MODULE 2

Soil and Water

Compiled by
Dr Kobus Anderson
(AndersonK@[Link])

Agricultural Research Council – Natural Resources and Engineering

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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 79
2 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL RESOURCES 81
2.1 RAINFALL (WATER) 81
2.2 SOIL 82
2.2.1 Soil texture 83
2.2.2 Soil structure 86
2.2.3 Summary 87
3 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 89
3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR CROP PRODUCTION 89
3.2 CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA 90
3.2.1 Temperature 90
3.2.2 Precipitation 91
3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE 92
3.3.1 Impacts of climate change 92
4 SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION TO CSA 95
4.1 SOIL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 95
4.1.1 No / minimum tillage 101
4.1.2 Mulching 101
4.1.3 Cover crops 103
4.2 WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 104
4.2.1 Rainwater harvesting 104
4.2.2 Use of grey water 119
4.2.3 Drip irrigation and irrigation scheduling 119
5 CONCLUSION 121
6 REFERENCES & RESOURCES 124

LIST OF FIGURES 126

LIST OF TABLES 126

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1 INTRODUCTION

Training structure

In this module, you will learn about Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and its impacts on agriculture and
food security. The training will cover the basics of climate science as well as the connections between
climate, agriculture, and food security. This training is designed so that extension practitioners get
a clear understanding of:
• What are the natural resources?
• How are the natural resources effected by climate change?
• What adaptation and mitigation strategies can be put in place to deal with the impact of climate
change?

Training objectives

After completion of the training module the extension practitioner should:

a. Be able to select and implement appropriate soil and water management practices for specific
scenarios.
b. Know how to identify unproductive water losses (runoff & evaporation from the soil surface)
and put strategies in place to minimize these water losses.
c. Be able to list and describe the of adaptation and mitigation strategies to deal with the impact
of climate change.

Land (soil) and water are two of the most changes. Climate-induced changes include
important natural resources, which are changes in air temperature and moisture,
threatened by climate variability that is while land degradation-induced changes
considered to be the main cause of both land include reductions in soil organic matter, above
degradation and water scarcity. Climate and below ground biomass and soil fertility.
variability includes changing changes in rainfall However, the occurrence of extreme weather
patterns, increased frequency and intensity conditions such as extreme drought or heavy
of drought and floods; rising temperatures, rainfall can accelerate wind and water erosion
as well as profound ecological shifts. Arid and that which in turn will con-tributes hugely
semi-arid regions are more prone to higher towards biomass, and physical and chemical
temperatures coupled with limited rainfall due degradation of the land. Wind and water are
to the interaction between land degradation the main driving forces for of soil erosion. Soil
and climate variability. Desertification is one of erosion adversely affects the productivity of
the most dire problems in these areas and is agricultural land as it selectively removes the
caused by climate and land degradation related plant nutrients and organic matter in the surface

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soil where the majority of crop roots are found. Research indicates that Climate-Smart
Furthermore, it promotes the removal of finer Agricultural (CSA) technologies and
soil particles that leads to soil compaction. Soil management practices have demonstrated
ero-sion further promotes water runoff that effectiveness in addressing the issue of water
causes a reduction in the availability of water scarcity for food production in resource poor
to the crop. However, soil erosion depends on countries (Hensley et al., 2000) This practice
factors such as the type of soil, depth of soil, is reported to have been long adopted, espe-
slope of land, soil organic matter content, cially in sub-Saharan Africa using indigenous
cultivation practices, crop growth and duration knowledge systems. CSA technologies and
and intensity of rainfall or wind. management prac-tices are considered as an
alternative option that will capture the concept
One of the most affected economic sectors by that agricultural systems can be de-veloped
the aforementioned conditions is agriculture, a and implemented to concurrently improve food
sector considered imperative to both economic security and rural livelihoods. It will achieve this
development and poverty reduction. Yet, it faces through enabling climate change adaptation
a serious challenge to meet the ever-increasing and offering mitigation benefits.
food demand and to improve productivity in
both irrigated and rainfed areas. This suggests It should be noted that agricultural production
that there will be a greater need for water to varies widely from place to place, and climate
produce food in the near future, though this will change affects each area and each farm in a
be dependent upon improvements in rainfed different way. CSA approaches are specific to
and irrigated agriculture. site and context and there is no one solution, or
even one set of solutions, that fits all situations.
Developing countries rely heavily on rain-fed Nonetheless, we can define some general
agriculture to produce grain crops for most princi-ples to follow, and we can give examples
of their farmlands. Due to the ever-increasing that readers could adapt to suit their particular
unfavourable climatic conditions that result in circumstances.
inadequate and fluctuating water availability,
the productivity and profitability of these lands There is a serious skill gap between resource-
are significantly decreased. Climate change is poor rural farmers and using CSA technologies.
attributed to decreasing rainfall events. There Furthermore, it is also recognised that these
is therefore an ever increasing need to use farmers have the need for information and
the limited water resources in food production appropriate learning methods that are not
more efficiently. being met, and this is especially the case in
South Africa.

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2 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Objectives

1. Understand the importance of water and soil as natural resources.

2. Describe soil texture and soil characteristics related to texture.
3. Explain how the choice of CSA technology will be influenced by the soil structure.

Natural resources are materials from the earth About one third of the arable land in South
that are used to support life and meet people's Africa is of low potential for crop production,
needs. Any natural substance that humans located mainly in semi-arid areas, with the main
use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, problem being water shortage due to a low and
coal, natural gas, metals, stone, and sand are erratic rainfall pattern, high evaporation rates
natural resources. Other natural resources are and often with soils having low water holding
air, sunlight, soil, and water. For this manual the capacity and poor fertility.
focus will only be on soil and water as they are
the most important natural resources for the The situation is aggravated further by the fact
existence of life. that most of the rainfall occurs in the form
of high-intensity thunderstorms, resulting in
2.1 RAINFALL (WATER) high water losses due to runoff. Storms, as
extreme weather events, are considered one
South Africa is generally semi-arid; its of the effects of climate change. Suitable CSA
precipitation is highly variable, and farmers technologies (e.g. Rainwater harvesting and
often face water shortages. The average conservation practices) are needed to adapt to
annual rainfall for South Africa is about 464 mm the effects of climate change.
(compared to a global average of 786 mm), but
large and unpredictable variations are common. Since water is the most limiting natural resource,
More than one-fifth of the country is arid and it needs to be utilised effectively for crop
receives less than 200 mm of precipitation production. Some useful tips to as improve the
annually, while almost half is semi-arid and water use efficiency are as follows:
receives between 200 and 600 mm annually. • While fertilisers promote plant growth,
Only about 6% of the country averages more it also increase water consumption.
than 1 000 mm per year. More water is lost through the process
of transpiration form a lush vigorously
The amount of precipitation gradually declines cropping crop. By applying the minimum
from east to west. Whereas the KwaZulu-Natal amount of fertiliser needed, smaller plants
coast receives more than 1 000 mm annually and with a lower transpiration rate might be
Kimberley approximately 400 mm, Alexander induces without compromising on crop
Bay on the west coast receives less than 50 mm. yield.

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• If production is done on small homestead 2.2 SOIL

garden level, then a garden fork can be
used to aerate the garden periodically. South Africa contains three major soil regions.
Holes every 30 cm will allow water to reach East of approximately longitude 25° E, soils
the roots, rather than run off the surface. have formed under wet summer and dry
• Plant drought resistant crops and cultivars. winter conditions; the more-important soil
Drought tolerant crops (like maize, types there are laterite (red, leached, iron-
cowpeas, barley, sunflower and sorghum) bearing soil), unleached subtropical soils, and
require less water than others once they gley like (i.e., bluish gray, sticky, and compact)
are established and continue to grow and podzolic soils (highly leached soils that are low
produce even when rains fail. in iron and lime). A second large region is in
• Apply a layer of mulch to minimize Es losses an area that receives year-round precipitation
and discouraging weed growth. (Western Cape and Eastern Cape) and generally
• Construct manual rainwater harvesting contains gray sand and sandy loam soils. In the
structures in the homestead gardens or rest of the country, which is generally arid, the
mechanized basins on a larger scale in characteristic soils consist of a sandy surface
croplands to collect and store water and layer, often sandy loam, under which is a layer
prevent losses through runoff. of lime or an accumulation of silica. With some
• Collect water from roof tops in tanks exceptions, the soils of South Africa are not
and drums to be used for supplemental characterized by high fertility, and those that are
irrigation during periods of drought and - for example in the coastal region of KwaZulu-
water stress. Natal - tend to be easily degraded..
• Irrigate your crops early in the morning or
late in the evening when it is not so hot and Soil plays a very important role in agricultural
evapotranspiration is low. production. It performs the following functions:
• Avoid watering when it is windy. • Providing plants with essential minerals and
• Instead of irrigating the whole garden only nutrients
irrigate around the plants where the most • Providing air for gas exchange between
roots are growing. roots and atmosphere
• Add organic matter to your soil to improve • It stores water (moisture) and provides
the soil structure and water holding adequate aeration
capacity.
• Avoid over-watering crops, as this can Improper management of soil leads to soil
actually diminish plant health and cause and land degradation. As soon as the pristine
yellowing of the leaves. land is used for agriculture, the quality of soil
• Keep the garden / cropland free of weeds as resources begins to deteriorate and the rate of
it competes with the crop for the available deterioration depends on the skill of the land
water and nutrients. manager. Therefore, it is important that land
and soil users learn to use the soil and land in a
sustainable manner.

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2.2.1 Soil texture fertility properties. It feels like flour when

dry and smooth like velvet when moist.
The inorganic material in soil is called mineral • Clay is the smallest size soil particle. Clay
matter. Minerals were formed from rocks that has the ability to hold both nutrients and
have weathered into small particles. Most soils water that can be used by plants. It creates
contain mineral particles of different sizes. These very small pore spaces, resulting in poor
particles are called sand, silt, or clay, depending aeration and poor water drainage. Clay
on their size, as shown in the examples in Figure forms hard clumps when dry and is sticky
1. when wet. It is wet and cold in winter and
baked dry in summer.
• Sand is the largest of the mineral particles. • Loams are mixtures of clay, sand and silt
Sand particles create large pore spaces that avoid the extremes of each type.
that improve aeration. Water flows quickly
through the large pore spaces. Soils with Soil texture describes the ratio of three sizes of
a high sand content are generally well soil particles and the fineness or coarseness of a
drained. Sandy soils lack the ability to hold soil. Soil texture can be determined in two ways.
nutrients and are not fertile. Sandy soils
also have a gritty feel. Sandy soils are light, The percentage of sand, silt and clay can be
dry, warm, and often acidic. tested in the laboratory. After testing, the
• Silt is the medium sized soil grain. Silt has texture class of the soil can be determined using
good water-holding capacity and good the texture triangle.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Examples of a clay (a), (b) loam and (c) sandy soil.

