College of Technology and Built Environment (CTBE)

School of Chemical and Bio Engineering (SCBE)

ChEg 5272: Sustainable Energy

Technology
Instructor: Brook Tesfamichael (PhD)
Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering
SCBE, CTBE, AAU
Email: [Link]@[Link]

2025/26 A.Y.
 Chapter 5:
Geothermal Energy
▪ Geo (Greek for earth) and Thermal (heat)
▪ Geothermal energy is the energy derived from the heat stored
within the Earth.
▪ The most common method that scientists use to find geothermal
reservoirs is drilling a deep well and testing the temperature deep
underground.
▪ It is a renewable and reliable energy source available throughout
the year.
▪ Geothermal energy can be used for electricity generation and
direct heating applications.
The Earth is composed of
▪ Crust
▪ Mantle
▪ Outer Core
▪ Inner Core
The temperature is increased
toward the center.
▪ Geothermal energy originates from radioactive decay of elements
and residual heat from Earth’s formation.
▪ 70% comes from the decay of radioactive nuclei with long half
lives that are embedded within the Earth
▪ Some energy is from residual heat left over from Earths formation.
▪ The rest of the energy comes from meteorite impacts.
▪ Geothermal energy originates from radioactive decay of elements
within the Earth’s crust and mantle.
▪ Naturally occurring radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium,
and potassium-40 continuously decay and release heat energy.
▪ This process has been occurring for billions of years, providing a
constant and long-term heat source inside the Earth.
▪ The heat generated by radioactive decay slowly moves toward the
Earth’s surface through conduction and convection.
▪ Another major source is the residual heat from Earth’s formation.
▪ When the Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, intense
gravitational compression, collisions, and friction produced
enormous heat.
▪ A significant portion of this primordial heat is still stored deep
within the mantle and core.
▪ This stored heat gradually flows outward and contributes to
geothermal energy resources.
▪ The increase in temperature with
depth is called the geothermal
gradient.
▪ The typical geothermal gradient
is about 25–30°C per kilometer.
▪ Therefore, heat from the mantle
and core is continuously
transferred toward the Earth’s
surface through conduction and
convection.
▪ Groundwater seeps into the Earth through cracks and fractures in rocks.
▪ This water is heated by hot rocks or magma beneath the surface.
▪ The heated water forms geothermal reservoirs containing hot water or steam.
▪ High-temperature geothermal resources are often found in volcanic and
tectonically active regions.
▪ Wells are drilled to bring hot water or steam to the surface.
▪ The thermal energy is then used for electricity generation or direct heating
applications.
▪ Geothermal energy is generated by drilling deep wells into the Earth
to reach geothermal reservoirs.
▪ These reservoirs contain steam or very hot water heated by deep
underground heat sources.
▪ The hot fluid is brought to the surface through production wells and
pipelines.
▪ High-pressure steam or hot water is directed to a turbine.
▪ The steam expands and produces kinetic energy, causing the turbine
blades to rotate.
▪ The rotating turbine drives a generator, which converts mechanical
energy into electricity.
▪ After passing through the turbine, the cooled water is often reinjected
back into the Earth.
▪ Reinjection helps maintain reservoir pressure and long-term
sustainability.
▪ Energy Conversion Chain
Geothermal heat → Steam/Hot water Internal Energy →
Expansion → Kinetic Energy → Turbine rotation (Mechanical
Energy) → Generator → Electricity
▪ Geothermal Reservoir – Underground hot rocks heat groundwater,
forming hot water/steam.
▪ Production Well – A deep well brings hot fluid to the surface.
▪ Steam/Separator – Steam is separated from hot water (if needed).
▪ Turbine – High-pressure steam drives the turbine blades.
▪ Generator – The turbine rotates a generator to produce electricity.
▪ Electricity Output – Generated power is sent to the grid.
▪ Condenser/Cooling – Steam cools and condenses back into water.
▪ Injection Well – Cooled water is reinjected into the reservoir.
Geothermal Sources are Classified Based on:
1) Temperature,
2) Physical State of H2O (i.e. water or steam), and
3) Type of Energy Usage
▪ Based on Temperature, geothermal resources are classified as
▪ Low-temperature resources (< 90°C): Used mainly for direct heating
applications such as space heating, greenhouses, and aquaculture.
▪ Medium-temperature resources (90–150°C): Suitable for binary
cycle power plants and industrial heating applications.
▪ High-temperature resources (> 150°C): Used for electricity
generation in conventional geothermal power plants.
These resources produce steam or very hot water that can drive
turbines.
▪ Dry Steam Resources: Reservoirs contain steam directly, which is
used to drive turbines.
▪ Hot Water (Liquid-Dominated) Resources: Reservoirs contain high-
temperature water, which is converted into steam.
▪ Two-Phase (Steam + Water) Resources: Reservoirs contain mixture
of steam and hot water.
Steam is separated before entering the turbine.
▪ Electricity Generation: High-temperature geothermal resources used to drive
steam turbines.
▪ Direct Use Applications: Moderate or low-temperature resources used for:
▪ District heating
▪ Greenhouses
▪ Industrial processes
▪ Drying and aquaculture
▪ Ground Source Heat Pumps: Shallow geothermal energy used for heating
and cooling buildings.
▪ Hydrothermal systems (most common): contain hot water or steam in natural
geothermal reservoirs.
These systems are currently the most widely used for geothermal electricity
generation.
▪ Hot Dry Rock (Enhanced Geothermal Systems): heat stored in hot rocks
without natural water.
Water is injected artificially, heated underground, and brought back to the surface.
▪ Geopressured systems: contain hot water under high pressure, often saturated
with natural gas.
These systems provide thermal energy, pressure energy, and dissolved gas.
▪ Shallow geothermal systems: low-temperature resources used for heating and
cooling applications.
Commonly used in ground-source heat pumps.
▪ Hot water reservoirs: underground reservoirs containing naturally heated
groundwater.
Wells are drilled to bring hot water to the surface for energy use.
▪ Natural steam reservoirs: contain steam directly, which can be used to drive
turbines.
These resources are rare but very efficient for electricity generation.
▪ Geopressured reservoirs: contain brine saturated with natural gas stored under
high pressure.
These resources can be used for heat extraction and natural gas production.
▪ Normal geothermal gradient: temperature increases about 25–30°C per km
with depth.
Deep drilling can access moderate-temperature geothermal energy.
▪ Hot dry rock resources: similar to geothermal gradient resources but with higher
temperature gradients.
Requires engineered geothermal systems for energy extraction.
▪ Molten magma resources: represent very high-temperature heat sources deep
underground.
Currently, no commercial technology exists to directly exploit magma heat.
 Image:[Link]

