x1 y1 z1  , V =  y2  U V = U TV =  x1 y1 z1   y2 
   
 z2   z2 

U  V = UT V
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 Inner Product in Complex Vector Space

Definition

• The inner product of two vectors ∣U⟩ and ∣V⟩ is a function that:

• Takes ∣U⟩, ∣V⟩ as input

• Produces a complex number as output

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 Inner Product in Complex Vector Space
Dirac Notation
• Inner product is written as:
⟨U∣V⟩=c
• Let:
 x1   x2 
|U =  , |V  =  
 y1   y2 
Conjugate Transpose of a Ket
• The brac ⟨U∣ is the conjugate transpose of ∣U⟩:

U |=| U  † =  x1* y1* 

Inner Product Formula

 x2 
U | V  =  x *
1 y    = x1* x2 + y1* y2
*
1
 y2 
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Example – Inner Product
Find the inner product of
3 + i  3i 
|U =   , |V  =  
4 − i  4
Answer:
| U  † = 3 − i 4 + i 

3i 
U | V  = 3 − i 4 + i   
4

= (3 − i )(3i ) + (4 + i )(4) = 9i + 3 + 16 + 4i = 13i + 19

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Example – Inner Product with Itself
Find the inner product of
a
| A =   with itself
ib 
Solution:
| A † =  a −ib 
a
 A | A =  a −ib    = a 2 + (−ib)(ib) = a 2 + b 2
ib 

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Norm of a Vector
Definition
The norm or length of a vector is:
𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈

Problem
Find the norm of
1 − i 
|U =  
 2 

𝑈 𝑈 = 1+𝑖 1−𝑖 +2×2

= 12 + 12 + 4 = 2 + 4 = 6
𝑈 = 6
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Numerical Problem
Let
0 −i 
A= 
i 0 
Prove that 𝐴† = 𝐴, i.e., show that matrix 𝐴 is Hermitian.

Take the complex conjugate of 𝐴

0 i
Conjugate of A = 
 −i 0 
Take the transpose of the conjugated matrix
T
 0 i  0 −i 
A = 
†
  =
  −i 0   i 0 
Compare with original matrix
0 −i 
A =
†
 =A
i 0 
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Numerical Problem
Question:
Given two quantum states:
   
|  =  1  , |   =  1 
 2  2 
Prove that: Ψϕ = ϕΨ ∗

Write the inner product 𝜳 𝝓

 1 
 |= (|  )
†
= 1*  2*   |   =  *
    = 1*1 +  2* 2
*
⇒ Ψ ϕ = α1∗ β1 + α2∗ β2
2 
1 2

Write the inner product 𝝓 𝜳

 1 
 |= (|   ) =    
†
 |  =  
* * *
    = 1*1 +  2* 2
*
⇒ ϕ Ψ = β1∗ α1 + β2∗ α2
 2 
1 2 1 2

Take the complex conjugate of 𝝓 𝜳

ϕΨ ∗ = β1∗ α1 + β∗2 α2 ∗ = α1∗ β1 + α2∗ β2
Compare the two results
Ψ ϕ = α1∗ β1 + α2∗ β2 = ϕΨ ∗

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 59
Arjun
 Orthonormality

Explain the concepts of orthogonality and orthonormality. Show that

the states ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ are orthonormal.
Orthogonality of Vectors
Definition
• Two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) if their inner product is zero:
⟨𝑈 | 𝑉 ⟩ = 0 ⇒ |𝑈⟩ ⊥ |𝑉⟩
Example: Qubit States
Let:

1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0 1 

0 
 0 |1 = 1 0   = 0
1 

Hence, |𝟎⟩ and |𝟏⟩ are orthogonal.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
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Normalization Condition
Definition
• A vector is normalized if its inner product with itself equals 1:
ψψ =1

This ensures the total probability of the quantum state is 1.

