MODULE 3

Water Resources and

Wetlands
Compiled by
Dr Althea Grundling and Ms Nwabisa Masekwana
(Althea@[Link] & MasekwanaN@[Link])

Agricultural Research Council – Natural Resources and Engineering

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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 129
1.1 OVERVIEW 129
1.1.1 Water Resources (Global and SA) 129
1.1.2 Catchment Management 131
1.1.3 Climate Change Predictions 131
1.1.4 Ecological Infrastructure 131
2 WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS 132
2.1 WETLAND/PEATLAND INDICATORS 132
2.2 WETLAND/PEATLAND CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTION 134
2.3 WETLAND/PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION 136
2.4 WETLAND/PEATLAND PROTECTION AND LEGISLATION 138
3 DRIVERS AND IMPACTS ON WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS 140
3.1 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES 143
3.2 INTERVENTION/ACTION/MITIGATION MEASURES 143
4 CASE STUDIES – EXAMPLES 144
5 REFERENCES & RESOURCES 148

LIST OF FIGURES 152

LIST OF TABLES 152

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1 INTRODUCTION
Without water, there can be no life. This is especially evident in the agricultural sector, which relies on
water to ensure the country’s food security. Water scarcity is a major threat to agricultural production.
This one-day course discusses our water resources, as well as the pressures we face and the actions we
can take to ensure the sustainable use and provision of water.

The learning objectives cover topics such as water balance, wetland types and ecosystem services, water
movement in the landscape, ecosystem drivers and impacts, and water sustainability. An integrated
summative (multiple-choice test) and formative (video-clip) submission will be used for evaluation.

Training structure

You will be assessed against the specific outcomes and assessment criteria of this training unit on
natural resources through an integrated summative (multiple-choice test) and formative (video-clip)
assessment that will allow you to demonstrate that you have acquired the associated knowledge,
skills and values.

Training objectives

• To understand the water balance

• To understand wetland types and the ecosystem services they provide
• To understand water movement in the landscape
• To understand ecosystem drivers and impacts
• To understand sustainable use of water

1.1 OVERVIEW The world’s average annual rainfall is 990 mm.

South Africa, on the other hand, receives only
1.1.1 Water Resources (Global and SA) 460 mm of average annual rainfall, but the
evaporation rate ranges from 1400 to 2800 mm
Water makes up 71% of the Earth’s surface. per year, which is far greater than the rainfall
The vast majority of this is salt water (97.5 %), received! South Africa has a semi-arid climate
with freshwater accounting for only 2.5%. On characterized by seasonal water deficits and
the surface, only 0.3 % of freshwater is in liquid surpluses.
form. Fresh water is becoming a scarce resource
Seasonal rainfall in South Africa is not distributed
on a global scale. Water scarcity will affect two-
evenly across the country. The Western Cape
thirds of the world’s population by 2030. In
province, for example, receives winter rainfall,
terms of the average “total actual renewable
whereas large parts of the country obtain
water resources” per person per year, South
summer rainfall. Rainfall falls throughout the
Africa is classified as a water-scarce country.
year in parts of the Southern Cape.

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South Africa’s seasonal rainfall is not distributed of various drivers that occur at various temporal
evenly across the country. The Western Cape and spatial scales (not only water balance but
province, for example, receives winter rainfall, also socioeconomic drivers, such as market
whereas large parts of the country obtain price changes which act as incentives to produce
summer rainfall. Rainfall falls throughout certain crops). SWRM has outreach programs to
the year in parts of the Southern Cape. The various sectors operating in a given catchment,
average annual rainfall in the eastern parts with the goal of developing mutually agreeable
exceeds 1100 mm compared to the western management plans and activities.
parts where rainfall averages around 350 mm
per year. Additionally, South Africa is not only The usage of water and land use activities are
a water-scarce country, but the water that is strongly linked. Because water scarcity (drought)
available is usually polluted. and abundance (floods) pose challenges,
sustainable agricultural practices must assess
As a result, Sustainable Water Resources water availability and promote efficient water
Management (SWRM), which provides use by understanding a catchment’s water
quantitative and qualitative data for water balance (as illustrated in Figure 1). Water
use by urban, agricultural, industrial, and balance in a catchment is represented in three
environmental sectors, must be prioritized phases in Figure 1, namely: incoming water
in water management systems. SWRM also (precipitation, subsurface inflow), water that
addresses the numerous consequences and goes out (evapotranspiration, stream flow,
trade-offs that result from land use change. and subsurface outflow), and water in storage
This necessitates a more nuanced examination (surface storage, subsurface storage).