▪ Use hot water from springs or reservoirs near the

surface.
▪ Hot water near the earth’s surface can be piped
directly into buildings and industries for heat.
▪ Space heating
▪ Air conditioning
▪ Industrial processes
▪ Drying
▪ Greenhouses
▪ Aquaculture
▪ Hot water
▪ Resorts and pools
▪ Melting snow
▪ Different types of plants are required to take advantage of the
particular characteristics of each specific geothermal site
▪ Main types of geothermal power plants:
▪ Dry Steam
▪ Flash Steam
▪ Binary Cycle
▪ Dry steam geothermal plants use steam directly from underground reservoirs to
generate electricity.
▪ Uses the superheated, pressurized steam (180°-350°C)
▪ The geothermal reservoir naturally produces only steam (water vapor) with little or
no liquid water.
▪ Steam is extracted through a production well and transported via pipes to the
turbine.
▪ Steam must be cleaned to remove rock fragments and impurities before entering
the turbine.
▪ The high-pressure steam directly turns the turbine blades without the need for
boilers.
▪ The turbine rotates a generator, which produces electricity.
▪ After expansion, the steam is cooled and condensed into water and the condensed
water is then reinjected into the reservoir through an injection well.
Key Characteristics
▪ Uses steam directly from the geothermal reservoir
▪ These were the first type of plants created
▪ Contains only water vapor (steam-dominated resource)
▪ Simplest geothermal power plant design
▪ High efficiency and reliability
▪ Requires steam cleaning to protect turbine blades
Pros
▪ Simple design because steam from the reservoir is used directly.
▪ High efficiency since no heat exchanger or secondary fluid is required.
▪ Lower equipment complexity compared to flash and binary plants.
▪ Reliable baseload power with continuous operation.
▪ Lower operational cost once the resource is available.
Cons
▪ Rare natural steam reservoirs - dry steam resources are very uncommon.
▪ Most geothermal reservoirs contain hot water, not pure steam.
▪ Steam may contain rock particles and corrosive gases, requiring cleaning.
▪ Resource pressure can decline over time, reducing steam availability.
▪ Limited suitable locations restrict large-scale deployment.
▪ Exploration risk is high because pure steam reservoirs are difficult to find.
▪ Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power plants.
▪ These systems use high-temperature geothermal water (typically >182°C) from
underground reservoirs.
▪ Hot water is brought to the surface through production wells under high pressure.
▪ When the fluid reaches the surface, the pressure is suddenly reduced.
▪ The drop in pressure causes some of the hot water to rapidly vaporize (flash) into
steam.
▪ The produced steam is separated from the remaining liquid water.
▪ The steam is then directed to a turbine to generate electricity.
▪ The turbine drives a generator, producing electrical power.
▪ The remaining hot water (brine) is returned to the reservoir through injection wells.
▪ Reinjection helps maintain reservoir pressure and supports sustainable operation.
Key Characteristics
▪ Uses high-temperature hot water reservoirs
▪ Steam produced by pressure reduction (flashing)
▪ Most widely used geothermal technology
▪ Requires steam separator equipment
▪ Reinjection maintains reservoir pressure and sustainability
Pros
▪ Most common geothermal technology with proven reliability
▪ Suitable for high-temperature hot water resources (>182°C)
▪ Higher power output compared to binary cycle plants
▪ Can generate large-scale baseload electricity