Physical Meaning
Ensures the quantum system exists somewhere in the state space — important
for measurement and probabilities in quantum mechanics.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
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Orthonormality of Qubit Basis
Definition
• A set of vectors is orthonormal if:
• Each vector is normalized
• All pairs of different vectors are orthogonal
• Example: Set of Qubit States
• Let:
1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0 1 
1  0 
 0 | 0 = 1 0   = (11) + (0  0) = 1  0 |1 = 1 0   = (1 0) + (0 1) = 0
0  1 

0  1 
1|1 =  0 1   = (0  0) + (11) = 1 1| 0 =  0 1   = (0 1) + (1 0) = 0
1  0 
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Orthonormality of Qubit Basis
• ⟨0|0⟩ – Normalized
• ⟨0|1⟩ – Orthogonal
• ⟨1|1⟩ – Normalized
• ⟨1|0⟩ – Orthogonal

• All vectors are normalized: ⟨0|0⟩ = ⟨1|1⟩ = 1

• All vectors are orthogonal: ⟨0|1⟩ = ⟨1|0⟩ = 0
→ Hence the set ∣0⟩, ∣1⟩ is orthonormal

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5/4/2026
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Pauli Matrices
Pauli Matrices
• Definition: Pauli matrices are 2×2 complex matrices used to describe the spin of
quantum particles and their interaction with external fields.
• They are:
0 1
1 =  j = X = 
1 0 
0 −i 
2 = k = Y = 
i 0 
1 0 
3 = l = Z =  
 0 −1

X, Y, Z are also known as X-gate, Y-gate, and Z-gate in quantum computing.

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Properties of Pauli Matrices
1. Identity Property:
The square of each Pauli matrix results in the identity matrix I:

 0 1   0 1  1 0 
 =
2
1    =  =I
1 0  1 0   0 1 
Similarly,
 22 =  32 = I

Hence, 𝝈𝟐𝒊 = 𝑰

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Properties of Pauli Matrices
2. Unitary Nature:
A matrix σ is unitary if:
 † =  −1 and  † = I
All Pauli matrices are unitary matrices.

2. Hermitian Nature:
A matrix σ is Hermitian if:

† =

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Properties of Pauli Matrices
To check if it is Hermitian, we must verify:

 2† =  2

0 −i 
2 =  
 i 0 

0 i
 =*
2 
 −i 0 

0 −i 
 = ( ) = 
†
2
* T
2 
i 0 

 2† =  2  So,  2 is Hermitian
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
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Pauli Matrices Acting on Basis States ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩
X Gate (Bit-Flip Gate)
0 1  0 1  1  0×1 + 1×0  0 
X =  X | 0 =     =  =   = |1
 1 0  1 0  0  1×1 + 0×0  1 
0 1   0  1 
X |1 =     =   = | 0
1 0  1   0 

Swaps the basis states ⇒ Bit-flip gate

X Gate on Superposition State

Let
  0 1      
|   =  | 0 +  |1 =   X |  =     =   =  | 0 +  |1
  1 0      

Reverses coefficients ⇒ 𝑿 𝝍 = 𝛂 𝟏 + 𝛃 𝟎
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Pauli Matrices Acting on Basis States ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩
Y Gate Operation (Bit- and phase-flip gate)

0 −i  0 −i  1  0×1 + (−i)×0  0 
Y = Y | 0 =     =  =   = i |1
  i 0  0   i×1 + 0×0   i 
i 0 
0 −i  0   −i 
Y |1 =     =   = −i | 0
 i 0  1   0 
𝒀𝟎 =𝒊𝟏 𝒀 𝟏 = −𝒊 𝟎
Y Gate on Superposition State
Let |   =   0 −i     −i  
Y |  =  = = −i  | 0 + i |1
     
   i 0      i 

So, 𝒀 𝝍 = 𝒊𝛂 𝟏 − 𝒊𝛃 𝟎

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

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Pauli Matrices Acting on Basis States ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩
Z Gate Operation (Phase-Flip Gate)
1 0  1 0   0   0 
Z =  Z |1 =     =   = − |1
 0 −1 0 −1 1   −1

1 0  1  1 
Z | 0 =     =   =| 0
0 −1 0  0 
Leaves |𝟎⟩ unchanged and flips phase of |𝟏⟩
Z Gate on Superposition State
Let   1 0      
|  =   Z |  =     =   =  | 0 −  |1
  0 −1     −  

Applies a phase flip to |1⟩

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 Pauli Matrices Acting on Basis States ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩

X-Gate Y-Gate Z-Gate

(Bit-Flip Gate) (Bit- and phase-flip gate) (Phase-Flip Gate)