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Figure 2 The textural triangle is used to classify soils.

Source: [Link]

Soils with different percentages of sand, silt and of a soil to retain water. Most plants require a
clay are given different designations. A soil with constant supply of water, and this is obtained
35% clay, 30% silt and 35% sand is called clay from the soil. Plants do need water, but they
loam, as shown in the example in Figure 2. also need air in the root zone. Permeability
is the ease with which air and water can pass
The relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay may through the soil. Soil workability is the ease with
also be determined in the field by wetting a soil which the soil can be worked and the timing of
sample and rolling it into a sausage and then the working.
trying to form it into a circle. With a sandy soil
the moistened ball cracks when compressed and Sandy soils have low water-holding capacities
falls apart, while with the cla y soil a full circle and generally high infiltration rates. Clayey
without cracks can be formed, as illustrated in soils have high water-holding capacities and
Figure 3. generally low infiltration rates. In addition, well-
drained soils typically have good soil aeration
The texture of a soil is important because it meaning that the soil contains air that is similar
determines the soil properties that affect plant to atmospheric air, which is conducive to healthy
growth. Three of these properties are the water- root growth, and thus a healthy crop (see Table
holding capacity, permeability, and workability 1).
of the soil. Water holding capacity is the ability

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Sand

Moistened ball cracks when compressed; falls

apart

Loamy sand

Cracks and does not allow a sausage to be rolled

Sandy loam

Ball or sausage can be rolled

Sandy clay loam

Can be rolled out thinly but cracks when bent

Clay loam

Cracks under attempts to form an “O”

Sandy clay

“O” can be formed with some cracking

Clay

“O” can be formed without cracking

Figure 3 Determination of soil texture classes.

Source: Ritchey et al., 2015.

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Table 1 Characteristics of Sand, Silt and Clay.

Source: [Link]

Characteristics Sand Silt Clay

Looseness Good Fair Poor
Air space Good Fair to good Poor
Drainage Good Fair to good Poor
Tendency to form clods Poor Fair Good
Ease of working Good Fair to good Poor
Moisture holding ability Poor Fair to good Good
Fertility Poor Fair to good Fair to good

With climate change, rainfall is generally aggregates are cemented to make them distinct
decreasing, meaning that less water is available and strong. Clay, iron oxides, and organic
for production. Production on a sandy and clay matter often act as cements. When soil micro-
soil in the same area that receive in the same organisms break down plant residues, gums are
rainfall will be significantly different. Total crop produced that glue peds together.
failures might be experienced on the sandy
soil due to the low water holding capacity, but The eight primary types of soil structure are
acceptable yields might still be possible on the blocky, crumb, columnar, granular, massive,
clay soil. Different soil and water management platy, prismatic, and single grain. Granular is
practices will be used for differing soil types to the most desirable structure type because it
mitigate the effects of climate change. has the greatest proportion of large openings
between the individual aggregates.
2.2.2 Soil structure • Blocky: The units are block-like. They
consist of six or more flat or slightly rounded
Sand, silt, clay, and organic-matter particles in surfaces.
a soil combine with one another to form larger • Crumb: The aggregates are small, porous,
particles of various shapes and sizes. These and weakly held together.
larger particles, or clusters, are often referred • Columnar: The units are similar to prisms
to as aggregates. The arrangement of the soil and are bounded by flat or slightly rounded
particles into aggregates of various sizes and vertical faces. The tops of columns are very
shapes is soil structure. Aggregates that occur distinct and normally rounded.
naturally in the soil are called peds, whereas • Granular: The units are approximately
clumps of soil caused by tillage are called clods. spherical or polyhedral. The aggregates
are small, nonporous, and held strongly
Ways in which aggregates are created include together.
freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, fungal • Massive: There is no apparent structure.
activity, tillage, and the surrounding of the soil Soil particles cling together in large uniform
by plant roots that separate the clumps. Weak masses.

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• Platy: The units are flat and plate-like. They 2.2.3 Summary
are generally oriented horizontally. Plates
overlap, usually causing slow permeability. Most soils have different sizes of mineral
• Prismatic: The individual units are bounded particles called sand, silt, and clay. Sand is the
by flat to rounded vertical faces. Units are largest of the mineral particles. Silt is the mid-
distinctly longer vertically. The tops of size soil particle. Clay is the smallest size soil
the prisms are somewhat indistinct and particle. Soil texture describes the proportion of
normally flat. the soil particles and the fineness or coarseness
• Single grain: There is no apparent structure. of a soil.
Soil particles exist as individuals and do not
form aggregates. The texture of a soil determines soil
characteristics that affect plant growth. Three
Soil structure is important for several reasons. of these characteristics are water-holding
Soil structure affects water and air movement capacity, permeability, and soil workability.
in a soil, nutrient availability for plants, root
growth, and microorganism activity. The pore Sand, silt, clay, and organic-matter particles
spaces created by peds are larger than those in a soil combine with one another to form
between individual particles of sand, silt, or clay. larger particles of various shapes and sizes. Soil
This allows for greater air and water movement structure is the arrangement of the soil particles
and better root growth. The larger spaces make into aggregates. The eight primary types of soil
passageways for organisms. The aggregates are structure are blocky, crumb, columnar, granular,
also better able to hold water and nutrients. massive, platy, prismatic, and single grain.

Soil structure can be destroyed. A major cause Soil structure affects water and air movement
of damage is driving heavy equipment (like a in a soil, nutrient availability for plants, root
tractor and im-plements) over wet soil. Damage growth, and micro-organism activity.
is also caused by working soil when it is either
too wet or too dry. Either condition leads to the
Checking your knowledge:
clay particles clogging the pore spaces. The soil
1. How do sand, silt, and clay differ?
becomes compacted and very dense; and when
2. What is soil texture?
it dries, it becomes very hard. It is extremely
3. How is soil texture determined?
difficult for most plants to survive in a soil whose
4. Why is soil structure important?
structure has been destroyed.

With climate change, extreme weather

Expanding Your Knowledge:
conditions, like floods and prolonged droughts
Explore the soil around your homestead
are common. Timing of cultivating fields is
garden. Dig up some soil and squeeze it,
therefore important so that it does not coincide
crumble it, and feel it.
with periods of flooding and droughts when soils
• Is the texture gritty or smooth?
are highly susceptible to structural damage.
• Does the soil form a ball that easily
crumbles?

See if you can determine the texture and

the type of soil structure.
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Practical activity 1

1. A simple activity can be performed to determine the soil texture of a given sample. Extension
practitioners can be supplied samples of three soils. In their activity groups they need to work
together to determine the soil texture of the given samples by making use of the touch and
feel method.

2. In order to get a better understanding of the impact of soil texture on infiltration rate and
water holding capacity a simple group activity can be performed. Take three transparent
plastic cups and make equal amounts of holes in the bottom of each cup using a needle. Fill
each cup halve full with a sand, loam a clay soil, respectively. Each cup is then placed again
into a larger cup. In their groups, extension officers are then requested to pour an equal
volume of water (e.g. 150 ml) into each cup with the soil. They are then requested to observe
the infiltration rate and the volume of water that have drained out into the larger cup.

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3 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Objectives

1. Understand the meaning of “climate change”.

2. Understand how production is influenced by the impact of climate change.

3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE Temperature

Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat
FOR CROP PRODUCTION energy. The range of temperature for maximum
growth of most of the agricultural plants is
Nearly 50% of crop yield is attributed to the
between 15 and 40oC. The temperature of a
influence of climatic factors. The following
place is largely determined by its distance from
are the atmospheric weather variables which
the equator (latitude) and altitude. It influences
influences the crop production:
distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
• Precipitation
Germination, growth and development of crops
• Temperature
are highly influenced by temperature. It affects
• Atmospheric humidity
leaf production, expansion and flowering.
• Solar radiation
Physical and chemical processes within the
• Wind velocity
plants are governed by air temperature.
• Atmospheric gases
Diffusion rates of gases and liquids changes with
temperature. Solubility of different substances
Precipitation
in plant is dependent on temperature. The
Precipitation includes all water which falls from
minimum, maximum (above which crop growth
atmosphere such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog
ceases) and optimum temperature for specific
and dew. Rainfall is one of the most important
crops are of importance for crop production.
factors that influences the vegetation of a place.
The total precipitation amount and distribution
Atmospheric Humidity (Relative Humidity)
greatly affects the choice of a cultivated species
Water is present in the atmosphere in the
in a place. Low and uneven distribution of
form of invisible water vapour, normally known
rainfall is common in dryland farming where
as humidity. Relative humidity is the ratio
drought resistance crops like pearl millet,
between the amount of moisture present in
sorghum and minor millets are grown. In desert
the air to the saturation capacity of the air at
areas grasses and shrubs are common where
a particular temperature. If relative humidity
hot desert climate exists. Though the rainfall
is 100% it means that the entire space is filled
has major influence on yield of crops, yields are
with water and there is no soil evaporation
not always directly proportional to the amount
and plant transpiration. Relative humidity
of precipitation as excess above optimum
influences the water requirement of crops.
reduces the yields. The distribution of rainfall
Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most
is often more important than the total rainfall
of the crop plants. Very few crops can perform
to have a longer growing period, especially in
well when relative humidity is 80% and above.
drylands.
When relative humidity is high there is chance
for the outbreak of pest and disease.
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Solar radiation 3.2 CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA

From germination to harvest and even post-
harvest crops are affected by solar radiation. The climate of South Africa is determined by
Biomass production by photosynthetic South Africa's situation between 22°S and 35°S,
processes requires light. All physical process in the Southern Hemisphere's subtropical zone,
taking place in the soil, plant and environment and its location between two oceans, Atlantic
are dependent on light. Solar radiation controls and the Indian.
distribution of temperature and thereby
distribution of crops in a region. Visible radiation It has a wider variety of climates than most
is very important in photosynthetic mechanism other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, and it
of plants. Photosynthetic Active Radiation has lower average temperatures than other
(PAR - 0.4 – 0.7μ) is essential for production of countries within this range of latitude, like
carbohydrates and ultimately biomass. Australia, because much of the interior (central
plateau or Highveld, including Johannesburg) of
Wind velocity South Africa is at a higher elevation.
The basic function of wind is to carry moisture
(precipitation) and heat. The moving wind not Winter temperatures may reach the freezing
only supplies moisture and heat, also supplies point at high altitude, but are at their most mild
fresh CO2 for the photosynthesis. Wind in coastal regions, particularly KwaZulu-Natal
movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for Province and perhaps the Eastern Cape. Cold
most crops. When wind speed is enormous and warm coastal currents running north-west
then there is mechanical damage of the crops and north-east respectively account for the
(i.e. it removes leaves and twigs and damages difference in climates between west and east
crops like banana, sugarcane). Wind dispersal coasts. The weather is also influenced by the El
of pollen and seeds is natural and necessary Niño - Southern Oscillation.
for certain crops. Wind can causes soil erosion,
increases evaporation and spread certain pests South Africa experiences a high degree of
and diseases. sunshine with rainfall about half of the global
average, increasing from west to east, and
Atmospheric gases with semi-desert regions in the north-west.
CO2 is important for photosynthesis. CO2 is taken While the Western Cape has a Mediterranean
by the plants by diffusion process from leaves climate with winter rainfall, most of the country
through stomata. CO2 is returned to atmosphere experiences summer rain.
during decomposition of organic materials, all
farm wastes and by respiration. O2 is important 3.2.1 Temperature
for respiration of both plants and animals, while
it is released by plants during photosynthesis. South Africa has typical weather for the
Nitrogen is one of the important major plant Southern Hemisphere, with the coldest days in
nutrients. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed in the June - August. On the central plateau, which
soil by lightning, rainfall and nitrogen fixing includes the Free State and Gauteng provinces,
microbes that lives on legume crops and then the altitude keeps the average temperatures
made available to plants. Certain gases like SO2, below 20°C; Johannesburg, for example, lies
CO, CH4 and HF released to atmosphere are
toxic to plants.