▪ Efficient energy conversion due to direct steam production
▪ Reinjection of water helps maintain reservoir pressure
▪ Lower fuel cost since no combustion is required
Cons
▪ Requires high-temperature geothermal resources (limited locations)
▪ Steam may contain minerals and dissolved gases, causing scaling and corrosion
▪ Requires separator and flash tank equipment
▪ Brine disposal and reinjection must be carefully managed
▪ Possible decline in reservoir pressure over long-term operation
▪ Higher maintenance cost due to mineral deposition in turbines
▪ Binary cycle geothermal plants are used for moderate-temperature geothermal
resources (typically below 175°C).
▪ These systems use two separate fluid cycles, hence the name binary cycle.
▪ Hot geothermal water from the reservoir does not directly drive the turbine.
▪ Instead, geothermal water passes through a heat exchanger.
▪ The heat exchanger transfers heat to a secondary fluid with a low boiling point.
▪ Common secondary fluids include isobutane, propane, or other organic fluids.
▪ The secondary fluid vaporizes at low temperature and produces high-pressure vapor.
▪ This vapor drives the turbine, which rotates a generator to produce electricity.
▪ The geothermal water and secondary fluid never mix (closed-loop system).
▪ After heat transfer, the geothermal water is reinjected back into the reservoir.
▪ The secondary fluid is condensed and reused continuously.
▪ Binary plants can operate even when geothermal fluids contain chemical impurities.
▪ These plants produce very low emissions because the system is closed.
Key Characteristics
▪ Suitable for moderate-temperature geothermal resources (<175°C)
▪ Uses secondary low boiling point fluids
▪ Closed-loop system with no fluid mixing
▪ Can utilize lower temperature resources
▪ Produces very low environmental emissions
Pros
▪ Can utilize moderate and low-temperature geothermal resources (<175°C)
▪ Operates as a closed-loop system, producing very low emissions
▪ Geothermal fluid and working fluid do not mix, reducing contamination
▪ Suitable for reservoirs with high chemical impurities
▪ Lower scaling and corrosion compared to flash steam plants
▪ Can be installed in more locations due to lower temperature requirement
▪ Reinjection of geothermal fluid helps maintain reservoir pressure
▪ Smaller environmental footprint
Cons
▪ Lower efficiency compared to dry steam and flash steam plants
▪ Requires secondary working fluid (e.g., isobutane, propane)
▪ More complex system with heat exchanger and two fluid cycles
▪ Higher initial capital cost due to additional equipment
▪ Secondary fluids may be flammable or environmentally sensitive
▪ Typically produces smaller power output per plant
▪ Provides continuous and reliable (baseload) power
▪ Has low greenhouse gas emissions
▪ Requires small land area compared to other renewables
▪ High-capacity factor (operates most of the time)
▪ Useful minerals, such as zinc and silica, can be extracted from underground
water.
▪ Geothermal energy is “homegrown.” This will create jobs, a better global
trading position and less reliance on oil producing countries (Decreases
Dependency On Foreign Energy)
▪ In large plants the cost is 4-8 cents per kilowatt hour. This cost is almost
competitive with conventional energy sources
▪ Geothermal plants can be online 100%-90% of
the time. Coal plants can only be online 75% of
the time and nuclear plants can only be online
65% of the time.
▪ Emission of Low Quantities of Greenhouse
Gasses: Flash and Dry Steam Power Plants
emit 1000x to 2000x less CO2 than fossil
fuel plants, no nitrogen oxides and little SO2.