Input Output Input Output Input Output

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒊𝟏 𝟎 𝟎

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 −𝒊 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝛂 𝟏 +𝛃 𝟎 𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝒊𝛂 𝟏 − 𝒊𝛃 𝟎 𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝛂 𝟎 −𝛃 𝟏

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 Pauli Matrices Acting on Basis States ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩
Symbolic Representation

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝛂 𝟏 +𝛃 𝟎
X

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝒊𝛂 𝟏 − 𝒊𝛃 𝟎
Y

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝛂 𝟎 −𝛃 𝟏
Z
[Link]
[Link]
tumGatesOnABlochSphere/
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Numerical Problem Exercise
A linear operator 𝑋 is defined by its action on the standard basis states as: 𝑋|0⟩ = |1⟩, 𝑋|1⟩ = |0⟩ Find the
matrix representation of 𝑋.
The standard basis vectors in quantum computing are:
1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0  1 
Represent X as an unknown 2×2 matrix
x x12 
X =  11
 x21 x22 
We want to determine 𝑥11 , 𝑥12 , 𝑥21 , 𝑥22
 x11 x12  1   x11  0   x11  0 
Use the condition 𝑿|𝟎⟩ = |𝟏⟩ X | 0 =  = We knowthat X | 0 =|1 =     =    x11 = 0, x21 = 1
 x21 x22  0   x21  1   x21  1 

 x11 x12  0   x12  1   x12  1 

Use the condition 𝑿|𝟏⟩ = |𝟎⟩ X |1 =  = wkt X |1 =| 0 =    x  = 0   x12 = 1, x22 = 0
 x21 x22  1   x22  0   22   

x x12  0 1 
Now we substitute all values: X =  11  =
 x21 x22  1 0 
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 75
Arjun
Numerical Problem Exercise
A linear operator 𝑍 is defined by its action on the standard basis states as: 𝑍|0⟩ = |0⟩, 𝑍|1⟩ = −|1⟩ Find
the matrix representation of 𝑍.
The standard basis vectors in quantum computing are:
1  0
| 0 =   , |1 =  
0  1 
Represent Z as an unknown 2×2 matrix
z z12 
Z =  11
 z21 z22 
We want to determine 𝑧11 , 𝑧12 , 𝑧21 , 𝑧22
z z12  1   z11  1 
Use the condition 𝒁|𝟎⟩ = |𝟎⟩ Z | 0 =  11    =  Z | 0 =| 0 =   𝑧11 = 1, 𝑧21 = 0
 z21 z22  0   z21  0 

Use the condition 𝒁|𝟏⟩ = −|𝟏⟩ Z |1 =  z11 z12  0   z12  0
z = Z |1 = − |1 =   𝑧12 = 0, 𝑧22 = −1
 21 z22  1   z22   −1

z z12  1 0 
Now we substitute all values: Z =  11 =
 z21 z22  0 −1
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 76
Arjun
Numerical Problem Exercise
Using two X gates in series form a quantum wire.
In quantum computing, a quantum wire refers to an operation or sequence of operations that passes a qubit
through unchanged (identity operation)
Matrix of the Pauli-X Gate

0 1 
X = 
1 0 
Apply two X gates in series: 𝑿 ⋅ 𝑿

0 1  0 1  0(0) + 1(1) 0(1) + 1(0)  1 0 

X X =  1 0  = 1(0) + 0(1) 1(1) + 0(0)  = 0 1  = I
 1 0      

The result of applying two X gates in series is the identity matrix 𝐼.

This means for any quantum state ψ

𝑋 𝑋ψሻ = 𝐼ψ = ψ

So the input state passes through unchanged, just as it would through a quantum wire.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 77
Arjun
Hadamard Gate (H)

The Hadamard Gate (H) is a single-qubit gate that creates a superposition state from
the basis states
1 1 1 
H=  
2 1 −1
Action of Hadamard Gate on |0⟩ State
Let the qubit be in the state:
1 
| 0 =  
0 
Now apply the Hadamard gate to the qubit state:
1 1 1  1  1 1
H | 0 = 1 −1 0  =
2   2 1
In terms of quantum states: 1
H | 0 = (| 0+ |1 )
2
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 78
Arjun
 Hadamard Gate (H)