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at 1 753 metres, as shown in Table 2. In winter South Africa, annual rainfall averages 464 mm
temperatures can drop below freezing, also due (compared to a global average of 786 mm),
to altitude. During winter it is warmest in the but large and unpredictable variations are
coastal regions, especially on the eastern Indian common. There are some semi-desert areas
Ocean coast. along South Africa's western edge which, on
average, receive the most rainfall. In general,
Warm season weather is influenced by the rainfall is greatest in the east and gradually
El Niño - Southern Oscillation. South Africa drops westward. For most of the country, rain
experiences hotter and drier weather during falls mainly in the summer months with brief
the El Niño phase, while La Niña brings cooler afternoon thunderstorms. Cape Town and the
and wetter conditions. Western Cape are exceptions as their climate is
Mediterranean and they experience more rain
3.2.2 Precipitation in the winter. During the winter months, snow
accumulates on the high mountains of the Cape
South Africa is a sunny country, averaging 8 and the Drakensberg.
- 10 daily sunshine hours in most regions. In

Table 2 Average temperatures (oC) in South Africa per locality.

Source: [Link]

City Summer (January) Winter (July)

Max Min Max Min
Johannesburg 26 15 17 4
Pretoria 29 18 18 5
Polokwane 28 17 20 4
Musina 34 21 25
Thohoyandou 31 20 24 10
Nelspruit 29 19 23 6
Bloemfontein 29 15 15 -2
Kimberley 33 18 19 3
Upington 36 20 21 4
East London 26 18 19 10
Mthatha 27 16 21 4
Cape Town 26 16 16 7
Durban 28 21 23 11
Pietermaritzburg 28 18 23 3

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3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE on the community and the environment in a

number of ways, from air quality, temperature
Climate change is any significant long-term and weather patterns to food security and
change in the expected pattern of the average disease burden. The various impacts of climate
weather of a region (or the entire earth) over change on rural communities include: Drought,
a significant period of time. Climate change is depletion of water resources and biodiversity,
about abnormal variations in climate and the soil erosion, decline in subsistence agriculture
effects of these variations on other parts of the and cessation of cultural activities. Africa is
earth. currently suffering from significant heat waves
and will continue to do so in the future as
Climate change has had a major impact on South the continent is in the midst of the current
Africa, primarily due to increased temperatures environmental crisis. South Africa contributes
and precipitation variability. Extreme weather to significant CO2 emissions and is the 14th
events are becoming more frequent due to largest CO2 emitter. Above the global average,
climate change. This is of critical importance South Africa emitted 9.5 tons of CO2 per capita
to South Africans as climate change will affect in 2015. This is largely due to its energy system,
the overall health and well-being of the country, which relies heavily on coal and oil. As part of
for example in terms of water resources. As in its international commitments, South Africa has
many other parts of the world, climate research pledged to reduce emissions between 2020 and
has shown that the real challenge in South 2025.
Africa has more to do with environmental issues
than development issues. The most serious 3.3.1 Impacts of climate change
impact will be on water supply, which has huge
implications for the agricultural sector. Rapid Farmers are challenged by the impacts of
environmental changes have significant impacts climate change illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Some effects of climate change.

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Rainfall: Climate change will result in a shift in Degraded soils: Typical monoculture cropping
the rainfall pattern. There will likely be more systems leave soil bare for much of the year,
intense periods of heavy rain and longer dry rely on inorganic fertiliser, and cultivate fields
spells. regularly. These practices leave soils low in
organic matter and prevent formation of deep,
Temperature: Temperature patterns are also complex root systems. Among the results:
affected by climate change. Rising average reduced water-holding capacity (which worsens
temperatures, more extreme heat throughout drought impacts), and increased vulnerability
the year, fewer sufficiently cool days in winter, to erosion and water pollution (which worsens
and more frequent thaws in the cold season will flood impacts).
likely impact farmers in all areas.
Simplified landscapes: Industrial agriculture
Floods: Many agricultural regions of the country treats the farm as a crop factory rather than a
are experiencing increased flooding. Rising sea managed ecosystem, with minimal biodiversity
levels are also increasing the frequency and over wide areas of land. This lack of diversity in
intensity of flooding on farms in coastal regions. farming operations exposes farmers to greater
Floods destroy crops and livestock, accelerate risk and amplifies climate impacts such as
soil erosion, pollute water, and damage roads, changes in crop viability and encroaching pests.
bridges, and other infrastructure.
Intensive inputs: The industrial farm’s heavy
Droughts: Too little water can be just as reliance on fertilisers and pesticides may
damaging as too much. Severe droughts have become even more costly to struggling farmers
taken a heavy toll on crops, livestock, and as climate impacts accelerate soil erosion and
farmers in many parts of the country. Rising increase pest problems. Heavy use of such
temperatures will likely make droughts even chemicals will also increase the pollution burden
worse, depleting water supplies and, in some faced by downstream communities as flooding
cases, spurring destructive wildfires. increases. Farmers may also increase irrigation
in response to rising temperature extremes
Changes in crop and livestock viability: Farmers and drought, further depleting precious water
choose crop varieties and animal breeds supplies.
that are well suited to local conditions. As
those conditions shift rapidly over the coming Climate change impacts affect people (farmers,
decades, many farmers will be forced to rethink residents of rural communities, and all of us
some of their choices—which can mean making who rely on the food farmers produce) in
new capital investments, finding new markets, various ways. As summer heat intensifies,
and learning new practices. farmers and farm workers will face increasingly
gruelling and potentially unsafe working
New pests, pathogens, and weed problems: conditions. Accelerating crop failures and
Just as farmers will need to find new crops, livestock losses will make farmers with access
livestock, and practices, they will have to cope to insurance or disaster relief programs more
with new threats. An insect or weed that could reliant on those taxpayer-funded supports,
not thrive in decades past may find the new while those without sufficient safety nets
conditions due to climate change suitable - and will face additional challenges. Failing farms
farmers will have to adapt. and stagnating farm profits will also increase

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suffering in many rural communities. Farming far downstream. Nationwide, reductions to

communities will be among the first to feel the agricultural productivity or sudden losses of
ways extreme weather exacerbates agriculture’s crops or livestock will likely have ripple effects,
impacts on water resources - with nearby including increased food prices and greater
water supplies polluted or depleted before the food insecurity.
damage extends to drinking water and fisheries

Practical activity 2

1. Extension practitioners need to get the long-term (20 years or more) monthly climate data
for the areas where they are working. They then need to compare it to the monthly averages
of the past 5 years to determine whether there has been a shift in the climate pattern due to
climate change.

2. Extension practitioners need to put up a manual rain gauge at their offices to keep daily
rainfall records.

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4 SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION TO

CSA

Objectives

1. Understand the concept of “climate smart agricultural”.

2. Understand how CSA technologies can be used as climate change adaptation and mitigation
strategies.
3 Identify applicable soil- and water management strategies for various production scenarios.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) refers to 4.1 SOIL MANAGEMENT

agricultural strategies that boost production and
system resilience while lowering greenhouse
STRATEGIES
gas emissions in a sustainable way. CSA aids
Soil is an essential, but frequently overlooked,
in the direct integration of climate change
component of the climate system. After the
adaptation and mitigation into agricultural
oceans, it is the second greatest carbon store, or
development planning and investment plans.
‘sink.' Climate change may result in more carbon
Sustainable agriculture, in our opinion, is based
being stored in plants and soil due to vegetation
on landscape-scale integrated management of
growth, or more carbon being released into the
water, land, and ecosystems.
atmosphere, depending on the region. Land
restoration and sustainable land use in urban
and rural regions can assist us in mitigating and
CSA is widely promoted as the future agriculture
adapting to climate change.
and as a viable answer to climate change. CSA
has the potential to boost productivity and
Climate change is an unavoidable reality, and
resilience while reducing the vulnerability of
adaptation techniques are needed to address
millions of smallholder farmers in Africa, as
the consequences of climate change on
agriculture remains critical to development.
agricultural production. Agricultural production
Smallholder farmers can profit directly from CSA
is already being impacted by climate change.
by boosting the efficiency of valuable inputs like
Drought is the most visible factor, as it reduces
labor, seeds, and fertilisers, as well as increasing
production by making many locations too dry
food security and money generation options.
for crops to flourish. Many crops grow faster
CSA contributes to the preservation of natural
as a result of increased temperatures, but this
resources for future generations by conserving
means that they do not develop as fully as they
ecosystems and landscapes.
grow. In other words, the crops mature before
they are fully matured. This translates to a
reduced overall yield. Pests, primarily insects,
are expanding into previously uninhabitable

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areas. Many pests are eliminated each year by To avoid erosion, save soil moisture, and
a single frost and so cannot survive in colder maintain and improve soil fertility, three main
climates. Pests move in and kill crops when soil and water conservation techniques are
these locations warm and no longer have frost. used:
• Terraces, bunds, contour ditches, check
There were "age-old" agronomic approaches dams, reservoirs, grassed waterways,
advocated for soil and water conservation diversion drains, and other physical
and establishing drought resistant, weather solutions to discourage erosion and
robust agricultural systems before "climate enhance water infiltration include terraces,
change adaptation" became a trendy word. bunds, contour ditches, check dams,
Conservation tillage, mulching, increasing crop reservoirs, grassed waterways, diversion
diversity in a crop rotation (especially including drains, and others.
perennial forage crops in a rotation), use of • Reforestation, hedgerows, and vegetative
drought and heat tolerant crop cultivars, changes strips are examples of biological techniques
in cropping pattern and planting calendar, soil that use trees and grass to prevent erosion.
fertility improvement techniques, and soil • Leguminous plants and crops fix nitrogen in
moisture conservation practices are some the soil, which is beneficial to soil health.
agricultural adaptation strategies that farmers • Contour planting, strip cropping,
can use. In places where the new climatic intercropping, mixed cropping, fallowing,
conditions are not favorable for some crops, mulching, grazing management, and
some suggestions could be to change to other agroforestry are agronomic measures that
crops that maintain forest cover and diversity, entail managing the crop itself.
diversify the agricultural areas implementing
more crops, or change the cropping pattern in Why is it climate smart?
warm regions shifting towards patterns used in • Preventing erosion reduces the amount of
hotter regions. carbon released into the air.
• Conserving soil fertility reduces the need
Human capital development through training, for artificial fertilisers.
outreach strategies, and extension services • Boosting the amount of organic matter in
at various levels will improve climate change the soil reduces the amount of CO2 in the
adaptation capacity, particularly in developing air.
nations. • Trees, grass, hedgerows and vegetative
strips produce forage that can be used to
To deal with the effects of climate change, many feed live-stock, as well as preventing soil
CSA technologies can be used. A climate smart erosion by wind and water.
agricultural technology, according to Sullivan et
al. (2012), is described as agricultural methods Currently, our natural resources (land, water,
that boost production and system reliance while forests, and soils) are used for production with
lowering greenhouse gas emissions. little regard for their long-term viability. Climate-
Smart Agriculture focuses on natural resource
restoration, conservation, and long-term use.