Figure 1 Illustration of the water balance components in a catchment.

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1.1.2 Catchment Management rainstorm events. As a result, the agricultural

sector requires the following information:
The expansion of agricultural production will • How much water is available?
have an effect on the water balance at the • What crops can they grow?
catchment level. Land use changes typically have • How can conservation agriculture practices
a variety of effects on the hydrological response be used to maintain ecosystem functions?
of the catchment. For example, land use can • What are the risks of flooding, drought, and
alter streamflow regimes both quantitatively water quality?
and qualitatively. Streamflow changes typically
increase or decrease flow volume over time, 1.1.4 Ecological Infrastructure
resulting in either flooding or downstream
water shortages. Wetlands are an example of ecological
infrastructure and play an important role in
Water availability and efficient water use are climate change mitigation and adaptation.
essential components of sustainable agricultural Ecological infrastructure is critical for socio-
practices. Crop production will almost certainly economic development, ensuring the quantity
be negatively affected if water availability and and quality of water, and preserving biodiversity.
efficiency are not determined.
Since there is a trade-off between agricultural Natural ecosystems like wetlands provide
production and the provision of regulating valuable goods and services (i.e., ecosystem
ecosystem services (like water regulation), land services) that benefit people, such as water
use change can increase the vulnerability of and carbon storage, flood control, groundwater
people living in the catchment. If s that provide replenishment, sediment and nutrient retention
water regulation services (such as wetlands) are and export, water purification, soil formation,
impacted by encroachments associated with wetland products, biodiversity reservoirs,
agricultural expansion, the affected ecosystems cultural values, recreational and tourism
may be unable to provide this service. opportunities.
Furthermore, peatlands (a type of wetland) are
important carbon sinks. Peatlands, for example, Not all wetlands provide all of the above-
lose their ability to capture and store carbon if mentioned services all of the time because
they disappear or are degraded. different wetlands provide a variety of services
depending on their type, size, and location. For
As a result, the interaction between catchment, example:
land use change, and climate change is complex. 1) the headwater Waterval wetland in the
Changes in land use will have a negative Kgaswane Mountain Reserve provides
impact not only on agricultural catchments’ water to downstream users, and
water resources, but also on climate change 2) the Muzi swamp in the Tembe Elephant
predictions. Park not only provides water to the park’s
animals, but it also serves as a source of
1.1.3 Climate Change Predictions reeds (Phragmites australis) and sedges
that local communities harvest during
Drought is a natural occurrence in South Africa, the winter months (le Roux et al., 2021).
but future climate change predictions predict an (refer to the Wetlands and Peatlands
increase in temperatures, a decrease in rainfall section).
(in some areas), and frequent droughts and
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2 WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS

Objectives

1. Understand how Wetlands and Peatlands are identified, classified and function.
2. Learn how to best protect wetlands and peatlands, and the various legislations involved.
3. Gain a better understanding of Wetland and Peatland distribution.

2.1 WETLAND/PEATLAND • Soil Wetness Indicator (“identifies the

morphological signatures (soil forms) de-
INDICATORS veloped in the soil profile as a result of pro-
longed and frequent saturation”).
Wetland delineation is the process of
• Vegetation Indicator (“hydrophilic vegeta-
demarcating and marking the boundary of
tion associated with frequently saturated
a wetland using the indicators listed below
soils”). Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 show
(DWAF, 2005):
examples of wetland vegetation. It can be
• Terrain Unit Indicator (describes “parts in
noted in these Figures that flood retention
the landscape where wetlands are more
is made possible by the robust nature of the
likely to occur”).
plants.
• Soil Form Indicator (“hydromorphic soil
forms which are associated with prolonged
and frequent saturation”).