Action of Hadamard Gate on |1⟩ State

Let the qubit be in the state:
0 
|1 =  
1 
Now apply the Hadamard gate to the qubit state:

1 1 1  0 1  1 0 + 1 1  1  1  1 1
H |1 =   1 0 + (−1) 1 = H |1 =
2 1 −1 1  2  2  −1
  2  −1

In terms of quantum states:

1
H |1 = (| 0− |1 )
2

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 79
Arjun
Hadamard Gate (H)

Action of Hadamard Gate on Superposed State:

General Superposition State:
Let the qubit be in a superposition state:
1  0
|   =  | 0 +  |1 =    +   
0 1 

Action of H Gate:
Now apply the Hadamard gate to the superposition state:
1 1 1    1  1  + 1   1  +  
H |  = 1 −1     1  + (−1)    =  −  
2   2   2  
In terms of quantum states:
 +  1   −   0   +  −
H |  =   + H |  = | 0 + |1
2 0 2 1  2 2
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 80
Arjun
Hadamard Gate (H)

Differences between Hadamard and Other Gates

Hadamard Gate (H):
• Transforms basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ into superpositions.
• Creates a mixture of both |0⟩ and |1⟩.

Pauli Gates (X, Y, Z):

• These gates only flip or modify the qubit state but do not create
superpositions.
• Example: X|0⟩ = |1⟩ , Z|1⟩ = -|1⟩.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 81
Arjun
Hadamard Gate (H)

Probability of Measuring |0⟩ and |1⟩

|0⟩ + |1⟩
• For the superposed state 𝐻 0 = ​, the probability of measuring either ∣0⟩
2
or ∣1⟩ is:

2
1 1
P(| 0 ) = =
2 2
2
1 1
P(|1 ) = =
2 2

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 82
Arjun
Hadamard Gate – The Gate to Superposition

Hadamard Gate – The Gate to Superposition

Input Output

|𝟎⟩ + |𝟏⟩
𝟎
𝟐
𝟎 − |𝟏⟩
𝟏
𝟐
|𝟎⟩ + |𝟏⟩ 𝟎 − |𝟏⟩
𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 𝜶 +𝜷
𝟐 𝟐

|𝟎⟩ + |𝟏⟩ 𝟎 − |𝟏⟩

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 H 𝜶
𝟐
+𝜷
𝟐
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 83
Arjun
Hadamard Gate – The Gate to Superposition
Prove that applying the Hadamard gate twice on the state |0⟩ returns the state |0⟩, i.e., show that
𝐻(𝐻|0⟩ሻ = |0⟩, using matrix multiplication steps.
The matrix form of the Hadamard gate is:
1 1 1  1 
H= | 0 =  
2 1 −1 0 
Apply Hadamard once: 𝑯|𝟎⟩

1 1 1  1  1  1(1) + 1(0)  1 1

H | 0 = = =
2 1 −1 0  2 1(1) + (−1)(0)  2 1
Apply Hadamard again: 𝑯(𝑯|𝟎⟩ሻ

 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1  1 1  1(1) + 1(1)  1  2 

H 1  =  H 1 H = = =
 2    2  1 
21 −1 1 
21(1) + ( −1)(1)  2  0 
   

1 1  2  1  2  1 
H ( H | 0 ) =  = = =| 0
2 2  0  2  0  0 
Hence, applying the Hadamard gate twice to |0⟩ returns the original state |0⟩, as required
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 84
Arjun
Hadamard Gate – The Gate to Superposition
Prove that applying the Hadamard gate twice on the state |1⟩ returns the state |1⟩, i.e., show that
𝐻(𝐻|1⟩ሻ = |1⟩, using matrix multiplication steps.
The matrix form of the Hadamard gate is:
1 1 1  0 
H= |1 =  
2 1 −1 1 
Apply Hadamard once: 𝑯|𝟏⟩
1 1 1  0  1  1(0) + 1(1)  1  1 
H |1 =     =   =
2 1 −1 1  2 1(0) + (−1)(1)  2  −1
Apply Hadamard again: 𝑯(𝑯|𝟏⟩ሻ
 1  1  1 1  1  1 1 1   1  1  1(1) + 1( −1)  1  0 
H  −1  = 2  H  −1 H =     =   =
 2      −1 2 1 −1  −1 2 1(1) + (−1)(−1)  2  2 

1 1 0  1 0  0
H ( H |1 ) =    =   =   =|1
2 2  2  2  2  1 

Hence, applying the Hadamard gate twice to |1⟩ returns the original state |1⟩, as required
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 85
Arjun
 Hadamard Gate – The Gate to Superposition
Show that the Hadamard gate is unitary.