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Conservation agriculture (CA) Conservation Disturb the soil as little as possible

agriculture (CA) strives to increase agricultural Farmers plough and hoe to enhance soil
yields while lowering production costs, structure and control weeds in conventional
preserving soil fertility, and saving water. It's a farming, but in the long run, they degrade the
means to create sustainable agriculture while soil structure and contribute to deteriorating
also improving people's lives. By establishing soil fertility. Tillage in conservation agriculture
a permanent soil cover and reducing soil is limited to ripping planting lines or hoeing
disturbance, CA improves soil structure and holes for planting. Planting directly into the soil
protects the soil against erosion and nutrient without ploughing is preferable.
losses. CA is a three-principle approach to
agricultural management (see Figure 5): Keep the soil covered as much as possible
• Minimum soil disturbance: no till or Farmers in traditional farming remove or burn
minimum tillage. crop waste, or plough or hoe them into the soil.
• Keeping the soil surface covered with mulch The earth is kept bare so that rain may readily
or cover crops. wash it away or the wind can blow it away.
• Use of crop rotations.
Crop leftovers left on the field, mulch, and
specific cover crops are used in conservation
agriculture to protect the soil against erosion
and weed growth throughout the year.

Figure 5 The three principles of conservation agriculture.

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Mix and rotate crops to change, and they may have to learn new
The same crop is sometimes sown each season skills. It also necessitates a shift in mindset: for
in conventional farming. Certain pests, illnesses, example, they must learn that while a "clean"
and weeds are able to thrive and multiply as a field is preferable, the benefits are substantial.
result, resulting in decreased yields. Farmers quickly discover that by implementing
these principles, they may save time, money,
This is minimised in conservation agriculture by and improve the fertility and water-holding
planting the proper mix of crops in the same capacity of their soil. This translates to better
land and rotating crops season to season. This crop yields.
also aids in the preservation of soil fertility.
Why is conservation agriculture climate-
All three principles must be used together smart?
to reap the full benefits of conservation Conservation agriculture is climate-smart for a
agriculture. Although this ideal is not achievable number of reasons.
everywhere, farmers should strive to achieve
it as much as feasible. Because each farmer's • Reduce carbon losses caused by ploughing
position is unique, this could indicate a variety • Add to the organic matter in the soil
of things. It may be preferable for some farmers • Reduce erosion
to plant a cover crop first. Others might benefit • Avoiding plowing saves fuel, which reduces
from decreasing their tillage to “ripping” the usage of fossil fuels
(creating a short furrow without turning the
soil over) or “pitting” (digging planting holes Conservation agriculture can provide a number
with a hoe) as a first step toward conservation of advantages, including stable yields, drought
agriculture. These farmers can then leave crop mitigation, lower field preparation costs,
residues in the field and begin planting cover reduced soil erosion, and contributions to
crops as a second step. Conservation agriculture climate change mitigation and adaptation.
can be difficult to implement. It entails a distinct
approach to farming. Farmers may be hesitant

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Table 3 Comparing current farming and conservation agriculture.

Source: FAO, 2018.

Current farming Conservation agriculture

Soil structure Ploughing and disc-harrowing on a To break up a hardpan, deep ripping

regular basis depletes soil organic may be required. Deep-rooted plants
matter and destroys soil structure. As can also help to break it up. Because
a result, very fine, unstable particles the soil is only lightly disturbed, its
are produced. At ploughing depth, a structure remains intact. Because
hardpan – a hard layer through which crop residues and cover crops
water cannot pass – forms. remain on the soil, organic matter
accumulates.

Soil moisture Ploughing turns the soil over, In a well-structured soil, water can
allowing much of the moisture in soak into the soil easily through pores.
the air to evaporate. Water pools on It is stored in the soil, so is available
the surface of flat land or becomes for crops if there are active roots.
trapped above the hardpan, causing There is no hardpan, so water can
waterlogging and crop death. It also percolate deep into the ground and
destroys many of the soil's pores and recharge the water table. Mulch and
cracks, making it difficult for water cover crops shade the soil surface, so
to penetrate. Because of the slope, less water evaporates.
much of the rain runs off and is lost,
rather than being stored in the soil or
replenishing the water table.

Erosion Heavy rains pound the soil, breaking Cover crops and mulch shield the soil
up lumps of soil into fine particles surface from heavy rains and impede
and forming a crust that seals the erosive overland flow. Roots bind the
surface and prevents water from soil together, making it less prone to
penetrating. Water runs downhill erosion. Because less water runs off,
on slopes, carrying valuable topsoil there is less water loss.
with it. Rills form and grow into
gullies, which carry soil into rivers.
When the next rains come, the silt
clogs reservoirs and irrigation canals,
causing flooding.

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Soil fertility Ploughing exposes the soil to the sun Crop residues and cover crops remain
and rain while burying organic matter. on the soil and contribute to organic
It disintegrates organic matter into matter. Adding compost, manure, or
smaller fragments that can be easily mulch from other sources improves
washed away. Crop residue removal fertility even more. There are
or burning depletes soil fertility. numerous earthworms and other soil
Planting the same crop year after life forms. By fixing nitrogen, legumes
year depletes the soil of valuable improve fertility.
nutrients. A healthy soil requires
a small number of earthworms,
burrowing beetles, microbes, and
other soil life.

Weeds and pests Weeds can grow unchecked when Weeds are smothered and prevented
the earth is left bare. from growing quickly by the cover
crop or mulch. Weeds can also be
Planting the same crop year after controlled with careful application
year helps weeds, pests, and illnesses of herbicides. Companion planting
thrive. and mixed cropping can help to
discourage weeds and pests. Crop
rotation disrupts the life cycle of pests
and disease organisms. A healthy
soil aids in the control of pests and
diseases.

Costs and labour Ploughing and weeding are difficult Plowing isn't required, thus there's no
tasks that take a long time and are need to spend money on expensive
costly if hired labor is required. mouldboardm ploughs, disks, or
Fuel prices are considerable, and harrows, though farmers may need
expensive equipment is subjected to a to invest in new planters. Planting
lot of wear and tear. Herbicides might basins, which are employed in one
save time and effort, but they can sort of conservation agriculture,
also be harmful to the environment, require a lot of work in the first year
especially if the amount and timing but require less work in subsequent
are incorrect. Many herbicides and years. Planting basins assist with seed
pesticides are harmful to humans and fertiliser dosing, lowering costs.
and the environment. Fuel expenditures and the cost of
employing animal traction are lower,
and equipment wear is reduced.

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4.1.1 No / minimum tillage biological soil diversity. Weeds are controlled

with herbicides, which eliminates the need to
No-till and minimum tillage are conservation till the land.
techniques that use crop remains on the
soil surface to decrease the detrimental 4.1.2 Mulching
impact of rainfall on the soil (see Figure 6).
These approaches are classified as rainwater Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface
harvesting since they result in decreased runoff of the soil (see Figure 7). It is used to conserve
and improved infiltration of precipitation. soil moisture, regulate soil temperature,
Tillage that minimizes mechanical soil improve soil fertility and health, reduce weed
disturbance and so conserves water in the soil growth, and improve the aesthetic appeal of
profile is known as minimum tillage. Rips on the the area. It's usually organic, and it can be used
row with regulated traffic to only one major on bare soil or around existing plants. Mulches
tillage/cultivation followed by chemical weed are naturally integrated into the soil as a result
and disease management are all examples of of the action of worms and other organisms.
minimum tillage. Croplands are not tilled at all It's utilised in both commercial crop production
with no-till. and gardening, and when used correctly, it can
boost soil productivity substantially. Depending
Because the soil is not tilled and exposed to the on the purpose, it is used at different periods
evaporative components of the atmosphere, of the year. Mulches help to warm the soil at
no-till (NT) conserves water in the soil profile. the start of the growth season by allowing it to
The moisture is retained within the soil profile. retain heat that is lost during the night. Certain
In most cases, the new crop is planted straight crops can be seeded and transplanted earlier,
into the preceding year's stubble. A specifically resulting in rapid growth. Mulch regulates
built planter penetrates through the crop wastes soil temperature and moisture as the season
and into the undisturbed soil underneath to progresses, preventing weed seedlings from
plant. NT promotes soil carbon sequestration germinating.
and improves soil characteristics as well as

Figure 6 Rip on the planting row where minimum tillage is used.

Source: Botha et al., 2014.

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Figure 7 Application of mulches using various materials.