Figure 2 Palmiet (Prionium serratum).

Source: Grundling, 2004.

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Figure 3 Swamp forest.

Figure 4 Reeds (Phragmites australis).

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2.2 WETLAND/PEATLAND Wetlands are further classified as temporal,

seasonal, or permanently wet (saturated), with
CLASSIFICATION AND saturation defined within 50 cm of the surface
FUNCTION (DWAF, 2005): Temporal wetlands are saturated
for less than three months of the year, seasonal
Wetlands in South Africa are classified using wetlands for 3-10 ten months, and permanently
the Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification wet wetlands are saturated throughout the year
system, which is based on the hydrological (DWAF, 2005).
and geomorphological characteristics of the
wetland (Ollis et al., 2013). Figure 5 provides a Peat is classified into four diagnostic horizons,
schematic view of where inland wetlands occur with three classes of peat horizon decomposition
in the landscape, and Figure 6 captures various (fibric, hemic, and sapric) as shown in Figure
HGM wetland units. Wetland classification 7 (Soil Classification Working Group, 2018).
is important for wetland conservation,
management, and for keeping the inventory of • MFABENI: Peat /Gley horizon
ecosystem services (Ollis et al., 2013). • MUZI: Peat/Hard Carbonate
• NHLANGU: Peat/Albic horizon
• KROMME: Peat/Hard Rock

Ollis et al., 2013

Figure 5 Illustration of where inland wetlands could occur in the landscape.

Source: Ollis et al., 2013.

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KEY
Input
Output
Throughput

Figure 6 Illustration of the different HGM wetland units.

Source: Ollis et al., 2013.

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A B

Figure 7 Decomposition stages of the peat horizon: A) Fibric, B) Hemic and C) Sapric peat
from Karst system.

2.3 WETLAND/PEATLAND deficits and surpluses. Wetlands, according to

Winter (1999), are not isolated features in the
DISTRIBUTION landscape.
According to South Africa’s National Wetland
Wetland complexes are commonly linked to
Map version 5 (NWM5), 2.2% has been mapped
streams and/or groundwater flow systems.
as inland wetlands, totalling 2.6 million ha
According to Jolly et al. (2008), wetlands
(SANBI, 2018; Van Deventer et al., 2020) (see
(particularly peatlands) in semi-arid climates are
Figure 8).
typically dependent on groundwater discharge
from intermediate hillslope seepage or regional
In South Africa, peatlands are found in a
or perched aquifers because evaporation rates
variety of v ecoregions including the Bushveld,
are significantly higher than seasonal rainfall.
Highveld, Lowveld, Coastal belt or plain, and
Peatlands that occur in more arid regions of
Cape Fold and Escarpment mountain areas,
South Africa, such as the karst regions of the
all of which rely on groundwater to maintain
North West Province (Highveld Peat Ecoregion)
hydrological peat forming processes (Grundling
and the Southern Coastal Belt Peat Ecoregion
et al., 2017; Grundling et al., 2014b; Grundling,
on the West Coast, are thus extremely sensitive
2014a). Figure 10 provides a map of peatland
to groundwater flow disruption or changes in
ecoregions in South Africa. It is remarkable
the hydrological regime.
that peatlands can still be found in a semi-arid
environment characterized by seasonal water

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Figure 8 National Wetland Map version 5.

Source: SANBI, 2018; Van Deventer et al., 2020.

Figure 9 Wetland confidence map and categories.

Source: SANBI, 2018.

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Figure 10 Peat ecoregions with Palmiet systems (wetlands dominated by Prionium serratum) occur
along the Southern Coastal Belt (A). The Mfabeni Mire (oldest system) occurs in the Natal Coastal Plain
(B). The map also shows known peat sites in the National Peatland Database (C).
Source: Grundling et al., 2017.