A matrix 𝑈 is unitary if: 𝑈 † 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈 † = 𝐼

where 𝑈 † is the conjugate transpose (also called Hermitian adjoint) of 𝑈, and 𝐼 is the identity matrix.
The matrix form of the Hadamard gate is:
1 1 1 
H=
2 1 −1
Since all entries are real numbers, the conjugate transpose 𝐻 † = 𝐻𝑇 (just the transpose):
T
 1 1 1   1 1 1 
H† =     =   =H
 2 1 −1  2 1 −1
So we only need to verify that: 𝐻† 𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐼

Compute 𝐻𝐻
 1 1 1   1 1 1   1 1 1  1 1  1  1(1) + 1(1) 1(1) + 1(−1)  1  2 0  1 0 
HH =       =    =   =   =  =I
 2 1 −1  2 1 −1  2 1 −1 1 −1 2 1(1) + (−1)(1) 1(1) + (−1)(−1)  2  0 2  0 1 

Hence, 𝑯† 𝑯 = 𝑰 ⇒ 𝑯 is unitary
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 86
Arjun
Phase Gate (S Gate)

• Definition: The Phase Gate (also known as the S Gate) is a single-qubit gate.

• Function:

• Leaves ∣0⟩ unchanged

• Multiplies ∣1⟩ by the imaginary unit 𝑖

• Matrix Representation:

1 0 
S= 
 0 i 

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 87
Arjun
Phase Gate (S Gate)
Action of S Gate on |0⟩
Input State:
1 
| 0 =  
0 
Apply S Gate:

1 0  1  1 1 + 0  0  1 
S | 0 =     =  = 
 0 i   0   0 1 + i  0   0 

Result:
𝑺 ∣ 𝟎⟩ =∣ 𝟎⟩

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 88
Arjun
Phase Gate (S Gate)
Action of S Gate on |1⟩
Input State:
0 
|1 =  
1 
Apply S Gate:

1 0  0  1  0 + 0 1 0 
S |1 =     =  = 
0 i  1   0  0 + i 1  i 
Result:

𝑺 𝟏 =𝒊⋅ 𝟏

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 89
Arjun
Phase Gate (S Gate)
Action of S Gate on a Superposition State
General Superposition:
 
|   =  | 0 +  |1 =  
 
Apply S Gate:

1 0    1   + 0      
S |  =     =  = 
 0 i      0   + i    i  
Resulting State:

𝑆 ψ = α 0 + 𝑖β 1

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 90
Arjun
Phase Gate (S Gate)

Phase Gate (S Gate)

Input Output

𝟎 𝟎

𝟏 𝒊𝟏

𝜶 𝟎 +𝜷 𝟏 𝜶 𝟎 + 𝒊𝜷 𝟏

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 S 𝜶 𝟎 + 𝒊𝜷 𝟏

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 91
Arjun
T-Gate

• T-Gate is a single-qubit gate that introduces a π/4 phase shift to the |1⟩ state.

• Matrix Representation:

1 0 
T = i /4 
 0 e 

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 92
Arjun
T-Gate
Action of T-Gate on |0⟩
Input State:
1 
| 0 =  
0 
Apply T-Gate:

 1 0   1   1 1 + 0  0   1 
T | 0 =  i /4   
= i /4  = 
 0 e   0   0 1 + e  0   0 

Result:
𝑇0 = 0

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 93
Arjun
T-Gate
Action of T-Gate on |1⟩
Input State:
0 
|1 =  
1 
Apply T-Gate:

1 0  0   1  0 + 0 1   0  i /4 0 
T |1 =  i /4   
= i /4  =  i /4  = e  
0 e  1  0  0 + e 1  e  1 