Mulch can be made from organic materials • Impermeable mulches, like a black plastic,
including grass clippings, leaves, straw, reeds, do not let air or water in
kitchen wastes, comfrey, shredded bark, entire • Mulch provides a convenient hiding place
bark nuggets, sawdust, shells, woodchips, for pests
shredded newspaper, cardboard, wool, and • Some organic mulches or crop residues can
animal manure. Stones and gravel, for example, be toxic to other crops (allelopathic)
are inorganic materials that can be employed.
Botha et al. (2003) validated the benefits of
The advantages of mulching are: effective mulching in mitigating the negative
• Increases water infiltration effects of climate change in their research.
• Reduces evaporation from the soil surface They have conducted a study where mulch was
(Es) placed on the soil surface and temperature was
• Weeds do not grow well because the recorded at a depth of 25 and 75 mm below
sunlight is blocked out the soil surface. On a Bonheim soil form, the
• Soil does not spatter on leaves during water content of the soil in the first 300 mm of
watering and rainfall events the soil profile was also measured. They used a
• Keeps roots and bulbs cool in summer and bare dirt surface as a control. Mulch treatments
warm in winter included organic reeds covering 50% and 100%
• Provides food for the micro-organisms in of the soil surface, as well as stones covering
the soil and for the plants 50% of the soil surface. Temperature changes
• Reduces greening of roots and bulbs under the 100% mulch were the fewest when
• Reduces soil erosion compared to bare soil, eliminating temperature
extremes. The insulating effect of the mulch
Unfortunately, mulches also have some would definitely help plant growth, particularly
disadvantages such as: germination.
• Over-mulching can bury and suffocate
plants During the summer, the 100 percent reed mulch
• May prevent seeds from germinating if it is provided the coolest soil, followed by increasing
placed too soon temperatures beneath the 50 percent (reed

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and stone) and bare soil, respectively. During Grass, legumes, and broadleaf non-legumes are
the winter, the beneficial effect of mulch was the three main cover crop categories, based
proved by creating a warmer soil in extremely on their properties and application options. In
cold temperatures. most cases, they serve multiple functions at
once, such as preventing erosion, improving soil
Soil water storage was greatest under 100 quality, and providing grazing, among others.
percent reed mulch, followed by 50 percent
reed and stone mulches (nearly identical), Grasses are annual cereals that include
and bare soil had the lowest values. Both the buckwheat, rye, wheat, corn, barley, oats, and
summer and winter measuring periods revealed others. They grow quickly and leave easily
the same storage trends. As a result, both stone manageable residues. Their fibrous threadlike
mulch and organic mulch are equally effective root systems are robust and resistant to erosion.
at lowering Es and increasing crop yields. If In terms of nutrients, they accumulate soil
there are sufficient crop residues available, a nitrogen from Azospirillum symbiosis but lack
100 percent residue cover is recommended the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
to increase soil water storage, decrease Es,
and beneficially modify soil temperature to
improve crop growth and yield. Because of the As nitrogen-fixing cover crops, legumes are
scarcity of crop residues and the critical need well-known for nitrogen enrichment. When
for animal feed during the winter, a 50 percent plants grow large, their robust taproot system
stone mulch will most likely be the best practice aids in the control of undesirable undersurface
to recommend in rural areas. Because of the compaction. Furthermore, the larger the plant,
biological degradation of organic mulch, stone the more nitrogen it can fix. Figure 8 shows
mulch is superior to it in terms of sustainability. examples of legumes such as crimson and white
clover, cowpeas, alfalfa, hairy vetch, and fava
4.1.3 Cover crops beans.

Cover crops are plants (grasses or legumes) that Broadleaf non-legumes absorb nitrogen from
are planted in between or alongside regular the soil, hold it in place, and produce green
crops to protect and improve the soil. Cover manure. They usually die in the harsh winter
crops are primarily used to prevent soil erosion, weather and do not necessitate any additional
improve soil health, increase water availability, termination. Non-legumes used as fall cover
smother weeds, attract pollinators, control crops, on the other hand, should be treated
pests and diseases, increase biodiversity, serve before seeding for weed control.
as mulch and a source of green manure and
organic matter, and are used for grazing or
forage. Depending on the type of cover crop,
they either add or absorb nitrogen.

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Lucerne Cowpea Clover

Figure 8 Examples of crops that can be as a cover crop.

Specific advantages of cover crops are: In crop rotation, no-till, and organic farming,
• Cover crop roots help to prevent erosion cover cropping is highly recommended. Cover
from water and wind, especially on erodible crops are usually only suggested in locations
soils on steep slopes where there is enough rainfall to sustain two
• Adds organic matter to the soil crops or where irrigation water is available.
• Improves the texture and structure of the
soil
• Improves infiltration by reducing runoff 4.2 WATER MANAGEMENT
• They absorb excess water after winter STRATEGIES
rains, improving water infiltration (as well
as soil aeration) via their roots and retaining 4.2.1 Rainwater harvesting
moisture for the following cash plants
• Nitrogen fixation (provided that the More and more marginal regions are being used
selected cover crop is a legume) for agriculture as the population grows and less
• Can be cut and applied as mulch land becomes available. However, much of this
• Cuttings can be used as fodder for animals land is in arid or semi-arid regions with low and
unpredictable rainfall, and much of the valuable
Cover crops have a number of disadvantages, water is lost as surface runoff and Es. Droughts
including: in recent years have highlighted the dangers
• There is fierce competition for limited water that humans and cattle face when rains falter or
and nutrients with the cash crop if it is not fail. While irrigation is the most obvious remedy
adequately managed (frequent trimming) to drought, it has proven to be expensive and
• Competes with the cash crop for sunlight, only benefits a select number." Rainwater
especially after emergence harvesting", a low-cost alternative, is becoming
• Management of cover crop requires a high increasingly popular.
level of knowledge and skill

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The collection of runoff for productive uses • water on the spot, where the household or
is known as rainwater harvesting. Instead crops and/or plants or animals need it;
of allowing runoff to cause erosion, it is • water under individual household control
collected and used. Water harvesting is a rather than a communally managed system;
directly productive technique of soil and water and
conservation in semi-arid drought-prone • capturing considerable amounts of water is
locations where it is already practiced. With possible in all but the driest areas
this technology, both yields and production
dependability can be greatly increased. However, there are certain disadvantages. Roof
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) can be thought water harvesting for residential water supply
of as a very basic kind of irrigation. The main is costly, with the storage facilities required
difference is that the farmer has no control over to transport customers through dry times
the time with RWH. accounting for the majority of the expense.
RWH faces clear challenges during long dry
Only when it rains can runoff be gathered. In seasons, and it may not be able to provide a
areas where crops are totally rainfed, a 50% year-round water supply.
decrease in seasonal rainfall, for example, could
result in crop failure. However, reasonable yields Water harvesting is especially useful for making
can still be obtained if the available rain can the best use of rainwater in the following
be concentrated on a smaller area. However, situations:
there may be little runoff to collect in a year • In dry climates, where rainfall is scarce
of extreme drought, but in the majority of and unevenly distributed, agricultural
years, an efficient water harvesting system will production is nearly impossible. Water
boost plant development. As a result, adopting harvesting can make farming practicable
appropriate RWH&C techniques on domestic in the absence of other water resources if
gardens, croplands, and rangelands in selected other production parameters such as soils
rural villages in South Africa could empower and crops are favorable
villagers to more productively produce their • Crops can be grown in rainfed locations, but
own crops utilizing arable land and increase yields are low and there is a high danger
livestock output using RWH&C techniques. As a of failure. Water harvesting systems can
result, using appropriate RWH&C techniques on supplement rainfall in this area, allowing
homestead gardens, croplands, and rangelands production to expand and stabilise
in selected rural villages in South Africa could • In areas where there is insufficient water
empower villagers to more productively supply for domestic and animal production.
produce their own crops on arable land and Water harvesting can meet these
increase livestock production on rangelands, requirements
reducing household food insecurity. • In desertification-affected arid land, where
the potential for production is dwindling
The capture of rainfall at or near the point of due to a lack of proper management. Water
fall is a simple solution to the problem of water harvesting can help improve the vegetative
access that has been practiced for thousands cover on these lands and help to halt
of years. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has a environmental degradation
number of clear advantages for home and
agricultural water supply:

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In many cases, even if total rainfall appears to be water losses through Es, runoff, and deep
adequate for the production of specific crops, drainage. These losses impede the efficient use
the intensity and distribution of the rainfall are of available water for crop production and must
such that the water available during the crop be reduced to maximize rainwater productivity.
growth cycle is insufficient to support a good Es and runoff are the two most significant
harvest. Rainfed agriculture in semi-arid regions losses. A concerted effort must be made to
must also contend with low potential soils. The reduce these wasteful water losses, which can
problem of insufficient soil water is exacerbated be accomplished through a variety of water
not only by low and unfavorable rainfall harvesting techniques.
distribution, but also by high unproductive

Table 4 Classification of rainwater harvesting systems.

Source: Botha et al., 2014.

Macro-catchment Micro-catchment Roof-top Micro-catchment

• Ex-field rainwater • In-field rainwater • Non-field rainwater

harvesting harvesting harvesting
• Outside the farm/field/ • Inside/within the farm/ • Artificial/man-made runoff
land boundary field/land boundary) area

Characteristics

• Overland flow harvested • Overland flow harvested • Generally smaller

from catchment areas from short catchment catchment area compared
outside the farm/field/ lengths within the farm/ to ex-field
land boundary field/land boundary • Runoff stored in reservoir
• Runoff stored in soil • Runoff stored directly in above/below ground
profile/ below-surface the soil profile surface
reservoir • No provision for overflow • Tap / outlet normally
• Provision for overflow of of excess water most of attached to reservoir to
excess water the time access water
• Can be practised in arid • Can be practised in semi- • Can be practised in arid
and semi-arid areas below arid areas with rainfall and semi-arid areas with
450 mm annual rainfall between 450 - 700 mm1 annual rainfall of less than
450 mm

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Advantages

• Makes crop production • Increases crop production • Used to obtain water for
possible in arid / semi-arid in semi-arid areas irrigation purposes as well
areas • No ex-field runoff from the as domestic purposes
• Reduces risk of crop field • Has potential to supply
failure • No erosion from the field drinking water when no
• Harvested water can be • Low maintenance water is available
used for supplementary • Only dependent on • Reduces risk of crop
irrigation rainwater from own field failure
• Recharges aquifers • Can be practised on small
or large areas
• Low implementation cost
• No high-tech structures
needed

Examples

• Jessours • Small pits • Rooftop water harvesting

• Contour stone bunds • Small runoff basins
• Stone dams • Runoff strips inter row
system
• In-field rainwater
harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting Ex-field rainwater harvesting, for example, is
runoff from roofs, roads, surrounding hills, or the collection of run-off water from hills and
a compacted soil surface in a home garden or its conveyance to a storage dam, from which
land during a rainstorm so that it can be used the water can later be used, for example, to
more effectively for food production and other water vegetable gardens in a rural settlement.
domestic uses. We can categorise rainwater As a result, run-off water is used outside of the
harvesting as ex-field, in-field, or non-field catchment area.
based on the extent of the water harvesting (as
in Table 4).

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The run-off water is used within the catchment for later use reduces the risk of dehydrated
area with in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH). populations, animals, and crops during dry
This is common in home gardens and crop seasons and drought. Furthermore, conserving
production land, where run-off water is surface water and replenishing soil moisture
collected during a rainstorm from a 2 m wide and the water table reduces the need to pump
no-till strip between alternative crop rows and water from an underlying aquifer, a practice that
stored in basins. Because no-till is used on the frequently necessitates the use of fossil fuels.
runoff area, a crust forms, which improves
runoff. If properly implemented, this innovative Extensive research has been conducted in South
technique has the potential to significantly Africa to develop a water harvesting system for
reduce overall runoff as well as Es. Mulch on the growing crops in homestead gardens, but the
run-off area can help to reduce Es losses while emphasis is now shifting to implementing water
also preventing erosion and soil movement. harvesting in croplands on a much larger scale.