2.4 WETLAND/PEATLAND Some peatlands fall in another four of South

Africa’s Ramsar sites, including Verlorenvlei,
PROTECTION AND Drakensberg, Ntsikeni and the Marion and
LEGISLATION Prince Edward islands. The efficacy of protection
is, however, constrained by a lack of knowledge,
Peatlands in South Africa are poorly protected, the extent of wetlands in SA, which of these
according to Grundling et al. (in review). The are peatlands, ecological status to determine
iSimangaliso Wetland Park on the east coast of management and conservation requirements,
KwaZulu-Natal Province is estimated to contain poor enforcement of relevant environmental
between 30%-50%  of the extent of peatlands. legislation and policies, lack of response to
This area is home to three Ramsar sites: Kosi disaster events such as peat fires and erosion
(estuarine, lake, and swamp forest), Lake Sibaya events.
(limnetic depression), and the Lake St Lucia
system (lakes, estuary, wetlands, mires and Peatlands are also found in four other Ramsar
swamp forests). The Mahlapanga and Mfayeni sites in South Africa: Verlorenvlei, Drakensberg,
Hot Spring Mires are located in the Kruger Ntsikeni, and the Marion and Prince Edward
National Park, and the Marakele National Park islands. The efficacy of protection is, however,
(Limpopo Province) also has peatlands. limited by a lack of knowledge about the

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extent of wetlands in South Africa. This includes Over the last three decades, wetland
identifying wetlands that can be classified as management has been implemented through
peatlands, determining their ecological status, the Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act
and establishing effective management and 43 of 1983 (CARA), the National Environmental
conservation requirements. Some of the major Management Act 28 of 2008 (NEMA),
challenges are a lack of enforcement of relevant Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) policy,
environmental legislation and policies, as well as and Water Use Licence Authorisations (WULA) in
a lack of response to disaster events such as peat accordance with regulations 21c and 21i of the
fires and erosion events. National Water Act 36 of 1998, resulting in:
• limited approval of commercial wetland
Furthermore, because most peatlands in semi- cultivation permits;
arid regions rely on sustained groundwater • EIAs and WULA regulations applied to any
and/or hillslope intermediate flows, their peatland-related impacts, resulting in a
designation should take catchments and related decrease in development and dams built in
landscapes into account as part of the strategy peatlands or upstream;
to conserve these peatlands. Not only should • no granting of peat extraction licenses; and
land use practices in and adjacent to peatlands • a decrease in afforestation and mining
be managed, but so should those in related authorisations in peatland areas.
catchments, particularly those that may have
an impact on a peatland’s water and sediment This demonstrates the importance of intervention
balance. efforts through legislation, policy, and
enforcement, as peatlands and wetlands do not
Finally, since most peatlands occur outside of occur in isolation and are components of larger
formal areas, the precautionary rule should apply landscapes (refer to the section on Sustainable
to any activities that may jeopardize the integrity Water Resources Management (SWRM)).
of peatlands, and authorisation stipulations in
terms of relevant legislation must be followed,
as well as being monitored and enforced by the
relevant authorities.

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3 DRIVERS AND IMPACTS ON WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS

Objectives

1. Understand what drives Wetlands and Peatlands.

2. Learn how Climate Change impacts on Wetlands and Peatlands.

The cumulative effect of poor protection and A driver is any natural or anthropogenic
compliance, climate change, and increasing (human-induced) factor that causes a change
demand for surface water and groundwater will in an ecosystem, either directly or indirectly.
ultimately determine the fate of our peatlands. Whereas ecosystem responses can include
Figure 11 depicts the processes, patterns, habitat reductions, species and population
and connectivity of the ecosystem. Land use changes, phenology changes, and plant-animal
activities can have an impact on any of the interactions.
ecosystem drivers or responses, potentially
affecting all of the drivers and or responses and
thus affecting the ecosystem services provided.

Figure 11 Ecosystem drivers and responses influencing the ecosystem services provided.
Source: Roets, 2020.

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Table 1 contains a list of examples of change Changing the hydrological regime has a number
drivers and impacts in relation to some South of drivers and consequences for wetlands
African wetlands. and peatlands (Grundling et al., in review) as
illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1 Drivers and impacts on wetlands and peatlands with examples.

Source: Grundling et al., in review.