Result:
𝑇 1 = 𝑒 𝑖π/4 1

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 94
Arjun
T-Gate
Action of T-Gate on a Superposition State
General Superposition:
 
|   =  | 0 +  |1 =  
 
Apply T-Gate:
1 0      
T |  =  i /4   
=  i /4 
0 e       e 

Resulting State:
𝑇 ψ = α 0 + β𝑒 𝑖π/4 1

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 95
Arjun
T-Gate

T-Gate

Input Output

𝟎 𝟎

𝟏 𝒆𝒊𝝅/𝟒 𝟏

𝜶 𝟎 +𝜷 𝟏 𝜶 𝟎 + 𝜷𝒆𝒊𝝅/𝟒 𝟏

𝛂 𝟎 +𝛃 𝟏 T 𝜶 𝟎 + 𝜷𝒆𝒊𝝅/𝟒 𝟏

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 96
Arjun
Numerical Problem Exercise
Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T gates in series.
Matrix of the T gate
1 0 
T = i /4 
 0 e 
Matrix of the S gate
1 0 
S= 
 0 i 
Multiply two T gates: 𝑇 ⋅ 𝑇
 1 0   1 0   1 1 + 0  0 1 0 + 0  ei /4  1 0  1 0 
T T =  i /4   i /4 
= i /4 i /4 i /4 
= i /2 
= 
 0 e   0 e   0 1 + e  0 0  0 + e  e   0 e   0 i 
1 0 
T T =   =S
0 i 
𝑻 ⋅𝑻 = 𝑺
© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay 97
Arjun
Multiple Qubit Gates
Multiple Qubit Gates
Why multiple qubits?
• Single qubits are limited in computational power.
• Multi-qubit gates enable entanglement and complex operations.
Definition:
• Multiple qubit gates operate on more than one qubit.
• Most common: Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate.

Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate

• Qubits:
|A⟩ Control Qubit
• Control Qubit = A
• Target Qubit = B
• Working Logic:
• If A = |1⟩, flip B. |B⟩
|B ⊗ A⟩
Target Qubit
• If A = |0⟩, B remains unchanged.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
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Arjun
2-Qubit Basis States as Column Vectors
1  0  0  0 
0  1  0  0 
| 00 =   | 01 =   |10 =   |11 =  
0  0  1  0 
0  0  0  1 
       

State Superposition
 00 
 
|  =  00 | 00 +  01 | 01 + 10 |10 + 11 |11 =  01 
10 
 
 11 

CNOT (|  ) =  00 | 00 +  01 | 01 + 10 |11 + 11 |10

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Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay100
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 CNOT Gate Matrix Construction (4×4)

CNOT Gate Matrix Construction (4×4)

From transformation rules:
1  0  0  0 
0  1  0  0 
| 00 → | 00 →   | 01 →| 01 →   |10 → |11 →   |11 → |10 →  
0  0  0  1 
0  0  1  0 
       

Thus,
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
CNOT =  
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 

© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
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 CNOT Gate Matrix Construction (4×4)
1  0  0  0 
0  1  0  0 
| 00 → | 00 →   | 01 →| 01 →   |10 → |11 →   |11 → |10 →  
0  0  0  1 
0  0  1  0 
       
|0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩

|0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
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 CNOT Gate Matrix Construction (4×4)

CNOT on ∣00⟩

1 0 0 0  1  1(1) + 0(0) + 0(0) + 0(0)  1 

0 1 0 0  0  0(1) + 1(0) + 0(0) + 0(0)  0 
CNOT  | 00 =    =   =   =| 00
0 0 0 1  0  0(1) + 0(0) + 0(0) + 1(0)  0 
0 0 1 0  0  0(1) + 0(0) + 1(0) + 0(0)  0 


CNOT on ∣01⟩

1 0 0 0  0  1(0) + 0(1) + 0(0) + 0(0)  0 

0 1 0 0  1  0(0) + 1(1) + 0(0) + 0(0)  1 
CNOT  | 01 =    =   =   =| 01
0 0 0 1  0  0(0) + 0(1) + 0(0) + 1(0)  0 
0 0 1 0  0  0(0) + 0(1) + 1(0) + 0(0)  0 

© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay103
Arjun
 CNOT Gate Matrix Construction (4×4)