Non-field rainwater harvesting would be, for [Link] Rainwater harvesting for homestead
example, collecting rainwater from a house's gardens
roof and storing it in a tank. The tank's water can
then be used for domestic purposes (drinking, Homegrown or small-scale food production
cooking, and washing) or as supplemental is a viable contributor to rural poor food and
irrigation for crop production. When used nutrition security. Water scarcity continues to
in conjunction with IRWH, a person in a rural be a major threat to poverty alleviation, hunger
settlement, for example, can produce food for alleviation, and sustainable development. RWH
his family all year. and other innovative water technologies have
the potential to improve rural water supply.
Efficient water harvesting and conservation RWH can also contribute to South Africa's food
techniques for smallholder crop production can security by increasing dryland agriculture's
aid in alleviating poverty and helping farmers water productivity and enabling homestead
to become self-sufficient. The lack of such gardening. Despite being used in South Africa
techniques is a pressing problem for agriculture for decades, RWH is still far from being used to
in semi-arid areas. Water harvesting can aid the its full potential due to unresolved issues that
smallholder crop farmers in utilizing their low prevent widespread adoption. The current
and erratic rainfall in order to grow a sufficient water-related legislation, insufficient financial
crop to sustain their livelihoods. support, and a lack of national coordination are
major obstacles to the nationwide expansion
Rainwater harvesting is a climate-smart practice of RWH. Based on the available literature,
for a variety of reasons. Much water runs off and various RWH&C practices can be implemented
is wasted, especially during heavy rain. Excess in homestead gardens. Only those with the
water can cause erosion and flooding. Slowing potential to be used in homestead gardens in
the flow so that the water percolates through South Africa's semi-arid regions are described
the soil and recharges the water table, as well in greater depth below.
as collecting in reservoirs of any type, means
less flooding downstream. Capturing water

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• Trench bed gardening systems provide a low-cost source of water for

humans and animals. Although primarily used
Trench bed gardening involves removing soil for domestic purposes, unfit for drinking water
from a bed that is typically 1 m wide, 2 m to 3 may be used for supplemental irrigation.
m long, and 1 m deep. The topsoil is separated
from the subsoil and mixed with compost Water collection from roofs for household and
or manure. The material is placed in a thick garden use is a common practice in South Africa.
layer at the bottom of the trench, and the soil Tanks and containers of all sizes are common in
is returned, topped by manure-rich topsoil rural areas, ranging from large brick reservoirs
mounded above ground level. Trench bed to makeshift drums and buckets.
gardening is typically combined with two other
RWH methods. The first is the diversion of water Advantages of collecting rainwater from roofs
from adjacent garden surfaces into the beds via are the following:
small cut-off channels. The second step is to • Roofs are physically in place, and runoff is
build small storage reservoirs (30,000 litres) to readily available
collect water from roofs and the ground, which • Roofwater is much cleaner than runoff from
will be supplemented by grey water (Denison & the ground
Wotshela, 2009). • Because there is little absorption or
infiltration on the roof surface, most of the
• Roof top systems rainwater that falls on it can be collected

Rainwater can be collected from roofs of houses Roof water harvesting consists of three major
and other buildings, as shown in Figure 9, as components: the roof, the gutter, and the
well as other impermeable surfaces such as storage tank.
courtyards or roads, and stored in a tank. These

Figure 9 Example of roof water harvesting in a rural community.

Botha et al., 2012.

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• Homestead ponds • In-field rainwater harvesting

Homestead ponds are more associated with Hensley et al. (2000) first proposed the IRWH
cultivation, conservation, and irrigation (Denison technique in South Africa as an alternative to
& Wotshela, 2009). The system of homestead conventional crop production in Figure 10.
ponds, according to Denison and Wotshela
(2009), aimed to bring and concentrate water On high drought risk clay and duplex soils, IRWH
resources around homesteads and occasionally combines the benefits of water harvesting, no-
on agricultural land. Despite the fact that their till, basin tillage, and mulching. This novel water
construction was simple, it required a lot of hard conservation technique has the potential to
work. Homestead ponds were mostly hand dug significantly reduce total runoff and surface
pits built with picks, hoes, and shovels. They evaporation (Es). This increases plant available
varied in depth and diameter, but on average water and, as a result, yields.
were about 2 m deep and 5 m in diameter.
During excessive flows, some households The specific principles of IRWH are thought to
erected stonework to support the walls and result in the following advantages:
bottom base against erosion. Water stored in • Basin tillage minimizes runoff from the land
the homestead ponds is used for supplemental • Water collected from the untilled, crusted
irrigation of homestead crops as well as drinking soil on the 2 m wide intercrop row area is
water for animals. Only a few of them remain used to concentrate runoff water in the
in use in Thaba Nchu (Free State) and Tyhume basins. This encourages water infiltration
Valley (EC), owing to their uncovered nature, beyond the surface evaporation zone,
which made them dangerous to young children reducing Es losses.
and small livestock, and the tragedy of children • Applied mulch on the runoff area minimizes
drowning, which led to homestead ponds being Es losses and prevents erosion or soil
abandoned (Denison & Wotshela, 2009). movement

Figure 10 Diagrammatic representation of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique.

Source: Botha et al., 2014.

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The IRWH technique promotes rainfall runoff the IRWH plots were significantly higher than
on a 2-m wide strip between alternate crop on the CON plots. The seed yield of maize
rows and stores the runoff water in the basins. plants on the IRWH treatment was 83% higher
Water collected in the basin can infiltrate deep than that of the CON treatment. The IRWH's
into the soil beyond the evaporation zone at biomass was also 70% greater than the CON's.
the surface. After the basins have been built, In addition, the CON treatment lost 16 mm of
the land is subjected to no-till farming. Because rainwater to runoff when compared to the total
there is no cultivation in the runoff area, a crust runoff stoppage from the IRWH treatment.
forms, which improves runoff.
Botha et al. (2003) recommended that farmers
In other words, IRWH is a risk-free, socially apply mulch in the basins of the IRWH technique
acceptable technique that combines rainwater and, if enough is available, on the runoff area
harvesting and conservation techniques as well. Organic mulch in the basins and stone
to increase crop yields while remaining mulch on the runoff area produced the highest
economically viable and preserving our limited maize yields. The latter also aided in preventing
natural resources. soil movement from the runoff area into the
basins.
The requirements for the application of IRWH
are as follows: The conclusion was that IRWH outperformed
• The slope should not exceed 8% on non- CON tillage in the following areas:
erodible soils • better soil water storage due to less water
• The effective soil depth should be at least losses through runoff and Es;
700 mm • improved water and production efficiencies;
• The annual rainfall must be between 450 – and
700 mm • higher biomass and seed yield.
• Preferably clay (more than 10%) or duplex
soils IRWH should be recommended as a “best
• Avoid sandy soils practice” technology for resource-constrained
farmers working on clay soils in semi-arid areas.
Botha et al. (2003) found that the soil water
content of the IRWH treatment was significantly IRWH structures are commonly used in
higher than that of conventional tillage homestead gardens to grow a variety of
throughout the growing and fallow periods vegetable crops. Basins are created by hand
(CON). This is a significant discovery that can be using a spade and a rake. As shown in Figure
used to mitigate the effects of climate change 11, IRWH can also be used on a larger scale
caused by less rainfall. In a warmer, drier to produce cash crops such as maize and
climate, it is critical that the limited available sunflower. The mechanized IRWH structures
rainfall be used as efficiently as possible. The in this case are built with a furrow plough and
IRWH technique increases effective rainfall by a basin plough. The furrow plough creates a
concentrating runoff where crops are grown. 20-centimeter-high contour ridge with a slope
Botha et al. (2003) discovered that the higher that strives to be zero. Every 1.5 m along the
soil water content of the IRWH plots contributed ploughed contour, the basin plough creates a
to more vigorous maize plant growth compared 10 cm deep and 1 m wide basin.
to the CON plots. As a result, plant heights on

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Figure 11 Construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins on a semi-commercial scale.

Source: Botha et al., 2014.

[Link] Rainwater harvesting for croplands Smallholder farmers will be able to alleviate
poverty in their communities and become
A large proportion of the population lives in rural self-sufficient by employing efficient RWH&C
areas, where their livelihood is dependent on techniques in communal croplands. The lack of
agriculture, either directly or indirectly. Land and such techniques, however, is a pressing issue for
water issues; old cultivation techniques; a lack agriculture in semi-arid areas. Various cropland
of marketing information; poverty; degradation application techniques are available in the
of natural resources and environmental issues; literature, but only those deemed appropriate
population growth; insufficient support services; for use in rural communities in South Africa's
framework and institutional constraints; and semi-arid areas are discussed in greater detail
a lack of agricultural and rural development below.
policies are among the prominent challenges in
these areas. • Contour ridging

Most croplands in South African rural villages Contour bunds are a streamlined version
have been idle for more than 20 years. Poor of micro-catchments. Construction can be
yields, a lack of implements, and a lack of mechanized, making the technique suitable
fencing have resulted in the abandonment of for larger-scale implementation. The bunds,
most croplands in the former homeland states. as the name implies, follow the contour at
A small number of rural villagers continue to close intervals, and the system is divided into
use traditional methods to produce maize, individual micro-catchments via the use of
their main source of food. However, high water small earth ties. Contour bunds allow for crop
losses due to R and Es occur under these or fodder cultivation between the bunds. The
conditions, resulting in less water available for runoff is high, as with other forms of micro-
crop production. As a result of climate change, catchment water harvesting techniques, and
the situation is exacerbated by low and erratic when designed correctly, there is no loss of
rainfall and higher temperatures. runoff out of the system. Bunds or ridges are