Driver Impact Example

Excessive water Lowering of the water table in Rietvlei and Molopo peatlands (North
abstraction and primary aquifer to the extent West Province) and the Langvlei
diversion for domestic that no discharge of water to system (Western Cape Province).
and agricultural use the peatland is taking place.

Increased water Exotic trees not only tap into Vasi Pan peatland in the
demand from land the groundwater table but also Manzengwenya Plantations and the
uses such as forestry retard rainwater infiltration KwaMbonambi Plantations in the
(plantations) leading to lower groundwater KwaZulu-Natal Province and Lakenvlei
levels, as the land cover on in the Mpumalanga Province.
recharge areas is extensively
altered. The combined impacts
are that peatlands in and
adjacent to these plantations
are desiccated and eventually
the dried peat burns, which
has a negative effect on
biodiversity.

Increased water The addition of water to Colbyn wetland in Pretoria, Klip River
attribution to low systems, resulting from either south of Johannesburg (both in the
energy ecosystems Waste Water Treatment Gauteng Province).
Works (WWTW) or irrigation, Additional flows are often polluted
increased run-off from urban and nutrients such as phosphates
areas, overgrazed areas and can accelerate peat degradation as
afforestation, result in and is evident in the Rietvlei peatlands
increase flow of water in where erosion resulted in peat
peatlands. Particularly in the desiccation with polluted return
dry season, the peatland is flows from upstream WWTWs further
changed from low energy exacerbating the degradation of peat.
to higher energy regime
causing severe erosion and
degradation.

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Driver Impact Example

Clearing vegetation This is particularly problematic Siyaya and Swamanzi systems

cover in the swamp forest flowing into Kosi Bay (KwaZulu-Natal
peatlands across the northern Province), as well as Lakenvlei near
and eastern parts of the Dullstroom (Mpumalanga Province)
country. Degradation due to and palmiet systems such as in
hydrological flow alteration the Kromme in the Langkloof and
occurs where trees are cleared Riviersonderend downstream of the
and the peatland drained for Theewaterskloof Dam (Western Cape
cultivation of subsistence and Province).
commercial crops.

Peat extraction Impact of these extraction Peat mining occurred extensively

operations continues to in the interior of South Africa from
linger with erosion evident the 1980s to 2011, especially in the
in drainage channels (e.g. karst related peatlands in North
Kliprivier, Rietspruit and West and Gauteng provices, with
Rietvlei wetlands in the some peat mining also reported
Gauteng Province), open in the Soutpansberg Mountains in
water bodies unable to Limpopo Province and the George
support revegetation and area in the Western Cape Province.
peat accumulation (Kliprivier The last peat extracting operation
and Gerhard Minnebron), in the Gerhardminnebron peatland
all related in diminished eventually ceased in 2011 by the
functioning of these systems personal intervention of the late
in terms of water storage, Minister of Environmental Affairs, Ms
base flow maintenance, Edna Molewa.
carbon storage, filtration and
biodiversity.

Invasive small mammal Impact due to the erosion of Ice Rats (Otomys sloggetti robertsi)
damage the peatlands and subsequent in the head water peatlands of the
desiccation as a result of a Maluti Mountains (Lesotho). docu-
variety of factors such as mented (Du Preez & Brown, 2011;
infrastructure development Grundling, Linström, Fokkema, &
and overgrazing. Animals Grootjans, 2015).
burrowing tunnels causing Gerbil (Tatera leucogaster) in Mpu-
peat surface desiccation. malanga Highveld.
Mice (Mus musculus) of Marion
Island.