CNOT on ∣10⟩

1 0 0 0  0  1(0) + 0(0) + 0(1) + 0(0)  0 

0 1 0 0  0  0(0) + 1(0) + 0(1) + 0(0)  0 
CNOT  |10 =    =   =   =|11
0 0 0 1  1  0(0) + 0(0) + 0(1) + 1(0)  0 
0 0 1 0  0  0(0) + 0(0) + 1(1) + 0(0)  1 


CNOT on ∣11⟩

1 0 0 0  0  1(0) + 0(0) + 0(0) + 0(1)  0 

0 1 0 0  0  0(0) + 1(0) + 0(0) + 0(1)  0 
CNOT  |11 =    =   =   =|10
0 0 0 1  0  0(0) + 0(0) + 0(0) + 1(1)  1 
0 0 1 0  1  0(0) + 0(0) + 1(0) + 0(1)  0 

© Dr. Akshay Arjun
5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay104
Arjun
Truth Table of CNOT gate

Truth Table of CNOT gate

CNOT

Input Output

∣00⟩ ∣00⟩

∣01⟩ ∣01⟩

∣10⟩ ∣11⟩

∣11⟩ ∣10⟩

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5/4/2026
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Arjun
Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)
Definition
The Controlled-Z gate (CZ gate) is a two-qubit gate. It applies a Z gate (i.e., phase
flip) on the target qubit only when the control qubit is in state ∣1⟩.
Matrix form of the Z gate:
1 0 
Z = 
0 −1
• Matrix form of the Controlled-Z gate:

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
UZ =  
0 0 1 0 1 0 
0 Z =
 0 0 −1 
0 −1
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5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay106
Arjun
Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)
State 1:
1  1 0 0 0  1  1 
0  0 1 0 0  0  0 
| 00 =   U Z | 00 =     =   =| 00
0  0 0 1 0  0  0 
0  0 0 0 −1 0  0 
  
State 2:

0  1 0 0 0  0  0 
1  0 1 0 0  1  1 
| 01 =   U Z | 01 =     =   =| 01
0  0 0 1 0  0  0 
0  0 0 0 −1 0  0 
  

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay107
Arjun
Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)
State 3:
0  1 0 0 0  0  0 
0  0
|10 =   1 0 0  0  0 
U Z |10 =     =   =|10
1  0 0 1 0  1  1 
0  0
   0 0 −1 0  0 
State 4:

0  1 0 0 0  0   0 
0  0 1 0 0  0   0 
|11 =   U Z |11 =     =   = − |11
0  0 0 1 0  0   0 
1  0
   0 0 −1 1   −1

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay108
Arjun
 Truth Table of Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)

Truth Table of Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)

Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)

Input Output

∣00⟩ ∣00⟩

∣01⟩ ∣01⟩

∣10⟩ ∣10⟩

∣11⟩ −∣11⟩

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5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay109
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 Representation of Controlled-Z Gate (𝑼𝒁 ​)

Z
|0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩

|0⟩
Z |0⟩ |1⟩
Z |1⟩ |0⟩
Z |0⟩ |1⟩
Z -|1⟩
No change because No change because Control bit acts on target Control bit acts on target
control bid is |0⟩ control bid is |0⟩ but there is no flip of |1⟩ and flips |1⟩ to -|1⟩
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Toffoli Gate (Controlled-Controlled-NOT or CCNOT)

Definition

• The Toffoli gate is a three-qubit gate.

• The first two qubits are control qubits — they remain unchanged.

• The third qubit is the target qubit.

• The target is flipped (0 1) only if both control qubits are 1.

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay111
Arjun
Toffoli Gate (Controlled-Controlled-NOT or CCNOT)

Matrix Representation
The Toffoli gate is represented as an 8×8 matrix:

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
UT =  
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay112
Arjun
Toffoli Gate (Controlled-Controlled-NOT or CCNOT)

The Toffoli gate representation and truth table

Input Output
A A′
A B C A′ B′ C′
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
B B′ 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
C C′ 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0

© Dr. Akshay Arjun

5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay113
Arjun
 Toffoli Gate (Controlled-Controlled-NOT or CCNOT)

Toffoli gate Examples

|0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩

|0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩

|0⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩

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5/4/2026
Department of Physics, RNS Institute of Technology © Dr. Akshay114
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Disclaimer

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Thank
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