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built along the contour line, on slopes ranging riding is the practice of making shorter ridges
from 1 to 50%, and are typically placed at 5 to 20 at shorter intervals rather than just at the end
m intervals. The first 1-2 meters above the crest of each ridge. This produces a box effect, with
are used for agriculture, while the rest is used the boxes acting as basins to keep the water
as a catchment area. The ridge's height ranges in. Tied-ridging is regarded as a very reliable
between 0.3 and 1 m, depending on the slope method of increasing crop yield and conserving
grade and projected runoff storage capacity. water, despite the fact that it has a high labor
On sandy soils that are prone to erosion, ridges constraint. Farmers have a negative outlook on
can be strengthened with stones. Farmers can this practice because of the decrease in the use
use animal- or tractor-drawn implements to of animal draught power and labor constraints
accomplish the strategy. It's critical to build among small-scale farmers, which poses a
ridges along the contour precisely to avoid significant barrier to its adoption and use by
water flowing down it and pooling at the lowest farmers.
point. Alternatively, cross-bunds or tied ridges
can be added at appropriate intervals along the • Tied furrows
ridge. The contour ridge technique is the most
important technique for supporting forages, Tied furrows, like tied-ridging, allow for the
grasses, and hardy trees on gentle to steep concentration and conservation of water,
slopes in low rainfall areas, while it is used for resulting in high crop yields. This system is more
arable crops such as sorghum and cowpeas in effective on soils with a high clay content, but
the semi-arid tropics. such positive results do not occur on sandy
soils, which have low fertility and water holding
The ability to locate the ridge as precisely as capacity. When planting sorghum and maize on
possible along the contour line is required the tied furrow system, row spacing of 1.0 m,
for successful application of this technique. If additional fertiliser, and top-dressing are the
this is not accomplished, water will flow along best compromise for these sandy soils.
the ridge and accumulate at the lowest point,
threatening to destroy the entire down slope • Contour strip cropping
system. Stone bunds can be built on gentle
slopes if large stones are found in the area. Contour strip cropping is the practice of
Stone bunds are permeable, slowing sheet flow alternating crop strips with grass or cover
and encouraging infiltration. Excavated soil can crops. The planted strips are used for farming.
be added to the upstream side of the bund to The uncultivated strips allow runoff to enter
form an impermeable contour ridge. Surveying the cultivated crop strips, increasing soil water
instruments, an A-frame, or hand tools can content in the area surrounding the cultivated
be used to delineate the contour, but these crops. The system has a dual benefit in that the
methods are too expensive, sophisticated, and cover crops can be used to produce fodder. The
time-consuming for the average small-scale system is used on gentle slopes up to 2%. The
farmer. width of the strip can be adjusted to suit the
slope's gradient. With a catchment area to crop
• Tied-ridging basin area ratio of less than 2:1, the system is
successful. The system is suitable for most crops
Tied-ridging occurs when the ridges along the and is simple to automate.
contour are joined by a shorter ridge. Box-

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• Runoff strips • Contour-bench terracing

The cropping area is divided into strips along a The contour-bench terrace technique is excellent
contour in the runoff strip technique. As a result, for soil conservation and water harvesting, and
the technique is best suited for gentle slopes. The it can be built on very steep slopes. Cropping
catchment is formed by the upslope strip, while terraces are typically built level and supported
the crop is supported by the downslope strip. by stone walls to slow water flow and erosion.
The width of the downslope strip should ideally Steeper, uncropped areas between the terraces
be between 1 and 3 m. The amount of water provide more runoff water. Drains are used to
required will determine the size of the upslope safely remove excess water. This technique is
strip. Runoff strips can be fully mechanized, so mostly used for trees and bushes, and it is only
labor input is minimal, though weeding and rarely used for field crops. The cost of building
compaction may be required to improve runoff. and maintaining such a system is prohibitively
Strip management and continuous cultivation expensive for farmers in low-rainfall areas.
can increase soil fertility and improve soil
structure. If the slope is gentle and the cropped Stone terracing
strip is too wide, the water distribution may be
uneven. Uneven moisture distribution can also Stone terracing, according to Denison and
occur if a ridge forms along the cropped strip's Wotshela (2009), is a simple rainwater
upstream edge during cultivation. To avoid this, harvesting and management technique that
the cropping strip should not be wider than 2 is labor intensive and used by only a few
m. Hensley et al. (2000) modified the runoff communities in the Eastern Cape and Limpopo
strip system in South Africa to include basins for Provinces. It entails stacking stones at the
runoff water storage in their IRWH technique. bottom of low-lying croplands. Stonewalls are
stacked high at the base of slopes or downhill
• Inter-row system areas. These stone enclosures trap sediment
that accumulates over time and contributes to
The inter-row system consists of bunds with the formation of new layers of soil. The method
heights ranging from 0.40-1 m that are built at is used to plant a variety of crops and trees.
2-10 m intervals depending on the crop's water
requirement. These triangular cross-sectional • Bund systems
bunds are built along the land's main slope and
are possibly the best technique for flat lands. The bunds system is made up of semi-circular
To encourage more runoff, the bunds can be earthen bunds that face upslope. Bunds are
compacted, treated with a water repellent, typically arranged in staggered rows. They can
or covered with plastic sheets. Between the also be shaped like a trapezoid or a crescent.
ridges, runoff is collected and either directed to They are built at such a distance apart that there
a reservoir at the end of a feed canal or to a is enough catchment to provide the necessary
crop grown between the ridges. To maintain a runoff water, which accumulates in front of the
high runoff output, the catchment area must be bund. This area can then be used to grow plants.
well-maintained. The distance between the two ends of each
bund ranges from 1 to 8 m, and the bunds are

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0.30 to 0.50 m high. When building the bund, is a high demand for labor, particularly in the
a slight depression is formed where runoff is first few years. The pits must be restored after
intercepted and stored in the root zone. The tillage. When the terrain is flat, pits are used for
technique can be used on a flat surface up to in-situ moisture conservation rather than water
a 15% slope. Bunds can be used to rehabilitate harvesting.
rangeland, produce fodder, shrubs, and, in
some cases, field crops and vegetables such as • Small runoff basins
sorghum and watermelons.
The small runoff basin technique consist of small
• Pot-holing diamond- or rectangular-shaped structures
surrounded by low earthen bunds. The diamond
Close to the planting stations or in between the or rectangle's long diagonal lies parallel to the
planting stations, holes known as potholes are slope, allowing R to flow to the lowest corner,
dug. Rainwater is collected in these holes, which where planting takes place. The negarim, with a
then raises the soil water content near the width of 0.05-0.10 m and a length of 0.10-0.25
planting station. The problem is that potholes fill m, is suitable for even ground, though it may
up during the season, necessitating the digging be used on practically any slope less than 5%.
of new ones at the start of each season. Due Slopes more than 5% may induce soil erosion,
to the decrease in the usage of animal draught hence the bund height should be raised. Small
power and the acute labor constraints faced runoff basins are ideal for growing tree crops, but
by small-scale farmers, this technique, like tie- the soil must be deep enough to hold adequate
ridging, has a high labor constraint, and farmers water throughout the dry season. Negarims
have a negative attitude on these techniques. have a favorable impact on soil conservation
This is a significant barrier for farmers to and require little maintenance.
embrace and apply these strategies.
• Swales
• Deep pits and pits
Swales are long, level excavations that range
Pits is a trenching system used on soils with very in width and treatment from modest ridges
low infiltration rates. The size and crop are what in gardens to rock piles across the slope to
distinguishes deep pits from pits. To ensure a intentionally excavated hollows in flatlands and
high infiltration rate, trenches are dug across low-slope landscapes. The crest of the swale
the slope and then filled to the original level is frequently vegetated, with trees or reeds
with local fractured rock, river sand, or organic planted on the crest. The swale's effect is to trap
material. These trenches collect rainwater, water that falls on the area above the swale and
intercept runoff, and store it in the surrounding slow it down, allowing for maximum infiltration.
area. The combination of pits and bunds is ideal In the event of heavy rain, which causes runoff
for agricultural land rehabilitation. Pits typically flow to overtop the swale, the vegetation on the
have a diameter of 0.3-2 m. Because the plant crest holds the swale's soil. In the furrow above
residues are thrown into the pits, the system the swale wall, the swale also generates a moist
maintains soil fertility. Deep pitting is used microclimate. Because plant-available moisture
for deep-rooted perennial crops such as trees, is substantially higher in this area, it is often
whereas pitting is primarily used for annual quite productive. Swales are not the same as
crops such as millet, maize, and sorghum. There the contour bunds that are widely used in soil

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conservation projects. Swales enhance water proved to be sustainable and outperformed

infiltration while soil conservation tries to drain CON. It not only increases agricultural output
water from the area without causing damage to but also prevents erosion by better utilizing
the soil. rainfall and boosting rainwater productivity.

• In-field rainwater harvesting The mechanical IRWH constructions are built

with a furrow and basin plough. The furrow
Manual IRWH was developed by the ARC-SCW plough provides a 20-centimeter-high contour
team at Glen, near Bloemfontein in the central ridge with a slope of zero. As seen in Figure 12,
Free State, as detailed by Hensley et al. (2000). the basin plough creates a 10 cm deep and 1
Because of the absolute stopping of ex-field m wide basin every 1.5 m along the ploughed
runoff and the minimisation of Es, the approach contour.
Furrow plough
Basin plough

Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins in

croplands.
Source: Botha et al., 2014.

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• Mechanised basins

Figure 13 depicts a mechanized basin that Small basins in a row collect rainfall, which
was originally designed to create basins to can then sink deeper into the soil, below
rehabilitate deteriorated veld. Ripping, ridging, the evaporation layer, to conserve it. The
and tying has proven to be a viable alternative mechanized basin method does not allow for
to ploughing and harrowing for seedbed the collection of additional runoff water.
preparation, as well as a considerably more
efficient water saving approach.
“Hap ploeg”

Figure 13 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of mechanized basins.

Source: Botha et al., 2014.

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The mechanized basin plough has a basin • Daling plough

attachment (small sharp scraper blade), which
pivots on the rear of a three-point hitched The Daling plough generates a 1.8 meter-wide
ripper. The ripper tine operates directly in runoff area with a relatively wide and shallow
front of the attachment to break up compacted basin. A chisel plough in front is followed by
soil. The scraper at the rear of the attachment a large V-shaped scraper blade with an off-
creates the basins. The diamond shaped wheel center wheel on the Daling plough. The chisel
controls the movement of the scraper blade, plough is directly connected to the tractor's
resulting in a row of basins being created. The three-point linkage. The chisel plough is trailed
distance between the basin rows is versatile by a large V-shaped scraper blade. The chisel
and depends on the planter, application plough loosens the soil before constructing
and maintenance actions. A 1 m spacing is long V-shaped or chevron-shaped basins. The
recommended. With a tractor wheel of 480 off-center rotating wheel lifts the scraper over
mm it implies that during implementation the the soil in front of it, leaving a ridge as shown
tractor returns on its tracks when implementing in Figure 14.
a new row, but the return trip must start about
50 mm away from the initial wheel tracks.
Combined chisel and
scraper plough

Figure 14 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of water harvesting structures using a

Daling plough.
Source: Botha et al., 2014.

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The Daling plough works on the same principles any type of feces-free household water. This
as the IRWH technique, but no sunken basins includes, among other things, water from the
are created. The Daling plough scrapes the top kitchen, kitchen sinks, bathrooms, and washing
layer of soil without disturbing the natural slope machines. This water can be used to water the
and with large ridges on both sides of the large homestead gardens' plants. Water containing
scraper blade. Basins with V shapes are formed. urine and feces is referred to as black water.
The chisel plough creates a fine seedbed, while Black water must be thoroughly treated before
the scraper blade directs runoff toward the it can be used to irrigate crops.
basin's lower end.
4.2.3 Drip irrigation and irrigation scheduling
4.2.2 Use of grey water
Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation,
The amount of water received following the involves dripping water onto the soil at very
rainfall event can be classified into three types: low rates (2-20 litres/hour) through a network
green, white, and blue water. Green water is of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with
water that infiltrates the soil and is taken up by emitters or drippers. Drip irrigation (as shown
plant roots for physiological processes, whereas in Figure 16) is a type of micro-irrigation
white water is water that is intercepted and system that has the potential to save water
directly evaporated from the plant canopy, as and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly
well as evaporation from the ground surface. to plant roots, either above or below the soil
Blue water, on the other hand, refers to water surface. The goal is to direct water into the
derived from runoff into river basins. This root zone while minimizing evaporation. This
water is also susceptible to deep percolation climate smart agricultural technology entails
into aquifers, where it eventually finds its way making efficient use of irrigation water in order
to rivers. Green water is the most important to save more water for other environmental
component of rainfall in a dryland agricultural purposes. It ensures that crops are irrigated at
system. In addition to the three previously the appropriate time and with the appropriate
mentioned categories of water for dryland amount of water based on crop requirements.
agriculture, there is grey water (as illustrated In this regard, it increases yields and, as a result,
in Figure 15). This category of water includes household food security.