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3.1 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE 1) Immediate updating of the National

Peatland Database to complete the
ON WATER RESOURCES inventory and status assessment
(determining the current ecological state)
Climate change is expected to have a negative
of all South African peatlands..
impact on peatlands in the western and drier,
2) Continuous legal compliance
groundwater-dependent regions. The DEA
enforcement, extension, and control of
(2008) states:
use or exploitation (enforce EIS and WULA
• Sub-continental warming is expected to be
regulations), particularly in the forest
greatest in South Africa’s northern regions;
industry and municipal and agricultural
• Temperature increases of 1°C to 3°C are
water supply.
expected by the mid-twentieth century,
3) The development of a disaster response
with the greatest rises in South Africa’s
protocol for threatened peatlands,
most arid regions;
including measures to prevent and
• a broad reduction in rainfall of 5% to
control peat fires, as well as rehabilitation
10% is expected in the summer rainfall
measures to rewet degraded sites and
region, accompanied by an increase in the
stop erosion.
incidence of both droughts and floods, with
prolonged dry spells followed by intense
Along with environmental degradation, the
storms; and
following issues must be addressed:
• a marginal increase in early winter rainfall is
• Karst systems: calculate the water reserve
predicted for the winter rainfall region.
and then allocate and control the water
accordingly.
Grundling et al. (in review) report that wetlands
• Primary systems: identify recharge
in South Africa are heavily reliant on hydrological
zones, delineate peatlands, and remove
processes related to catchments, with
plantations as needed. Determine
catchment changes influencing hydrological
groundwater reserves as well, and allocate
and geomorphological processes as well as
and control abstraction accordingly.
water quality. Storms in degraded catchments
• Palmiet systems: Map and assess the extent
will cause adverse stormflow into peatlands,
of peatlands, as well as their status and
causing erosion and desiccation, and high clastic
allocation of restoration resources. Parallel
sediment flows may disrupt peat accumulation.
to this, enforce sound soil conservation
Furthermore, wetlands in these areas will
practices in peatlands and catchments
compete with humans for water resources
alike, with special emphasis on catchment
(particularly groundwater), increasing the
overgrazing, palmiet wetlands cultivation,
likelihood of desiccation.
and alien invasive species control.
• Peat swamp forests: map and assess
3.2 INTERVENTION/ACTION/ the extent of swamp forests, as well as
MITIGATION MEASURES their status and allocation of restoration
resources. Identify household dependency,
Grundling et al. (in review) recommend the alternative income streams, and enforce
following three key steps for South African wise use and sound soil conservation
peatlands: practices in swamp forests, such as
mulching, rewetting, and revegetation.

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4 CASE STUDIES – EXAMPLES

Grundling et al. (in review) identified 17 known Figure 12 depicts peat loss as a result of a peat
systems that could have collapsed completely. fire in Bodibe, North West Province, and Figure
This indicates that the system has degraded 13 depicts peat loss as a result of erosion in
to the point where the vegetation cover, Kromme, Western Cape Province.
hydrological regime, and substrate have all
been destroyed.

Figure 12 Bodibe (North West Province); MUZI: Peat/Hard Carbonate.

Figure 13 Peat loss due to erosion (Kromme, Western Cape Province), KROMME: Peat/Hard Rock.

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To date, extreme water abstraction has resulted can result in severe burns. However, Working on
in 17 burnt or desiccated peatlands totaling Fire (WoF) recently used a revolutionary effective
an estimated 616 ha in size (Figure 14; Table but simple technique to extinguish a peat fire
2). Desiccation cracks create an unsafe work in the Onrus wetland (Grundling et al., 2019).
environment, and an undetected subsurface The WOF Programme is a job-creation program
fire beneath a thin crust of hardened peat ash funded by the South African government that
can result in severe burns. recruits youth from marginalized communities,
trains them in fire awareness and education,
Extreme water abstraction has led to 17 burnt prevention, and suppression skills, and employs
peatlands to date or becoming desiccated, them as WOF Participants. Emergency response
totalling an estimated 616 ha in extent (Figure plans are critical for landowners with these
14; Table 2). Risks involved in peat fires include systems that have historically collapsed or are
desiccation cracks creating an unsafe work on the verge of collapsing.
environment and undetected subsurface fire
under a thin crust of hardened peat ash which

Figure 14 Locations of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported across South Africa since 1996.

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Table 2 Extent of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported across South Africa since 1996.