▪ Geothermal electric plants production in

13.380 g of CO2 per kWh, whereas the
CO2 emissions are 453 g/kWh for natural
gas, 906 g/kWh for oil and 1042 g/kWh
for coal.
▪ Binary and Hot Dry Rock plants have no
gaseous emission at all.
▪ Geothermal plants do not require a lot of land; 400m2 can produce a
gigawatt of energy over 30 years.
▪ Geothermal Heat Pumps:
▪ produces 4 times the energy that they consume.
▪ initially costs more to install, but its maintenance cost is 1/3 of the cost for
a typical conventional heating system, and it decreases the electric bill.
This means that geothermal space heating will save the consumer money.
▪ can be installed with the help of special programs that offer low-interest-
rate loans.
▪ Limited to specific geographic locations
▪ High initial drilling and exploration cost
▪ Risk of resource depletion if not managed properly
▪ Possible induced seismicity and gas emissions
▪ Water can be corrosive to plant pipes and equipment
▪ If water is not replaced back into reservoir, subsidence can occur
▪ How Much Water is Needed? Ea. MW requires 500 gpm @ 300°F;
1400 gpm @ 200°F.
▪ Some high mineral/metal wastewater and solid waste are produced
▪ Smelly gases – Ammonia, Boron
▪ Release of steam and hot water can be noisy
▪ Limited # of High Temp. Resources Capable of Electric Generation
Using Current Technology
▪ Brine can salinate soil if the water is not injected back into the reserve
after the heat is extracted.
▪ Extracting large amounts of water can cause land subsidence, and this
can lead to an increase in seismic activity. To prevent this, the cooled
water must be injected back into the reserve in order to keep the
water pressure constant underground.
▪ Power plants that do not inject the cooled water back into the ground
can release H2S, the “rotten eggs” gas. This gas can cause problems if
large quantities escape because inhaling too much is fatal.
▪ One well “blew its top” 10 years after it was built, and this threw
hundreds of tons of rock, mud and steam into the atmosphere.
▪ There is the fear of noise pollution during the drilling of wells.
▪ Can only be used in certain geologically active areas
▪ The installation of the searchers can cause earthquakes in sensitive
regions
▪ Geothermal energy is renewable, but proper management is required to ensure long-
term sustainability.
▪ Continuous extraction of hot water or steam may lead to decline in reservoir pressure
over time.
▪ Reinjection of cooled water helps maintain reservoir pressure and extend resource life.
▪ Some geothermal fluids contain dissolved gases such as CO₂ and H₂S that may be
released.
▪ Binary cycle plants produce very low emissions because they operate in closed-loop
systems.
▪ Improper disposal of geothermal fluids may cause water contamination.
▪ Geothermal plants require small land area compared to other power plants.
▪ Drilling and fluid movement may cause minor induced seismic activity.
▪ Geothermal energy provides reliable baseload power with low environmental impact.
▪ Proper reservoir management ensures sustainable and continuous energy production.