Clean water Grey water Black water

Springs, wells, purified water, Used water without toxic Contaminated water with toxic
city water, rain water chemicals and / or excrement chemicals and / or excrement

Figure 15 Classification of water according to source of origin.

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It is appropriate for arid and semi-arid regions wastes almost no water due to runoff, deep
with limited access to water but irrigation percolation, or evaporation.
facilities. Farmers can manage the amount of
water used by the crop while also saving water Drip irrigation reduces the amount of water
for future climatic disasters in this manner. that comes into contact with crop leaves, stems,
and fruit.
Drip irrigation can aid in the efficient use of
water. A well-designed drip irrigation system

Figure 16 Use of drip irrigation to improve water use efficiency.

Source: [Link]

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5 CONCLUSION

Climate change is already a measurable reality technologies that various CSA technologies can
that poses significant social, economic, and be successfully used to improve crop yields
environmental risks and challenges around the and rainwater productivity in homestead
world. As a result, South Africa must strike a gardens and croplands when compared to
balance between accelerating economic growth conventional tillage / farmer practices. This is
and transformation and conserving natural especially important in semi-arid environments,
resources and responding to climate change. where every drop of rainwater must be used to
produce food as efficiently as possible.
In South Africa, water is the primary medium
through which the effects of climate change A variety of CSA technologies can be used in
are felt. Changes in rainfall patterns, with homestead gardens and cropland. Certain
more intense storms, floods, and droughts; technologies, such as IRWH, are very effective
changes in soil moisture and runoff; and the at reducing unproductive water losses from the
effects of increasing evaporation and changing soil surface, such as runoff and evaporation.
temperatures on aquatic systems are all having Unproductive water losses can be reduced
an impact on water quality and availability. even further when these water management
strategies are used in conjunction with sound
Climate change awareness is important because soil management practices such as mulching.
it helps people understand and address the The CSA technologies offer the farmer a variety
impact of global warming. It increases “climate of options from which to choose based on his
literacy” among extension practitioners and specific needs and farming enterprise. With
small-holder farmers, encourages changes in CSA technologies, communities are no longer
their attitudes and behavior, and assists them limited to homestead garden production,
in adapting to climate change-related trends. but can also expand to semi-commercial or
By focusing on local or regional impacts, commercial croplands. A variety of implements
climate change awareness can be increased. for the construction of rainwater harvesting
Changes that extension practitioners and small- structures are available for this purpose.
holder farmers have already noticed, such as a According to available literature, the Daling
decrease in rainfall and increased temperatures, plough performed better on soils with clay
were highlighted. Because the effects of climate contents of less than 29%; mechanized basins
change vary, extension practitioners and small- performed better on soils with clay contents
holder farmers must be on the lookout for between 29% and 36%; and IRWH works best
climate change impacts in their specific region. on soils with clay contents greater than 36%.
A variety of CSA technologies were showcased. It is thus critical to understand the texture of
This provides farmers with a variety of options the soil in order to apply the most appropriate
from which to select technology that will meet climate smart technology.
their specific needs. It was discovered from these

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Practical activity 3

A simple group activity can be performed to help extension practitioners understand the role that
mulches can play in reducing evaporation losses from the soil surface. Fill four containers with
soil of equal weight (for example, 2 kg) (e.g. 2 litre empty ice cream container). The soil in all four
containers is the same. In one of the containers, the soil surface is left bare, while mulch is placed
on the soil surface in the other containers. In one treatment, stones covering 50% of the soil
surface can be used, while grass mulch covering 50% and 100% of the soil surface can be used in
the other two treatments.

Extension practitioners are then requested to evenly distribute the same volume of water (e.g. 250
ml) over the soil in each container. Each container is then weighed and the weight recorded. All
four containers are then place outside in a sunny spot for two days. After the two days the each
container with its soil and much is weighed again. Extension officers then need to calculate the
percentage water loss for each treatment.

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Provide an example of a typical farming enterprise scenario in the area where the extension
practitioners work. Examples of such a scenario include:

In the Eastern Cape, a small-holder farmer is staying in a rural village near the town of Alice. The
area receives approximately 450 mm of rainfall per year, with approximately 320 mm falling
between October and April. The majority of the rainfall falls in the form of heavy thundershowers,
resulting in a large amount of runoff. Summers are extremely hot, with temperatures exceeding
33oC not uncommon in December and January. The famer is staying in a four-bedroom house with a
corrugated zinc roof, gutters, and a JoJo tank. Because the village's taps frequently run dry for long
periods of time, the water collected in the tank is primarily used for domestic purposes. Despite
not having access to a tractor or implements, the farmer manages to cultivate an area of about 3
hectares for maize production using animal traction. He also grows vegetables in his homestead
gardens, primarily for household consumption. The texture of the soil at his homestead garden is
unknown, and some patches of soil in his garden are only 500 mm deep. He has a few cattle that
roam freely in the communal rangelands during the day and are kraaled at night at his homestead.
His cropland is on the outskirts of the village where he is staying, at the foot of the mountains.
The cropland slopes at about 4%, and the effective soil depth is 800 mm, with a clay content of
about 35%. Cattle are normally allowed to enter croplands after harvesting to use maize stalks as
fodder. The farmer has noticed a change in the rainfall pattern; normally, the area receives good
spring rains in October, but in recent years, good rains have only begun around mid-November. The
farmer has a handheld rain gauge and has recorded that the total rainfall is also slightly less than
it was a few years ago.

What recommendations do you have for the farmer in terms of CSA technologies and
management practices to ensure continued sustainable production?

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6 REFERENCES & RESOURCES

Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Joseph LF, Snetler RM, Monde N, Lategan F, Nhlabatsi NN, Lesoli MS & Dube S
(2012). Sustainable techniques and practices for water harvesting and conservation and their effective
application in resource-poor agricultural production. Volume 2 of 2: Farmer and Extension manual.
WRC Report No: TT 542/12. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria.

Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Van Rensburg LD & Beukes DJ (2003). Assessment and modelling of water harvesting
techniques to optimise water use in a semi-arid crop production area in South Africa. Optimizing Soil
Water Consortium under the System wide SWNM Program of CGIAR.

Botha JJ, Van Rensburg LD, Anderson JJ, Hensley M, Macheli MS, Van Staden PP, Kundhlande G,
Groenewald DC & Baiphethi MN (2003). Water conservation techniques on small plots in semi-arid
areas to enhance rainfall use efficiency, food security, and sustainable crop production. WRC Report
No. 1176/1/03. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

Botha JJ, Van Staden PP, Anderson JJ, Van Der Westhuizen HC, Theron JF, Taljaard DJ, Venter IS & Koatla
TAB (2014). Guidelines on Best Management practices for rainwater harvesting and conservation for
cropland and rangeland productivity in communal semi-arid areas of South Africa. Volume 2 of 2. WRC
Project No. K5/1775/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria.

Denison J & Wotshela L (2009). Indigenous water harvesting and conservation practices: Historical
context, cases and implementations. WRC Report No. TT 392/09. Water Re-search Commission,
Pretoria, South Africa.

Hensley M, Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Van Staden PP & Du Toit A (2000). Optimizing rainfall use efficiency for
developing farmers with limited access to irrigation water. WRC Report No. 878/1/00. Water Research
Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.

Sullivan A, Mwamakamba S, Mumba A, Hachigonta S & Majele Sibanda L (2012). Climate-Smart

Agriculture: More Than Technologies Are Needed to Move Smallholder Farmers Toward
Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods. FANRPAN Policy Brief 2, XIII. Pretoria, South
Africa: FANRPAN. [Link]

Ritchey EL, McGrath JM & Gehring D (2015). "Determining Soil Texture by Feel"
Agriculture and Natural Resources Publications. 139. [Link]

FAO. 2018. Climate-smart agriculture training manual − A reference manual for agricultural extension
agents. Rome. 106 pp. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO

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Botha JJ, Van Staden PP, Anderson JJ, Van Der Westhuizen HC, Theron JF, Taljaard DJ, Venter IS & Koatla
TAB (2014). Guidelines on Best Management practices for rainwater harvesting and conservation for
cropland and rangeland productivity in communal semi-arid areas of South Africa. Volume 2 of 2. WRC
Project No. K5/1775/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria.

Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Joseph LF, Snetler RM, Monde N, Lategan F, Nhlabatsi NN, Lesoli MS & Dube S
(2012). Sustainable techniques and practices for water harvesting and conservation and their effective
application in resource- poor agricultural production. Volume 2 of 2: Farmer and Extension manual.
WRC Report No: TT 542/12. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria

Other useful locally developed manuals that can be used for training on CSA technologies for use
in homestead gardens, croplands and rangelands are as follows:

Chitja J & Botha JJ (2020). Guidelines on best management practices and scaling-up approaches
for entering food value chains for homestead-, community- and school gardens. WRC Project No.
K5/2555/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria.

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Examples of a clay (a), (b) loam and (c) sandy soil. 83
Figure 2 The textural triangle is used to classify soils. 84
Figure 3 Determination of soil texture classes. 85
Figure 4 Some effects of climate change. 92
Figure 5 The three principles of conservation agriculture. 97
Figure 6 Rip on the planting row where minimum tillage is used. 101
Figure 7 Application of mulches using various materials. 102
Figure 8 Examples of crops that can be as a cover crop. 104
Figure 9 Example of roof water harvesting in a rural community. 109
Figure 10 Diagrammatic representation of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique. 110
Figure 11 Construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins on a semi-commercial scale. 112
Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of
in-field rainwater harvesting basins in croplands. 116
Figure 13 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of mechanized basins. 117
Figure 14 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of
water harvesting structures using a Daling plough. 118
Figure 15 Classification of water according to source of origin. 119
Figure 16 Use of drip irrigation to improve water use efficiency. 120

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Characteristics of Sand, Silt and Clay. 86
Table 2 Average temperatures (oC) in South Africa per locality. 91
Table 3 Comparing current farming and conservation agriculture. 99
Table 4 Classification of rainwater harvesting systems. 106

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