Maximum Total peatland

Maximum
extent extent (ha)
Peatland name Dates extent Province
desiccated affected in
burnt (ha)
(ha) province

Vaal 4 September
FS 3
Racecourse 2018 3

1991 (for ± 6
Rietvlei GT 16
months) 16

KwaMbonambi Various 40

Lake Sibaya
(four 2018 and 2019
peatlands) 2.6 9.4
KZN 121
Muzi North Various 43

1996, 2014
Vasi Pan and 30 October
2018 26

Sehlakwane
25 August 2016 LP 5
Zaalplaats 1

2000, 2010 and

Bodibe
16 May 2019 10

Lichtenburg
Game Breeding 28 May 2016 NW 69
Centre 13

8 May 2016 and

Molopo
9 January 2018 46

Leipoldtville-
Langvlei 2010
wetlands 1.4
WC 402
Before 22
Onrus
January 2019 8.6 33

Verloren April 2019 359

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Grundling et al. (in review) and Grundling & • Illegal peat extraction (no authorisations
Grundling (2019) reported that other peatland were issued in accordance with the
systems, particularly those in dolomitic areas, National Environmental Management
can only be addressed through a holistic Act and the National Water Act) in the
approach that includes political will to address Gerhardminnebron peatland was permitted
the causes, drivers, and pressures affecting by DAFF officials on the basis of an expired
these peatlands. According to the major reviews, CARA licence.
current legislation and related regulations are
poorly enforced when granting authorisations As a result, a turnaround strategy for these
or making decisions by the government. The systems must begin not only with proper legal
Karst systems are a case in point: compliance and enforcement, but also with
working with wetland users (mapping the users
• Water abstraction in the Molopo system and affected parties), establishing agreements,
is carried out by the Department of Water developing protection protocols, and so on.
and Sanitation (DWS) in the absence of Figure 15 demonstrates the loss of water and
a reserve determination for the system. carbon storage due to peat desiccation and
Furthermore, sewage and dumping in and subsurface fire.
downstream of the town of Mahikeng are
completely uncontrolled, and no attempt is
made to recycle water that is released into
two downstream dams.

Figure 15 Water and carbon storage lost due to peat desiccation and subsurface fire.

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5 REFERENCES & RESOURCES

Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA). (2008). Department of Environmental Affairs. [Link]
int/files/meetings/seminar/application/pdf/sem_sup3_south_africa.pdf.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) (2005). A practical field procedure for identification
and delineation of wetlands and riparian areas. Pretoria, South Africa.

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) (2008). Updated Manual for the Identification and
Delineation of Wetlands and Riparian Areas. Prepared by M Rountree, AL Batchelor, J MacKenzie & D
Hoare. Draft Report. DWAF: Stream Flow Reduction Activities. Pretoria, South Africa.

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Illustration of the water balance components in a catchment. 130
Figure 2 Palmiet (Prionium serratum). 132
Figure 3 Swamp forest. 133
Figure 4 Reeds (Phragmites australis). 133
Figure 5 Illustration of where inland wetlands could occur in the landscape. 134
Figure 6 Illustration of the different HGM wetland units. 135
Figure 7 Decomposition stages of the peat horizon: A) Fibric, B) Hemic
and C) Sapric peat from Karst system. 136
Figure 8 National Wetland Map version 5. 137
Figure 9 Wetland confidence map and categories. 137
Figure 10 Peat ecoregions with Palmiet systems (wetlands dominated
by Prionium serratum) occur along the Southern Coastal Belt (A).
The Mfabeni Mire (oldest system) occurs in the Natal Coastal Plain (B).
The map also shows known peat sites in the National Peatland Database (C). 138
Figure 11 Ecosystem drivers and responses influencing the ecosystem services provided. 140
Figure 12 Bodibe (North West Province); MUZI: Peat/Hard Carbonate. 144
Figure 13 Peat loss due to erosion (Kromme, Western Cape Province),
KROMME: Peat/Hard Rock. 144
Figure 14 Locations of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported
across South Africa since 1996. 145
Figure 15 Water and carbon storage lost due to peat desiccation and subsurface fire. 147

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Drivers and impacts on wetlands and peatlands with examples. 141
Table 2 Extent of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported
across South Africa since 1996. 146

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